DAT EVERYTHING

chlorophyta

*green algae*, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have *isogamous* gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are *anisogamous* (sperm/egg differ in size); others can have *oogamous* (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm). Trend from unicellular organisms (Chlamydomonas) towards multi-cellular colonies (Gonium, Pandorina, Volvox). A lineage of Chlorophytes, charophytes are believed to be the ancestor of plants.

chordata

4 main features (sometimes just temporary during embryonic development) - Notochord provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by bone during development in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm. Defines primitive axis of embryo. - Dorsal hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system. In some chordates, beomes brain and spinal cord. - Pharyngeal gill slits provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others. In fish, gill pouch fish gils. In mammals, gill pouch Eustachian tubes in the ears - Muscular tail: such tail is lost during embryonic development in humans and many other chordates - Two groups of chordates: invertebrate chordates (lancelets, tunicates) and vertebrate (sharks, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) have vertebrae that enclose the spinal cord.

B cell antigen receptor

4 polypeptide chains: two identical heavy chains, two identical light chains with disulfide bridges linking the chains together. *heavy and light chains are linked by hydrogen bonds* constant region; variable region(two tips of the Y shape) combination of the V region makes up the antigen binding site (N-terminus) same shape as antibody

blue light receptor on the plasma membrane

A blue light receptor on the plasma membrane of guard cells can cause *stomata to open *by inducing the movement of water into the guard cells.

cognition

A broad definition of cognition is the process carried out by an animal's nervous system to perceive, store, integrate, and use information gathered by the senses. • One area of research in the study of animal cognition is how an animal's brain represents physical objects in the environment. Some researchers have discovered that many animals are capable of categorizing objects in their environment according to concepts such as "same" and "different."

adult stem cells

Adult body has stem cells (adult stem cells), but they can only generate a few different types of cells.

trade wind

After losing their moisture over equatorial zones, high altitude air masses spread away from the equator until they cool and descend again at latitudes of about 30 degrees north and south. This descending dry air absorbs moisture from the land. As the dry air descends, some of it spreads back to the equator. This movement creates the cooling *trade winds* which dominate the tropics. As the air moves back toward the equator, it warms and picks up moisture until it ascends again.

Earliest cells

Anaerobic heterotrophic prokaryotes

"Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"

Embryonic stages of development of an organism repeat the evolutionary history of the species. not accepted theory

induction

Embyronic induction is the influence of one cell group or group of cells over neighboring cells. Cells that exert this influence are called organizers; they do this by secreting chemicals that diffuse to neighboring cells, influencing their development. ▪The dorsal lip functions as an organizer for the notochord. ▪The notocord releases chemical signals that tell the overlying ectoderm that it is time for it to become the neural tube

freshwater wetlands

Range from marshes to swamps and bogs. Very rich in species diversity.

Reverse genetics

Reverse genetics: begin with a change in genotype and then look to see how this causes a change in phenotype G-->P

ganglia pns

a structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies, typically linked by synapses, and often forming a swelling on a nerve fiber.

antibiotics

chemicals derived from bacteria or fungi that are harmful to other microorganisms.

natural killer cells

circulate through the body and detect the abnormal array of surface proteins characteristic of some virus-infected and cancerous cells. They do not engulf cells; instead, they secrete chemicals that lead to cell death.

identical twins do not have identical circulating antibodies

circulating antibodies are a relfection of what pathogens the body has been exposed to.

holoblastic cleavage

cleavage occuring through the entire embryo. complete cleravage that evenly divdies the entire embryo into distinct cells (blastomeres) usually do not contain yolk sea urchins and humans / *frogs*(kinda exception)

meroblastic cleavage

cleavage that does not occur through the entire embryo. the entire egg does not evenly divide. vegetal pole does not divide. large eggs with lots of yolk birds, fish, reptiles, and monotremes

lycophyta/pterophyta

club mosses, spike mosses, ferns, hosrsetails, whisk ferms sporophyte vascular flagellated sperm spores

spirochetes

coiled bacteria that move with corkscrew motion, internal flagella between cell wall layers.

Epididymis

coiled tube, one attached to each testis; site for final maturation and storage of sperm.

abyssopelagic

cold, high temp, most species have no eyes due to lack of light

Ductus arteriosus

conducts some blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta [bypassing the lungs/fetal pulmonary circulation]

type I diabetes is insulin

dependent

tropism

growth pattern in response to an environmental stimulus

habituation

habituation, in which an animal learns not to respond to a repeated stimulus that conveys little to no information. • For example, the Hydra contracts when disturbed by a slight touch; it stops responding, however, if disturbed repeatedly by such a stimulus. ▪ In terms of ultimate causation, habituation may increase fitness by allowing an animal's nervous system to focus on stimuli that signal food, mates, or real danger and not waste time or energy on a vast number of other stimuli that are irrelevant to survival and reproduction.

class agnatha

hagfish lamprey lack bones, scales, and fins

"Thick skin"

hairless skin of palms of hands and soles of feet

Archaea thrive in extreme environments

halophiles (salt) thermophiles (heat) Acidophile (low pH) Aklaliphile (high pH) Methanogens (obligate anaerobes, methane as a waste product)

Chemoautotrophs

harvest energy from inorganic chemicals and use carbon and CO2 to make organic molecules. Because they don't depend on sunlight, chemoautotrophs can thrive in conditions that seem totally inhospitable to life.

AV node

has faster pace than actual heartbeat

euteromycota

imperfect fungi, artificial group (no sexual reproductive cycle). Penicillium produces penicillin

drift

imperfect sampling cuases some alleles to be underepresented relative to others --> consequence: alleles are lost

imprinting

learning that is limited to a specific time period in an animal's life and that is generally irreversible.

Least abundant RNA Most abundant RNA Smallest RNA

mRNA rRNA tRNA

T cells

made from bone marrow and develop in the thymus (becomes specific T cell)

intermediate fibrers

made of keratin,

Mechanoreceptors

sense physical deformation caused by forms of mechanical energy such as pressure, touch, stretch, motion and sound.

Merkel cells function

sensory for fine-touch; most populous in fingertips located in modified epidermal cells in stratum basale

point mutation: silent nonsense missense

silent: no change in sequence nonsense: stop codon (UAG UAA UGA) missens: change in one N.A.

young dicot stem

similar components with root but endodermis and casparian strips are lacking -vascular bundles are arranged in a ring -the ring separates the ground tissue into cortex and pith.

young monocot stem

similar components with root but endodermis and casparian strips are lacking vascular bundles are scattered

motor output

the conduction of signals from the integration centers to* effector cells*, which perform the body's responses.

Sarcoplasm

the cytoplasm of a fiber cell.

detritus

the dead material produced at all the trophic levels. By breaking down detritus, decomposers link all trophic levels. Different organisms consume detritus in different stages of decay

Active immunity

the defenses that arise when a pathogen infects the body and prompts a primary or secondary immune response.

organogenesis

the development of organs features characteristic of chordates: notochord, neutral tube

Extirpation

the loss of a single population of a species

Human

we also have primitive streak (before invagination) even distribution of yolk = no poles formed/ no gray crescent

G1

we see the production of mitochondria, ribosomes, and much protein synthesis getting prepared for cell division

procedure of DNA cloning

(1) cutting target DNA at precise locations using sequence-specific endonucleases (restriction enzymes) (2) Selecting a small carrier molecule of DNA (cloning vectors ) capable of self-replication. typically plasmids or viral DNAs. (3) Joining two DNA fragments covalently. The enzyme DNA ligase links the cloning vector and the DNA fragment=recombinant DNAs (4) Moving recombinant DNA from the test tube to a host cell that will provide the enzymatic machinery for DNA replication. -->amplification (5) Selecting or identifying host cells that contain recombinant DNA in cell colonies.

receptor tyrosine kinases

(RTKs) bind to *growth factors and hormones*. eg. EGF and insulin ~when a ligand bonds to the extracellular binding site of monomeric RTK, the RTK dimerizes and cross-phosphorylates(kinases on RTK) ~After phosphorylation, it can bind to intracellular mediators that cuase some effect. (release of vesicles or changes in gene transcription)

reading pedigrees

*Autosomal recessive *diseases tends to "*skip*" generations whereas autosomal dominant diseases tends to be present in every generation. Human *sex-linked disorders* affect *mostly males*. A male only needs to inherit one recessive allele to have a recessive phenotype, whereas a female needs to inherit two recessive alleles

FRAP=fluorescence return after photobleaching

*photobeaching* is when a sample is bleached with light so that it can no longer fluoresce, so able to see the photobleached molecules are replaced by nonphotobleached molecule(fluorescent) *recovery* after photobleaching is a measure of how and when a part of a sutided sample recovers it fluorescent properties. allows us to see how ans where biomolecules are moving in a live cell.

good plasmid

-origin of replication -antibiotic resistance gene -restriction site (insertion site) -small size

Yeast Artificial Chromosomes

-very easy to maintain and grow on a large scale in the lab -some have multiple ori sites so it can be used in more than one species - shutter vectors -contain all the necessary elements for maintaining eukaryotic chromosome. -uses pulsed field gel electrophoresis

transformation

-way to introduce small plasmid into host cell -plasmid DNA are incubated together at at 0 degrees Celsius in calcium chloride solution, then subjected to heat shock by rapidly shifting the temperature between 37-43 degrees Celsius. The calcium ions are believed to neutralize charges on phosphates and membrane. The heat shock causes the cells to uptake the plasmid DNA.

steps in PCR

1) Denaturation (95 C): Two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds. With enough heat, the hydrogen bonds can be broken and the two strands will separate. 2) Annealing (60 C): Once the DNA strands are separated, the solution is cooled to allow the DNA primer to bind to the original DNA for amplification. 3) Elongation (72 C): The solution is raised in temperature again, so taq polymerase (a heat resistant DNA polymerase) can replicate the DNA.

types of RNA poly

1) RNApol1 = synthesize rRNA 2) synthesizes mRNA, snRNA and miRNA 3) synthesizes rRNA and tRNA 4& 5) synthesizes siRNA in plants

universal recipients

AB

steroid hormones

Act as a *trascription factor* bind inside the cell (intracellular) and travel to the nucleus. They do not require a second messenger. ~cytoplasmic receptor: hormone binds and get located to the nucleus. ~nuclear receptor: already in nucleus and may be bound to the DNA. `

expression vectors

Cloning vectors with the transcription and translation signals needed for regulated expression of a cloned gene are called expression vectors. The rate of expression of the cloned gene is controlled by replacing the gene's normal promoter and regulatory sequences with more efficient and convenient versions supplied by the vector

cDNA

Complementary DNA (cDNA) is DNA that consists of only the part of the gene that gets translated. -use "intron free" mRNA and then reverse transcribe it to create cDNA

Testcross

Dominant phenotype x *recessive phenotype*. "A_ x aa"

Backcross

F1 progeny mated back to one of the parents F1 x P = backcross

universal donors

O (O-)

X and Y genes

X and Y genes have sequence similarity at the tip of their shorter arms. This is the region where they pair up in meiosis. Recombination happens only in regions that pair. Therefore, the Y chromosome has little recombination.(b/c short)

X chromosome

X chromosome contains 2000-3000 genes. Nearly all genes are required in both males and females.

non disjuction diseases

XYY = Jacobs syndrome XXY = Kleinfelter syndrome XO = Turner Syndrome XXX = Triple X trisomy 21= down syndrome

Y chromosome

Y chromosome contains ~100 genes. ~5% of gene numbers made up the *SRY* gene. This is the master control gene for making male embryos.

snRNP

a complex of small nuclear RNA with proteins that form the splicesome

Duchenne muscular dystrophy

a condition characterized by a progressive weakening of the muscles and loss of coordination. The symptoms appear in very early childhood and becomes progressively worse as the child ages. Most affected individuals don't live past their early 20s.

haplotype

a set of DNA variations, or polymorphisms that tend to be inherited together. In other words, the two genes are linked

one-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis

all enzymes are composed of a single gene product false

G-protein

alpha helix 7times in plasma membrane

Hemophilia

an X-linked recessive trait that causes excessive bleeding upon injury because the person lacks one or more of the proteins required for blood clotting.

Bacterial artificial chromosomes

artificial vectors that can hold much larger DNA segments than plasmids -stable ori sites -BAC also include genes that encode proteins that direct reliable distribution of the recombinant chromosomes to ensure equal division. -contain both selectable and screenable markers

major groove

big groove created by double helix many sequence specific DNA binding proteins bind here + many non-specific DNA binding proteins bind to the backbone. 36A <-> minor groove 3.4A

mitochondria

can divide by itself by binary fission have a double membrane have its own DNA(single circular chromosome) have a diff ribosome than the cells they inhabit (more similar to pro.)

microarray

can tell what sequences of DNA are being expressed into mRNA (often compare in diff cell types)

electroporation

cells incubated with the plasmid DNA are subjected to a high voltage pulse; this approach, called electroporation, transiently renders the bacterial membrane permeable to large molecules. alternate of transformation

mutagenesis

controllable introduction of mutations

Intercross

crosses between genetically identical individuals (selfing, sibling mating)

function of SER

detoxification making lipids and steroids(hormones) endocrine organs and liver have alot of SER.

selectable markers

either permit the growth of a cell (positive selection) or kill the cell (negative selection) under a defined set of conditions

FLIM=fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy

electrons excited - release fluorescence the amount of time it takes for an excited molecule to release all of its fluorescence is known as the fluorescence lifetime. Repeat of measuring the lifetime of fluorescence.... to see a quantitative measure of the concentration of various molecules.

one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis

enzymes can be composed of more than one gene products This is more accurate because some enzymes require multiple subunits, which are different polypeptides from different genes

Discrete or discontinuous phenotypes

fall into distinct classes (i.e. albinism

A-form DNA

favored in solutions devoid of water. right handed 11 bp, wider helix diameter major: narrow, deep minor: broad, shallow

screenable marker

gene encoding a protein that causes the cell to produce a colored or fluorescent molecule.

In Virus, In prokaryotes and in eukaryotes

▪ In viruses: DNA or RNA is surrounded by a protein coat ▪ In prokaryotes: DNA is organized into a circular chromosome or potentially a plasmid ▪ In eukrayotes: Most of the DNA is in the nucleus. Some of the DNA is located in the mitochondria and the chloroplast. The nucleus contains multiple linear chromosomes. Each chromosome contains one double stranded DNA molecule.

RNA

▪ Single stranded RNA tends to create complex 3D conformations ▪ Can base-pair with complementary DNA or RNA ▪ Double stranded RNA usually found in the A-form ▪ Uses ribose in the backbone, not deoxyribose ▪ Uses uracil, not thymine

bacteria

◦ Bacteria remains the most common host for protein expression because the regulatory sequences that govern gene expression in many bacteria are well understood and can be harnessed to express cloned proteins at high levels. ◦ They are easy to store and grow in the laboratory, on inexpensive growth media. ◦ Problems: many intrinsically disordered regions, proteins may not fold correctly

yeast

◦ Yeast is probably the best understood eukaryotic organism and one of the easiest to grow and manipulate in the laboratory. ◦ Yeast have tough cell walls that are difficult to breach in order to introduce DNA vectors.

polylinker

A polylinker is a short DNA sequence containing 2 or more different sites for cleavage by restriction enzymes. They are introduced into vectors to make cloning easier by providing sites that allow cloning DNA, cut with any of a number of different restriction enzymes, into a single plasmid.

Z-form DNA

Been found in bacteria and eukaryotes. May play a role in regulating the expression of genes. left handed 12bp, shorter helix diameter major: flat minor: narrow, deep

polymorphism

Differences among individuals are called polymorphisms. ▪ They can result from: 1) mutations 2) environment 3) mixture of both ▪ Environmental polymorphisms are usually not heritable

Mendel's law of segregation

During gamete formation, the alleles for the same gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

maternal effect

▪ A maternal effect is a situation where the phenotype of an organism is determined not only by the environment and its genotype, but also by the *environment and genotype of its mother.* ▪ Not caused by organelles. ▪ Mediated by RNAs and proteins produced by the mother. ▪ Typically controlled by nuclear genes.

Gene regulation

▪ Determines when and where a given gene is expressed ▪ non-coding DNA also encodes regulatory functions ▪ Most human-chimp differences due to gene regulation-not genes

DNA contains 4 special abilities:

▪ Diversity of structure ▪ Ability to replicate ▪ Mutability ▪ Regulated expression

calcitonin

"tones down" Ca2+ in blood. -It decreases plasma Ca2+ by inhibiting its release from bone -Decreases osteoclast activity and number.

anterior pituitary gland

#4

posterior pituitary gland

#8

mutualism

(+/+) - both organisms benefit •Tick bird and Rhinoceros - bird gets food (ticks) and rhino loses ticks •Lichen (fungus + algae) - algae produces food for itself and fungus via photosynth; fungus provided CO2 and nitrogenous wastes •Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria and Legumes - legumes provides nutrients for bacteria and bacteria fixes nitrogen •Protozoa and Termites - protozoa digests cellulose for termites, termites protect and provide food •Intestinal Bacteria and Humans - bacteria utilized food and provide vitamin K

parasitism

(+/-) - benefits at the expense of the host; bacteria and fungi; live with minimum expenditure of energy •Parasites can be ectoparasites (cling to exterior of host) or endoparasites (live within the host) •Virus and Host cell - all viruses are parasites •Disease Bacteria and Animals - diphtheria is parasitic upon man; anthrax on sheep; tuberculosis on cow or man •Disease Fungi and Animals - ringworm is parasitic on man •Worms and Animals - tapeworm and man (less dangerous = more survival; better for parasite not to kill its host)

commensalism

(+/o) - one benefits, the other is unaffected •Remora and shark - remora gets food shark discards •Barnacle and Whale - barnacle gets wider feeding opportunities

three scenarios of directional selection

(1) The favored allele is the dominant allele—its initial increase in frequency is the most rapid, but its pace slows once it is common in the population. (2) The favored allele is a codominant allele—it will reach fixation most rapidly. (3) The favored allele is a recessive allele—it will take much longer to increase in frequency, but once common, will go to fixation quickly.

two stages of allergy attack

(1) sensitization: Occurs when a person is first exposed to an allergen. After an allergen enters the bloodstream, it binds to effector B cells (plasma cells). The B cells then proliferate through clonal selection and secrete large amount of antibodies to this allergen. Some of these antibodies attach to mast cells, that produce histamine and other chemicals that trigger the inflammatory response. (2) same thing happens with existing plasma B cells that are complementary to the allergen

Ethylene

(H2C=CH2): gas that promotes ripening of fruit; production of flowers; Stimulates ripening by enzymatic breakdown of cell walls. Ethylene is why ripe fruit in proximity to a spoiled one will als cause it to spoil - remember, it is gaseous.

Joints

areas where different bones meet Joints are stabilized by ligaments

sensory bias

(Runaway sexual selection )predicts females can have preferences for male traits that have no fitness effects Sensory bias hypothesis: Males manipulate the females sensory system, which results in certain male traits spreading in the population

camouflage

(cryptic coloration): any color, pattern, shape, or behavior that enables an animal to blend in with its surroundings. Both predator and prey can use camouflage

Na+/K+ ATPase

(during resting potential, make cell more hyperpolarized=less likely to be get action potential) exchanges 3 Na+ out of the neuron for two K_ into the neuron, and consumes one ATP molecule. The ATP is hydrolyzed to power this exchange, as both Na+ and K+ are pumped against their concentration gradient.

earliest organisms in chordata

(earliest)jawless fish>cartilaginous fish> bony fish> amphibia> mammalia> reptilia> birds

Nose

(filter, moisten, warms incoming air - mucus secreted by goblet cells traps large dust particles here), pharynx (throat - passageway for food and air; dust/mucus swept back here by cilia for disposal via spitting or swallowing), larynx (voice box- if non-gas enters, cough reflex activates)

symplast

(living-selective) The symplast consists of the cytosol of the living cells in a plant, as well as the plasmodesmata

apoplast

(non-living/unselective) The apoplast consists of everything external to the plasma membrane. It includes cell walls, extracellular spaces, and the interior of vessel elements and tracheids.

totipotent

(of an immature or stem cell) capable of giving rise to any cell type or (of a blastomere) a complete embryo.

systemic circuit

(oxygenated blood) Left Atrium->left ventricle-> Aorta -> arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> tissues ->venules -> veins -> superior and inferior vena cava

base analogs

(structures that are similar to bases) are attached by accident.

Trachea

(the trachea during swallowing) - ringed cartilage (C-shaped) covered by ciliated mucus cells

2 main types of smooth muscles: visceral vs. multiunit

* Single unit (visceral) smooth muscle* is connected by gap junctions and contract as a single unit (stomach, uterus, urinary bladder). In *multiunit smooth muscle*, each fiber is directly attached to neurons and can contract independently (iris, bronchioles).

interferons

* limit the cell-to-cell *spread of viruses in the body.

blood

*4-6 liters* in the human body; is a connective tissue 55% liquid (plasma) and 45% cellular components - plasma is an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, gases, wastes, hormones, and blood proteins (immunoglobulins, albumin, fibrinogen, clotting factors)

jawless fish

*Agnatha* is a superclass of jawless fish in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, consisting of both present and extinct species. The group excludes all vertebrates with jaws, known as *gnathostomes*

Metanephridia

*Annelids* excretory organs that collect fluid directly from the coelom. ▪ Each segment of an annelid has a pair of metanephridia, which are immersed in *coleomic fluid* and enveloped by a* capillary network.* ▪ A ciliated funnel surrounds the internal opening of each metanephridium. ▪ As the cilia beat, fluid is drawn into a collecting tubule, which includes a storage bladder that opens to the outside.

liver function

*Blood Storage* *Blood Filtration*- Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up in intestines *Carbohydrate Metabolism* - Liver maintains normal blood glucose levels via gluconeogenesis (production of glycogen and glucose from noncarb precursors), glycogenesis, and storage of glycogen -All carbs absorbed into blood are carried by *portal vein* to the liver. stored as glycog. *Protein metabolism* - Liver deaminates AA's, forms *urea* from ammonia in blood, synths *plasma proteins*, synths nonessential AAs *Detoxification* - Detox'd chemicals, excreted by liver as part of bile (or polarized to be excreted by kidneys)

endochondral ossification

*Endochondral ossification* is when existing cartilage is replaced by bone (long bones, limbs, fingers, toes) more common; when first cartilage is laid down, and bone replaces this cartilage (indirect bone formation)

liver function conti.

*Erythrocyte destruction* - Kupfer cells destroy irregular erythrocytes (but most are destroyed by spleen) *Vitamin Storage* - Stores vit A, D, B12. Also stores iron by combining it with apoferritin -> ferritin When liver mobilizes fat or protein for energy, *blood acidity increases* (ketone bodies are produced -> ketosis/acidosis results) *Blood supply*: hepatic portal vein supplies blood as does hepatic artery (oxygenates liver); blood leaves via hepatic vein ->vena cava *Digestiv*e (produces bile);* Transport* (synthesizes blood plasma proteins important in clotting)

intramembranous ossification

*Intramembranous ossification* is when undifferentiated connective tissue is replaced by bone (flat bones, skull, sternum, mandible, clavicles) less common; when bone is created *directly* within a fibrous membrane

physical vs. chemical breakdown

*Physical* breakdown - cutting and grinding in mouth; churning in digestive tract *chemical *breakdown - enzymatic hydrolysis → smaller nutrients → pass through semi-permeable membrane of gut cells to be further metabolized

protonephridia

*Platyhelminthes and Rotifera * a network of dead-end tubules. ▪ The tubules, which are connected to external openings, branch throughout the flatworm body. ▪ Cellular units called *flame bulbs* cap the branches at each protonephridium ▪ During filtration, the beating of the cilia draws water and solutes from the interstitial fluid through the flame bulb, releasing filtrate into the tubule network. ▪ The filtrate then moves outward through the tubules and empties as urine into the environment.

3) reabsorption_descending loop of hemle

*Reabsorption of water *continues as the filtrate moves into the *descending loop of hemle.* ▪ Numerous *aquaporins* make the transport epithelium freely permeable to water. ▪ The osmolarity of the interstitial fluid of the kidney increases progressively from the outer cortex to the inner medulla.(water move low-->high osmolarity.)As a result, the kidney osmolarity makes it favorable to water to be reabsorbed.

summation

*Summation* occurs when two contractions combine additively and become stronger. They are more prolonged than a simple twitch. ▪ This occurs when a second action potential arrives before the muscle fiber has completely relaxed.

tetanus

*Tetanus* is the continuous sustained contraction because the rate of muscle stimulation is so fast that the twitches blur into one smooth constant.

Tropomyosin, troponin complex

*Tropomyosin*, a regulatory protein, and the* troponin complex* are bound to the actin strands of thin filaments. ▪ In a muscle fiber at rest, *tropomyosin covers the myosin-binding sites* on the actin (thin) filaments*, preventing actin from interacting. ▪ When* Ca2+* ions accumulates in the cytosol, it *binds to the troponin comple*x, causing tropomyosin bound along the actin strands to shift position and *expose the myosinbinding sites*. When the Ca2+ concentration falls, the binding sites are covered, and contraction stops.

malphagian tubules

*arthropods* remove nitrogenous wastes and also function in osmoregulation ▪malphagian tubules extend from dead-end tips immersed in the *hemolymph* to openings in the digestive tract. ▪ There is NO filtration step; uric acid, water, and ions are absorbed into malphagian tubules ▪ Water follows the solutes into the tubule by osmosis, and the fluid then passes into the rectum. ▪ There, most solutes are pumped back into the hemolymph, and water reabsorption by osmosis follows. ▪ Wastes are eliminated as dry matter along with feces.

Limiting factors

*density-dependent* (limiting effect becomes more intense as population density increases-competition, spread of disease, parasites, predation) and *density-independent* (occur independently of density of population such as natural disasters or big temp changes).

tissue complexity

*eumetazoa *(functioning cells organized into tissues). Diplobasltic/triploblastic layers of tissue (ecto, meso, endoderm); another group is *parazoa *(cells not organized into true tissues => organs do not develop.)

homeotic genes

*genes associated with mapping body shape during development* Homeotic genes contribute to the control of development by turning on and off other genes that code for substances that directly affect development A *homeobox*(hox) is an 180 nucleotide sequence that is highly conserved between many species that are homeotic genes.

epiphyseal plates and line

*hyaline cartilage* covers the epiphysis, and protects the joints. ◦ Bone growth occurs at *cartilaginous epiphyseal plates *(occurs at the metaphysis) that are replaced by bone in adulthood. Bone increases in length but also in diameter along the *diaphysis*as well. When a person reaches full maturity, the new bone slowly hardens and the plate turns into the *epiphyseal line.* during puberty, increasing hormone levels cause cartilage cells to apoptose (die)

Nucleosome packing

*methylation* of histones cause tighter packing and thus preventing transcription. *Acetylation *of histones catalyzes uncoiling and promotes transcription.

lichens

*mutualistic associations between fungi and algae *; also provide Nitrogen if algae is nitrogen-fixing; fungus (usually ascomycete) provides water and protection (pigments from UV light, or toxic chemicals against grazers) from environment.

hagfish

*notochord *persists in the adult lamprey, but rudimentary vertebral structures are also present. not vertebrate Hagfishes scavenge dead or dying vertebrates on the cold, dark seafloor. Although nearly blind, they have excellent senses of smell and touch. They feed by entering the animal through an existing opening or by creating a hole using sharp, tooth-like structures on the tongue that grasp and tear flesh. has slime glands

Lymph vessels

*o*an open secondary circulatory system- transports excess interstitial fluids (lymph) through the contraction of adjacent muscles & some walls of larger lymph vessels have smooth muscle *o*Proteins & large particles that can't be taken up by capillaries removed to lymph; also monitors blood for infxn *o*Valves prevent backflow- fluid returns to blood circulatory system through two ducts located in shoulder region (thoracic&right lymphatic duct) *o*Lymph nodes contain leukocytes that filter the lymph and serve as immune response centers

body symmetry

*radial symmetry* (one orientation-front and back) w/ circular body pattern; *bilateral symmetry * (dorsal-top, ventral-bottom, head-anterior, tail-posterior).

Ovulation

*releases secondary oocyte* from vesicular follicle (caused by LH surge). If fertilized by sperm → (finishes meiosis II) ovum/egg (diploid once completely fertilized) + polar body (degenerate)

Tryptophan operon

*repressible system*: binding of tryptophan(effector;corepressor) to the repressor will lead to no transcription leader sequence controls the expression of the operon through a process called *attenuation*

Root growth

*root cap*: protect apical meristem *zone of cell division*: dividing cells of apical meristem *zone of elongation*: absorb water and elongate (root hairs form); pushes the root tip farther in into the soil. The cells lengthen, rather than expand *zone of maturation*: cells mature and differentiate (root hairs fall)

mouth

*salivary a-amylase* breaks down (starch→maltose), chewing creates *bolus* which is swallowed

Arteires

*thick-walled, muscular, elastic, *pump oxygenated away (except for pulmonary arteries that transport deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs). Wrapped in *smooth muscle* typically innervated by *sympathetic NS*

jawed vertebrates

*with gills and paired fins include sharks, ray-finned fishes, and lobe-finned fishes* ◦ paired fins and tail, which allowed them to swim after prey, as well as to their jaws, which enabled them to catch and eat a wide variety of prey. ◦ Hinged jaws are thought to have evolved by modification of skeletal supports of the anterior pharyngeal (gill) slits. ◦ commonly called* fishes.* All are *triploblasts, eumetazoa, coelomates, have two chambered hearts, complete brains, gills, and alimentary canals.*

amoebas

- *Amoebas*: genus of protozoa, shapeless and unicellular.

hyperthyroidism

- *Hyperthryoidism* means oversecretion of T3 and T4; results in increased metabolic rate and sweating.

hypothyroidism

- *Hypothyroidism* means undersecretion of T3 and T4; results in low heart and respiratory rate. lower metabolic rate(make the hypothyroid patient feel cold)

Darwin's natural selection

- 3 key components: variation in traits, differential reproduction, heredity -end result: The more advantageous trait, which allows the organism to have more offspring, becomes more common in the population. If this process continues, eventually, all individuals in the population have the advantageous trait. Natural selection is responsible for producing adaptation

goiter

- Hypo- and hyperthyroidism lead to goiter, the abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland.

Haldane Effect

- Basically explains CO2's dissociation curve. ↑ CO2 pressure = ↑ CO2 content in blood. But when hemoglobin is saturated by oxygen, its capacity to hold CO2 is reduced. Essentially: we pick up CO2 in the tissues where it's been generated, and get rid of it at the lungs and grab oxygen instead. Hemoglobin w/out oxygen acts as blood buffer by accepting H+ this reduced hemoglobin has higher capacity to form carbamino hemoglobin rather than the oxygen carrying kind, explaining how the Haldane effect occurs.

*Fungus-like protist*

- Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies like fungi do) cellular slime molds, plasmodial slime molds, oomycota

Bryophytes

- In mosses, this structure is a stalk bearing capsule which contains haploid spores produced by meiosis => spores dispersed by wind and germinate grow into haploid gametophytes which produces antheridium + archegonium - Lacks true root, true leaves, true stems (lack vascular tissues); so must remain in/near water

plant fertilization

- Once pollen grain contacts megasporangium, tube cell (of sperm) directs growth of *pollen tube* through the* micropyle *and toward egg => fertilization (zygote) => embryo (beginning of sporophyte gen.); integuments => *seed coat.*

possible changes in habitat

- Substrate texture: may change from solid rock, to fertile soil, to sand/others (because rock erodes, plants+animals decomp) - Soil pH: may decrease due to decomposition of organic matter such as acidic leaves. - Soil water potential: ability of soil to retain water, changes as soil texture changes. - Light availability: may change from full sunlight to shady to darkness as trees become established - Crowding: increases with population growth, may be unsuitable to certain species.

R selected species

- a high growth rate & a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., high r, low K) - typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring,

FSH

- abbreviation for follicle stimulating hormone - trophic hormone from anterior in females stimulates maturation of ovarian follices to secrete estrogen. In males, FSH stimulates sertoli cells to help mature sperm cells.

hemoglobin

- binds CO w/ much greater affinity than myoglobin (it also has 4 subunits vs 1)

three unique features of plant cells

- chloroplasts (the sites of photosynthesis) - central vacuoule (contains fluid that helps the cell maintain turgor) - a protective cell wall made up of cellulose surrounding the plasma membrane

Stages of sexual reproduction

- fungi are primarily haploid but form temporary diploid structures for sexual reprod plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis

Symbiosis

- intimate, often permanent association b/w two organisms; may or may not be beneficial; some may be obligatory (one or both organisms cannot survive w/o the other)

other innate immunity in invertebrates

- lysozyme : breaks down bacterial cell walls - hemocytes: ingest and break down foreign substances through phagocytosis - antimicrobial pepetides kill fungi and bacteria by disrupting their plasma membranes (secreted by hemocytes and other cells)

Root hair

- near the root tips, root hairs increase the root surface area for absorption of water and minerals - Each root hair is an extension of an epidermal cell - As the plant gets older, root hairs die. New epidermal cells form, which will form new root hairs. Therefore, roots must constantly grow to provide new root hairs for the absorption of water. The older epidermal cells protect the root.

saprophytism

- protists and fungi that decompose dead organic matter externally and absorb nutrients *detritivores* Decomposers, mainly prokaryotes and fungi, secrete enzymes that digest molecules in organic material and convert them to inorganic form. The breakdown of organic materials into inorganic ones is called decomposition.

gonads

- reproductive structure responsible for production of gametes. Male = testis, female = ovaries

dermal tissue system

- the plant's outer protective covering - forms the first line of defense against physical damage and infectious organisms like our skin.

the trophic hormones released by anterior pituitary gland (hint: FLAT)

-#4 in picture direct: somatotropin(HGH), prolactin, endorphin tropic: -follicle stimulating hormone -luteinizing hormone -adrenocorticotropic hormone -thyroid stimulating hormone

cortisone and cortisol

-*anti inflammatory and anti stress* -lowers immune system *raise blood glucose levels *(stimulates gluconeogenesis in liver); affect fat and protein metabolism; stress hormones

pribnow box

-10, -35 promoters For prokaryotes, the pribnow box is the most common sequence of nucleotides at the promoter.

Pollution

-Eutrophication is the process of nutrient enhancement in lakes and subsequent increase in biomass. Lakes polluted with nutrients (i.e. from fertilizer runoff) stimulate algal blooms

Meristem

-Growth in all plants is made possible by meristems. -consists of undifferentiated cells that divide when conditions permit. -Meristems at the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots are called *apical meristems*. apical meristem produces the new cells that enable a plant to grow in length = *primary growth*. Primary growth enables roots to push through the soil and allows shoots to grow upward.

corticosteroids from adrenal cortex (hint: caca)

-Mineralocorticoids: *aldosterone* -Glucocorticoids : *cortisone and cortisol* -Androgenic sterioid: *androgens*

Astrocytes

-a type of glial cells (most abundant) in the *CNS* - facilitate info transfer at synapses; - regulate dilation/constriction of *blood vessels* (control blood flow, oxygen, and glucose; - regulate extracellulra concentrations of ions and neurotrasmitters *blood-brain-barrier*

ACTH

-abbreviation for adrenocorticotropic hormone -trophic hormone from anterior pituitary gland stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids, which are involved in regulation of metabolism of glucose -drives the body's response to physical and emotional stress; stimulates anxiety; suppresses appetite

ADH

-abbreviation for antidiuretic hormone -hormone from posterior pituitary gland (ADH/vasopressin) increases the reabsorption of water by increasing the amount of aquaporins in the epithelium cells in the collecting duct. Coffee and alcohol blocks ADH.

GH

-abbreviation for growth hormone -hormone from anterior pituitary gland regulates body growth and bone elongation =spomatotrophin

LH

-abbreviation for luteinizing hormone -trophic hormone from anterior pituitary gland in females stimluates the formation of the corpus luteum. In males, leutinzing hormone stimulates leydig cells of the testes to produce testosterone

MSH

-abbreviation for melanocyte stimulating hormone -hormone from anterior pituitary gland stimulates melanocytes of epidermis to produce melanin

TSH

-abbreviation for thyroid stimulating hormone -trophic hormone from anterior pituitary gland stimulates the thyroid gland (increases size and cell number) to release thyroid hormone.

Annelids - circulatory, excretory

-closed circulatory system -CO2 excretion directly through the moist skin -two pairs of metanephritis inbody segment excret waste + water (urea)

hindbrain

-controls involuntary activities, such as blood circulation. includes: pons, medulla oblongata, cerebellum

hormones from ovaries

-estrogen -progesterone

hormones released by pancreas

-glucagon -insulin -somatostatin

thymosins

-maturation of T lymphocytes Thymus is involved in the immune response. Hormones that it produces/secretes: ▪ Thymosins stimulate lymphocytes (WBCs) to become T-cells

progesterone

-maturation of uterine endometrium (lining of uterus) -implantation of a fertilized egg

tubers

-modified stem A potato plant has rhizomes that end in enlarged structures specialized for storage called tubers.

Rhizomes

-modified stem Rhizomes are horizontal stems that grow near the soil surface. They store food and, having buds, can also form new plants.

stolon

-modified stem The strawberry plant has a horizontal stem called a stolon that grows along the ground. Stolons *enable a plant to reproduce asexually*, as plantlets form at nodes along their -length.

2 hormones released by adrenal medulla

-norepinephrine -epinephrine

helper t cell

-respond to nearly all antigens -triggers the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. They secrete signals which help initiate productions of antibodies that neutralize pathogens and activate T cells that will kill the infected cells - 2 requirement: specific antigen bind to specific antigen receptor; antigen on antigen presenting cell. -Once the helper T cell has been activated, they produce *interleukins* (cytokine)

Types of muscle responses

-simple twitch -summation -tetanus -tonus

Barrier defenses

-skin (covered with oily and acidic secretions) -mucus (traps pathogens and other particles) -lysozymes destroys the cell walls of susceptible bacteria -digestive juice -symbiotic bacteria

bacteria shape

-staphylococci - clusters Streptococci- virulent chains

cerebrum

-the largest part of the brain. -divided into the left and right cerebral hemispheres -4 lobes -left controls right side and vice versa. (lateralization) -left: language, logic, and math, detailed skeletal motor , processing of visual auditory detail -right: spatial relations, pattern, and face recognition, and nonverbal thinking

Periosteum

-the most superficial layer of human bone. -tendons tend to highly integrated with the periosteum of compact bone -houses osteoclasts and osteoblasts and is nutrient rich due to being highly vascularized

brain stem

-the part of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord. -Consists of the midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata. It controls the flow of messages between the brain and the rest of the body, and controls basic body functions such as breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness, and whether one is awake or sleepy.

epidermis of a leaf

-the protective covering of one or more layers of cells. -covered by the *cuticle*, a protective layer of the waxy material *cutin.* -The cuticle reduces transpiration, or the loss of water through evaporation.

cytotoxic t cell

-use toxic proteins to kill cells infected -require signal from helpter T cells and interaction with an antigen-presenting cell -The accessory protein* CD8* binds to the class I MHC molecule to keep the 2 cells in contact. -*kills the host cell by secreting proteins that disrupt membrane integrity and trigger cell death.*

Areas of the bone

...

Diploma sporophytes produce haploid spores via meiosis and haploid gametophtes produce haploid gametes via mitosis

...

Protobionts>prokaryotes>eukaryotes>amphibian>reptiles>primates

...

cells of the proximal and distal convoluted tubule are very rich in mitochondia that supply energy for active transport processes

0

Eukaryotic transcription regulation

1)regulatory proteins 2)nucleosome packing 3)short interfering RNAs

innate immunity in insects

1)rely on their exoskeleton (barrier defense) 2)Chitin also lines insect's intestine and blocks infection

cellular components

1) *Erythrocytes *(RBCs) - transport O2 on hemoglobin, catalyze conversion of CO2(carbonyl anhydrase) lack nucleus/organelles to maximize hemoglobin content 2) *Leukocytes* (WBCs) - larger and phagocytize foreign matter and organisms •*Diapedesis* -slip through the endothelial lining 3) *Platelets/thrombocytes*- cell fragments involved in blood clotting - lack nuclei; stick to damaged epithelium; attract more •Convert fibrinogen (inactive) to fibrin (active) •Derived from *megakaryocytes*

Action potential - order

1) Acetylcholine (Ach) binds to the receptor proteins on the muscle fiber's plasma membrane, triggering an action potential in the muscle fiber. 2) The action potential is propagated along the plasma membrane and down *transverse tubules.* 3) The action potential propagating down the T tubules make close contact with the sarcoplasmic reticulum *(SR).* AP triggers SR the* release of Ca2+* ions from the SR. 4) Ca2+ ions bind to the troponin complex in the thin filament, *exposing the myosin binding sites.* 5) Cycles of myosin cross-bridge formation and the breakdown, coupled with ATP hydrolysis, *slide thin filament* toward center of sacromere. The muscle* contracts*. 6) Cytosolic *Ca2+ is removed* by active transport into the SR after the action potential ends. 7) *Tropomyosin blockage* of myosin-binding sites is restored; contraction ends, and the muscle fiber relaxes.

translation termination

1) Ribosome hits *stop codon (UAG)*. *Release factor* binds to the A site instead of another tRNA. 2) Polypeptide dissociates from the tRNA. tRNA and mRNA separates from the ribosome. Ribosome dissociates into large and small subunits.

Sliding-filament model

1) The myosin head is bound to ATP and it is in its low-energy configuration. 2) The myosin head hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and phosphate and is now in its high-energy conformation. 3) The myosin head binds to actin on its myosin-binding site, forming a cross-bridge. 4) Releasing ADP and Pi, myosin returns to its low-energy configuration, sliding the thin filament toward the center of the sarcomere. 5) Binding of a new molecule of ATP releases the myosin head from actin, and a new cycle begins.

four stages of growth and development in an animal

1) gametogeneiss (spermatogenesis and oogenesis) 2) embryonic developmement ( fertilization of egg until birth) 3) reproductive maturity - puberty 4) Aging until death

mechanism of action potential

1) stimulus opens up sodium channels. *Na+ influx* = depolarization 2)rising phase: after threshold, positive feedback of V-gated sodium ion channels. (higher Na inside) 3) falling phase: Na+influx halt. V-gated potassium channels open , causing outflow of K (higher K inside) 4)hyperpolarization(undershoot), gated K channel stays open longer so have more K+ than resting potential = refractory period r) return to resting potential

hormones made in hypothalamus

1)Gonadotropin releasing hormone 2) other tropin hormones 3) stored in PP -ADH -oxytocin

pressure-flow hypothesis

1. *Sugars enter sieve-tube members:* soluble carbs move from site of production (palisade mesophyll) to phloem sieve-tube members by *active transport* => higher [solute] at source than at sink [root]. 2. *Water enters sieve-tube member*s: water* diffuses* into source by osmosis to balance the lower water cxn from step 1. 3. *High Pressure* in sieve-tube members *at source moves water and sugars to sieve-tube members at sink*(low P): when water enters the sieve-tube members, pressure build up since rigid cell walls do not expand. So high P to low P, water and solute move together to the sink. 4. *sugars removed from sieve-tube members by active transport* (water is diffused out of cell --> relieves pressure)

Keratinocytes originate in

basal layer

plant fertilization

1. Pollen lands on sticky stigma (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains *vegetative nucleus* grows down the style toward an ovule; two sperm cells inside pollen tube. 2. *Ovule* within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell => (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; one survives => (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei => 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form plasma membranes (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are 3 cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 antipodal cells. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 haploid cells). 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters embryo sac through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); nucleus of 2nd sperm fuses with both polar nuclei => triploid (3N) nucleus → (mitosis) → endosperm (provide nutrient). *Double fertilization *is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.

transcription initiation

1. RNA polymerase binds to the promotor region; unzip the DNA

Describe the charge inside neurons 1. Polarization 2. Depolarizarion 3. Repolarization

1. Resting: inside negative more K inside 2. Voltage gated Na channels open: inside positive more Na 3. Hyperpolar: inside negative again with K

digestion in humans

1. Starches → glucose 2. Proteins → amino acids 3. Fats → fatty acids 4. Nucleic acids → nucleotides

common groups of bacteria

1. cyanobacteria 2.chemosynthetic 3. Nitrogen-fixing 4. Spirochetes gram positive and gram negative

factors involved in stomata opening and closing

1. high temp --> close 2. low [CO2] --> open --> photosynthesis 3. abscisic acid(produced in response to water deficiency)--> close 4. close at night, open in the morning. (low [CO2] during the day might be the cue.-low bc used during photosynthesis) 5. diffusion of K+ into guard cell -> gradient -> more water -> open 6. K+ enter -> unbalance dcharge state -> Cl- can come in or H+ gets pumped out. 7.blue light --> H2O in --> open

Inflammatory response

1. histamine secreted by basophils + mast cells causes VASODILATION (increase blood supply) 2. Phagocyte and complement more attracted by chemokines and more complement 3. Prostaglandins : increases blood flow 4. *Pyrogens*: body temperature increases, released by certain leukocytes. =fever

blood clotting

1.*Platelets* contact exposed collagen of damaged vessel and cause neighboring platelets to form *platelet plug* 2.Both the platelets and damaged tissue release clotting factor, *thromboplastin* 3.Thromboplastin converts inactive plasma protein prothombrin to *thrombin* (active) 4.Thrombin converts fibrinogen into *fibrin* 5.Fibrin threads coat damaged area and trap blood cells to form a clot

Regeneration step G3P→RuBP

1ATP

PGA → G3P (Reduction step) what do you need?

2ATP 2NADPH

Stratum granulosum

3-5 laeyrs of dying cells *lamellar bodies= lamellar * release hydrophobic lipids contains keratylin granules Granules in this epidermal layer produce keratin and cells begin to die.

Stratum lucidum

3-5 layers of clear, dead cell The clear layer, present in *palms, soles of feet, and finger tips* contains eleiden, a precursor to Keratin

-zone hatching

5 days after fertilization, the blastocyst performs *zone hatching*: the zona pellucida degenerates and is replaced by an underlying layer of trophoblastic cells so it can implant in the uterus.

Eukaryotic mRNA

5'cap - 5'UTR - start codon - protein coding segment - stop codon - 3'UTR - polyA tail UTR: untraslated region

amount of blood in an adult

6 quarts (1.25gallon = ~5 L)

ovule

7 After fertilization, the ovule, containing the triploid central cell and the diploid zygote, begins developing the seed.

oceans cover % of the earth

70%

RNA Splicing

: *Removes introns *(non-coding sequences) from the RNA transcript. Done by *small nuclear ribonculeoproteins (snRNPs).* Different splicing combinations yield different polypeptides when translated. Therefore, a combination of genes can yield many different polypeptides.

Poly-A tail

: This sequence is attached to the 3' end of the mRNA. Provides stability and control movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope.

Bronchi, Bronchioles

: Two bronchi, which enter the lungs and branch into narrower bronchioles

Chemosynthetic

: autotrophs; some are nitrifying bacteria NO2- -> NO3-.

protostomes and deuterostomes

: cleavages (cell divisions in zygote's early development); Archenteron (The primitive gut that forms during gastrulation in the developing blastula. It develops into the digestive tract of an animal; its opening will either be mouth or anus). Coelom will either develop from splitting of mesodermal tissue at side of archenteron or directly from outpouching in archenteron wall

gastrovascular cavity

: guts (digestion of food). One opening - sacline, limited processes. Two openings (digestive tract), specialized activities as food travels through

nitrogen fixing

: heterotrophs that fix N2, lives in nodules of plant (mutualism).

Survivorship curves

: how mortality of individuals in a species varies during their lifetimes. a. Type I: most individuals survive to middle age and dies quicker after this age (human). b. Type II: length of survivorship is random (invertebrates-hydra). c. Type III: most individuals die young, with few surviving to reproductive age and beyond (oysters).

zygomycota

: lack septa, except filaments bordering reproductive filaments; reproduce sexually by fusion of hyphae from different strains, followed by plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis; haploid zygospores are produced => germinate into new hyphae (e.g. bread molds).

meiosis

: of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 fungal strain) => merge into dikaryon and repeat.

cyanobacteria

: photosynthetic like plants (use chlorophyll a, split water, release O2, etc.; contain accessory pigment *phycobilins*; some have specialized cells called *heterocysts* that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme. Known as *blue-green algae* (not related to the other prokaryotic algae groups)

photoperiodism

: response of plants to changes in photoperiod (relative length of daylight and night); plants maintain circadian rhythm (a clock that measures length of daylight and night); *endogenous* mechanism (internal clock that continues to keep time even if external cues are absent). External cues (dawn, dusk) reset clock for accuracy.

platyhelminthes

: three types of acoelomate flatworms; Free-living flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater). Flukes are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. Tapeworms are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear segmented (but these segments [proglottids] only develop secondarily for reproduction not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have digestive tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them. Other Platyhelminthes have saclike gut.

Stroke volume

= EDV - ESV. Volume of blood pumped out of the heart with each beat. Formula subtracts the End-systolic Volume (blood in the ventricle at the end of the contraction/systole) from the End-diastolic Volume (volume of blood in the ventricle just before contraction)

myoglobin

= single chain/protein subunit, stores O2 in muscle

diencephalon

= thalamus + hypothalamus

Compact bone

=cortical bone highly organized, dense bone that doesn't appear to have cavities from the outside.

tympanic memebrane

=eardrum the beginning of the middle ear and is made of a thin sheet of muscle and skin that vibrates in response to sounds.Vibrations are passed to the Ossicles. converts the pulsatile pressure sounds waves into waves of mechanical pressure

Oogenesis process

@ ovary Primary oocyte in primary follicle -(LH surge/meiosis 1)->secondary oocyte in mature follicle(make first polar body)-(fertilization/meiosis 2) -> zygote +2nd polar body

ovulation

@ ovary Primary oocyte in primary follicle -(LH surge/meiosis 1)->secondary oocyte in mature follicle(make first polar body)-(fertilization/meiosis 2) -> zygote +2nd polar body

Oogenesis

@ovaries One diploid primary female sex cell ndergoes meiosis and produce a *single mature egg* and a *polar body*

Spermatogenesis process

@testis(seminiferous tubules) Spermatogonium -(mitosis)-> primary spermatocyte-(meiosis 1)->secondary spermatocytes -(meiosis 2)-> immature sperms

Invertebrate locomotion

A *hydrostatic *skeleton consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartments. Invertebrates with these skeletons control their form and movement by using muscles to change the shape of the fluid filled compartments. ▪ *Flatworms* uses bi-layered longitudinal and circular muscles to contract against the hydrostatic skeleton. Contraction causes hydrostatic skeleton to flow longitudinally, lengthening the animal ▪ *Segmented worms (annelids) *advance by action of muscles on hydrostatic skeleton. Bristles in the lower part of each segment *setae*, anchor the worm in the earth while muscles push ahead.

episome

A DNA molecule that replicates independently of chromosomal DNA is an episome. By this definition a plasmid is (usually) an episome.

Silent Mutation

A change in a single base of the DNA sequence yields *the same protein*. No change in protein function. Due to wobble effect.

indeterminate and determinate cleavage

A cleavage is said to be indeterminate if it produces blastomeres that, if separated, can individually complete normal development. Blastomeres produced by a determinate cleavage cannot develop into a complete embryo if separated from other blastomeres. *Radial cleavages in duterostomes are usually indeterminate, whereas spiral cleavages in protostomes are usually determinate.*

ocean currents

A combination of the prevailing, the planet's rotation, unequal heating of surface waters, and the location and shapes of the continents creates ocean currents, river-like flow patterns in the oceans. ▪ Ocean currents have profound effects on regional climates.

Rheumatoid arthritis

A degenerative disorder with a genetic basis

erythroblastosois fetalis

A fatal disease in pregnant women that is caused by incompatibility between a mother's blood and her unborn baby's blood. Because of the incompatibility, the mother's immune system may launch an immune system against the baby's red blood cells. As a result, the baby may die. Two types: ▪ Rh incompatibility disease: Rh+ fetus; Rh- mother ▪ ABO incompatibility disease

fixed action pattern

A fixed action pattern is an unchangeable series of actions triggered by a specific stimulus. Once initiated, the sequence is performed in its entirety, regardless of any changes in circumstances. • The specific stimulus is called a sign stimulus.

fixed action pattern

A graylag goose retrieving an egg (sign stimulus) is an example of a fixed action pattern. The goose extends its neck, uses a side-to-side motion to nudge the egg back with its back, and then sits down on the nest again

motor unit

A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls. ▪ Usually small motor units are activated first, then larger ones are activated as needed. This creates a smooth increase in force. ▪ Fine movement uses small motor units only.

Antagonist

A muscle pulls the bone to which it is attached—it can only move the bone in one direction. A different muscle is needed to reverse the action. Thus, back-and-forth movement of body parts involves *antagonists*, a pair of muscles (or muscle groups) that *can pull the same bone in opposite directions.* An example of antagonists are the biceps and triceps.

Polyploid speciation

A polyploid is an organism with more than two copies of chromosomes. A tetraploid would be reproductively isolated from a diploid (instant speciation). Not uncommon in plants.

proto-oncogene

A proto-oncogene is a normal, healthy gene that, if changed, can become a cancercausing oncogene. mutation within the gnee, multiple copies of the gene, gene moved to a new DNA locus

reflex arc

A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex action. In higher animals, most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This allows reflex actions to occur relatively quickly

allantois

A sac that buds off from the archentron. Eventually, it encircles the embryo, forming a layer below the chorion. In birds and reptiles, it initially stores waste products. Later in development, it fuses with the chorion, and together they act as one membrane for gas exchange. In mammals, the allantois transports waste product to the placenta. Eventually forms the *umbilical cord.*

signal

A signal is a stimulus transmitted by one animal to another animal In general, the more complex the social organization of the species, the more complex signaling will be required to sustain it.

appendix

A small, fingerlike extension of the vertebrate cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity. A mass of lymphatic tissue at the befenning of the large intestine that helps trap ingested pathogens.

5' cap

A special sequence is added to the 5' end of the mRNA, providing stability for the mRNA and point of attachment for ribosomes modified guanine nucleotide

climax community

A stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species over time usually never occurs

sporangiospores

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION formed in sporangium that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore asexual spores in a sac

Clade

A term describe an evolutionary ancestor and all of its descendent

territory

A territory is an area, usually fixed in location, that individuals defend and from which other members of the same species are usually excluded. • The size of the territories varies with the species, the function of the territory, and the resources available. • Territories are typically used for feeding, mating, rearing young, or combinations of these activities.

corpus calossum

A thick band of axons called the corpus calossum enables the right and left hemmispheres to communicate. ▪ Under the corpus callosum, groups of neurons called the basal nuclei are important in motor coordination.

conidia

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION : formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia called conidiophores

A-chol

A-chol increases secretion of *all cell types*

dorsal lip

A: Endoderm; archenteron B: ectoderm C: mesoderm D: lateral lip of dorsal lip E: Yolk plug F: Ventral lip of dorsal lip

gray crescent

A: ectoderm B: endoderm C: mesoderm D: gray crescent

Acetylcholine Epinephrine,norepinephrine, dopamin, serotonin(AA derived) GABA

A: parasympathetic NS, secreted at neuromuscular junctions E....: sympathetic NS, secreted between neurons GABA: inhibitory neurotransmitter among brain neurons

fat soluble vitamins

ADEK bile is also invovled in the absorption of fat soluble vitamins. Vit C (not soluble)

partial monosomy

Partial monosomy is the partial chromosomal deletion of 1 homologous chromosome

optimal foraging theory

According to the optimal foraging theory, an animal's feeding behavior should provide maximal energy gain with minimal energy expense and minimal risk of being eaten by foraging.

Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine (Ach) is released at the synaptic terminal of a motor neuron. It diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to the receptor proteins on the muscle fiber's plasma membrane, triggering an action potential in the muscle fiber.

Neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine GABA Norepinephrine Dopamine seratonin

reflexes

Acts independently of the brain as part of simple nerve circuits that produce reflexes, the body's automatic responses to certain stimuli. Does NOT travel through brain!

template strand = antisense stand

After the DNA double helix is opened, *the single stranded DNA from which the RNA is directly transcribed is referred to as the template, antisense, or non-coding strand*. The single stranded DNA strand that does not serve as a template for RNA transcription is known as the non-template, sense, or coding strand. The nucleotide sequence of the nascent RNA is the same as the sense strand except that U pairs with A instead of T.

True/false -inorganic molecules such as NH3 and H2O were constituents believed to comprise the atmosphere the earliest on earth -most scientists believe that RNA was utilize as the genetic information before DNA developed -the first cellular organisms were likely anaerobic heterotrophs -protobionts preceded living cells and were able to maintain an internal environment different from that of their surroundings

All true The

Glycogen starch

Alpha

alpine tundra

Alpine tundra is a type of natural region or biome that does not contain trees because it is at high altitude. The high altitude causes an adverse climate, which is too cold and windy to support tree growth.

deamination

Amine groups on nucleotide react with water to form a ketone. Creates wrong base.

small intestine

Amino acids and sugars =>capillaries fatty acids and glycerol => lymph. System

primary succession

An ecological succession that begins in an area where no biotic community previously existed

Sebaceous Gland

An exocrine gland in the dermis or subcutaneous layer that produces oil (sebum).

Abscisic acid

An inhibitor of plant growth hormone

osmoconformer

An osmoconformer has its internal osmolarity isoosmotic with its surroundings. ▪ Marine animals are all osmoconformers.

osmoregulator

An osmoregulator has its internal osmolarity independent compared to its surroundings. ▪ Enables animals to live in environments that are inhabitable for osmoconformers, such as freshwater and terrestrial habitats, or to move between marine and freshwater environments.

mating behavior

Animals of many species tend to view members of their own species as competitors to be driven away. ▪ Careful communication is an essential prerequisite for mating

ammonia

Animals that secrete nitrogenous wastes as ammonia need *access to lots of water* because ammonia can be *tolerated at very low concentrations.* Most common in aquatic species.

Annual growth rings

Annual growth rings result from the *layering of secondary xylem. * rainfall- size of rings age of tree- number of rings

Antibody

Antibodies do not actually kill pathogens, but by binding to pathogens, they interfere with pathogen activity or mark pathogens in various ways for inactivation or destruction

ADH

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin helps *increase the reabsorption of water in the collecting duct.* ▪ ADH is produced in the posterior pituitary gland. ▪ When blood osmolarity rises, the hypothalamus trigger release of ADH from the posterior pituitary. ▪ ADH brings about changes that make the epithelium more permeable to water ((recruits more aquaporins to the epthelium)( and thus able to reabsorb more water. ▪ The increase in water reabsorption (concentrates urine(, reduces urine volume, and lowers blood osmolarity back toward the set point. ▪ As the osmolarity of the blood falls, a negative-feedback mechanism reduces the activity of osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus, and ADH secretion is reduced.

antipodal cells

Antipodals are nutritive in function; it nourishes the embryo sac.

aqueous humor

Aqueous humor is the thin, watery fluid that fills the space between the cornea and the iris. This fluid nourishes the cornea and the lens and give the eye its shape.

Osteoarthritis

As a person ages, the cartilage that dovers the bone ends of freely movable joints begins to wear away

blastula

As cell divisions continue, liquid fills the morula and pushes cells out to form a circular cavity surrounded by a single layer of cells. The hollow sphere of cells is called the *blastula* (128 cell stage) and the cavity is called the *blastocel.*

4) reabsorption_ascending loop of hemle

As filtrate ascends in the *thin* segment, *NaCl diffuses out passively *into the interstitial fluid. This helps maintains the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid of the medulla. In the *thick* segment of the ascending limb, *NaCl must be pumped out actively* into the epithelium.

Many angiosperm species reproduce both asexually and sexually.

Asexual reproduction results in a clone of genetically identical organisms. *Fragmentation*, separation of a parent plant into parts that develop into whole plants, is a very common type of asexual reproduction. *Apomixis* is the asexual production of seeds from a diploid cell

Associative learning

Associative learning, or classical conditioning, is the ability to associate one environmental feature with another. ▪ ringing a bell(conditioned stimulus) will elicit salivation (conditioned response;involuntary) when a dog has heard a bell many times before receiving food (unconditioned stimulus) • For example, a dog or a cat will learn to associate a particular sound, word, or gesture (stimulus) with a specific punishment or reward (outcome).

imbibition

At germination, the plant does not begin life but rather resumes the growth and development that were temporarily suspended during seed dormancy. ▪ Germination depends on imbibition, the uptake of water due to low water potential of the dry seed. The hydrated seed expands, rupturing its coat. The inflow of water triggers metabolic changes in the embryo that makes it start growing again.

guttation

At night, root cells continue pumping mineral ions into the xylem of the vascular cylinder, *lowering the water potential*. Water flows in from the root cortex, generating* root pressure.* Root pressure sometimes results in *guttation* , the exudation of water droplets on the tips or edges of leaves. Positive root pressure is relatively weak and is a minor mechanism of xylem flow.

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

At other synapses, the ionotropic receptor is selectively permeable for only K+ and Cl-. When this receptor opens, the postsynaptic membrane hyperpolarizes. ▪ The hyperpolarization produced in this manner is called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) because it moves the membrane potential further from threshold. permeability to K-

excitatory postysynaptic potential (EPSP)

At some synapses, the ionotropic receptor is permeable to Na+ and K+. When this receptor opens, the membrane potential depolarizes to a value midway between EK and ENa. ▪ This depolarization brings the postsynaptic neuron above the threshold. This is called a excitatory postysynaptic potential (EPSP).

-blastocyst

At the end of cleavage, the embryo is a blastocyst, the mammalian version of a blastula. Clustered at one end of the blastocyst cavity is a group of cells called the inner cell mass (embryonic disk) and at the other end is another ring of cells called the trophoblast.

The ends of the chromosomes present a special problem for the replication process

At the tip, the* lagging strand* reaches a point where its system of RNA priming cannot work, and an unpolymerized section remains and *a shortened chromosome* would be the result.

Complex reflex

Automatic response to a significant stimulus (controlled at brainstem or even cerebrum). Will involve an intermediary interneuron or even the brain for 'processing' before synapsing with an efferent neuron and target tissue.

Sickle cell anemia

Autosomal recession e trait

Tay Sachs disease

Autosomal recessive disease Lysosomal enzyme defect Cause lipid buildup in brain cells Common in Euro, Jew descents Fatal in the first five years

hyperopia

farsightedness

innate immunity in vertebrates

Barrier defenses phagocytes lymphatic system variety of peptides and proteins inflammatory response

Basophils/Mast Cells

Basophils leave bone marrow as mature cells and remain circulating in the blood, whereas mast cells leave the bone marrow and circulate the blood as immature cells, only maturing when they enter the tissue.

Earth's global climate patterns are largely determined by the input of radiant energy from the sun and the planet's movement in space.

Because of earth's* curvature*, Earth receives an uneven distribution of solar energy. The sun's rays strike the equatorial areas most directly (perpendicularly) whereas away from the equator, the rays strike Earth's surface at a slant. As a result, the same amount of solar energy is spread over a larger area. Thus any particular area of land or ocean near the equator absorbs more heat than comparable areas in the more northern or southern latitudes.

diaphysis

Below the metaphysis is the diaphysis, or the shaft of the bone, which makes up the main section of the bone.

aphotic zone

Below the photic zone lies the aphotic zone. Although there is not enough light for photosynthesis in the aphotic zone, some light does reach these depths. • This dimly lit world, sometimes called the twilight zone, is dominated by a fascinating variety of small fishes and crustaceans.

Antibody

Binding of a B cell antigen receptor to an antigen leads to the formation of cells that secrete *a soluble form of the receptor*. =antibody ▪Antibodies bind to intact antigens in the blood and the lymph.

antibodies with complement system

Binding of complement protein to an antigen-antibody complex on a foreign cell triggers the generation of a pore in the membrane of the cell and causes lysis

homologous structures

Biologists call anatomical similarities in different organisms homologous structures—features that often have different functions but are structurally similar because of common ancestry.

social behavior

Biologists define social behavior as any kind of interaction between two or more animals, usually of the same species (i.e. aggression, cooperation)

Gamma globulin

Blood containing antibodies Supplement immunity assistant Can confer temporary protection against hepatitis ad others.

Closed circulatory

Blood is confined in vessels seen in certain mulluscs (octopus&squids) and vertebrates Annelid&echinoderms (only these 2 phylum have closed circulatory system but have no respiratory system)

Chitin cellulose Peptidoglycan

Both beta

What is the probability that this woman is a carrier for this lethal autosomal recessive condition that kills homozygous recessives by 1year of age? her fraternal brother had this condition and died.

Both parents have to be Aa. (both alive and could have aa child) Aa X Aa = 1 AA : 2Aa : 1aa since aa (homozygous recessive) would not survive, the woman can be a carrier by 2/3 (66.6%) chance.

peritubular capillary, vasa recta

Branches of this vessel form the *peritubular capillaries,* which surround the proximal and distal tubules. Other branches extend downward and form the *vasa recta,* hairpinshaped capillaries that serve the renal medulla, including the long loop of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons.

Bundle sheath cells

Bundle sheath cells surround the veins in such a way that no vascular tissue is exposed to inter-cellular space. In this way, air bubbles cannot enter vessels where they could impede the movement of water.

lineage map

By tracing the fates of cells during development, a lineage map can be built (tells you which cells arose from which cells).

Human

CO2 is transported as *HCO3*- in the plasma (liquid portion of blood), catalyzed by *carbonic anhydrase *(CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-) located in the* RBC*. Some CO2 mixes direct w/ plasma as gas, or binds with hemoglobin in RBCs

why we breath hard when we exercise

CO2+H2O <->H2CO3 <-> HCO3-+H+ because increasing CO2 will cause the reaction to shift to the right.(more H+) lower pH medulla oblongata generates the pace of lung respiration. medulla is influenced by 1.central chemoreceptors that are contained in the medulla - sense high CO2. & low pH. 2.peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the body aorta and arteries. Detect low pH and signal to the medulla.

antigen presenting cell

Can be a dendritic cell, macrophage, or B cell. Most body cells have class I MHC molecules, but antigen-presenting cells have class I and class II molecules. An accessory protein called *CD4 *helps the helper T cell bind to the class II MHC molecule. When the helper T cell binds to the antigen-presenting cell cytokines are exchanged.

Notochord

Cartilaginous rod that extends from head to the tail in the embryo of all chordates provide support Derived from mesoderm Porifera, cnidarian, platyhelminthes, nematodes, and Annelids all lack a notochord

Freckles

Caused by clumped together groups of melanocytes.

Keratinocytes keratin

Cells full of the protein keratin keratin= fibrous protein responsible for protective properties of the epidermis

Centrosomevs centromere

Centrosome =two centrioles Centromere =where sister chromatids are held together

eras

Cenzoic (most recent) > Mesozoic (dinosaur) > Paleozoic (many alga, vertebrates, land plants, fish) > Precambrian (oldest, invertebrates, monera, fungi)

missense mutation

Change in a single base of DNA sequence yields a *different amino acid*. Have varying effects - depends on how important the amino acid is to the protein structure and function.

nonsense

Change in a single base of DNA sequence yields a *premature STOP codon.* Have large, negative effects on protein function.

basis of action potential

Changes in membrane potential occur because neurons contain *gated ion channels, ion channels that open or close in response to stimuli.* ▪ When the gate opens, ions flow the channel, changing the membrane potential.

homology

Characteristics that results from common ancestry is known as homology

cartilaginous fish

Chondrichthyes is a class that contains the cartilaginous fishes: they are jawed vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, scales, a heart with its chambers in series, and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. in chordata shark...

biome

Climate and other abiotic factors of the environment control the global distribution of organisms. The influence of these abiotic factors results in biomes, major types of ecological associations that occupy broad geographic regions of land or water. ▪ Terrestrial biomes are determined primarily by temperature and precipitation. ▪ Aquatic biomes are determined primarily on salinity.

Mammalian bones contain

Collagen , inorganic hydroxy apatite, and calcium

Collenchyma cells

Collenchyma cells also lack secondary walls, but they have unevenly thickened primary walls. They provide* flexible support in actively growing parts of the plants;* young stems and petioles often have collenchyma cells just below their surface

Homologous structures

Common anceste

coniferous forests (taiga)

Cone-bearing evergreen trees, such as spruce, pine, fir, and hemlock, dominate coniferous forests. The northern coniferous forest, or taiga, is the *largest terrestrial biome on Earth.* • *Taiga* is found across North America and Asia south of the Arctic Circle and is also found at cool, high elevations in more temperate latitudes. • Taiga is characterized by long, cold winters and short, wet summers, which are sometimes warm. • The soil is thin and acidic, and the slow decomposition of conifer needles make few nutrients available for plant growth. • Most of the precipitation is in the form of snow. • The conical shape of many conifers prevents too much snow from accumulating on their branches and breaking them.

cones

Cones detect high-intensity illumination and are sensitive to color.

Carboxy peptidase A

Contains Zn++ in its active site

Papillary layer

Contains the dermal papillae which are responsible for fingerprints. 20% of the dermis

glycogenesis

formation of glycogen

coral reef

Coral reefs are scattered around the globe in the photic zone of warm tropical waters above continental shelves. • A reef is built up slowly by successive generations of coral animals and by multicellular algae crusted with limestone. • Coral reefs support a huge variety of invertebrates and fishes.

cork cambium

Cork is produced by meristem tissue called the cork cambium, which first forms from parenchyma cells in the cortex. The cork cambrium produces new cells on the outside and sometimes on the inside. On the inside, the phelloderm may be produced. Together, the cork cambrium and the phelloderm is called the periderm.

pathway of light stimuli

Cornea (focuses light) → pupil (controls amount of light that enters the eye; diameter controlled by iris) → lens (focuses image; controlled by cilliary muscles) → Retina (location of rods and cones).

Meninges

Covering around brain and spinal cord

Cross sectional are

Cross sectional area of *veins* is about* 4x higher* than that of arteries. Total cross-sectional area of *capillaries* far greater than that of arteries or veins. Since blood volume flow rate is approx. constant, blood* velocity is inversely proportional to total cross-sectional area*. Blood is not an ideal flow: pumping force of heart is the major contributor to pressure (p=F/A). Aside: arterioles have the greatest resistance to flow (high ability to constrict)*. At any given time, most blood is in the veins/venules/venus sinuses.

cryptic species

Cryptic species: groups of organisms that are genetically distinct and do not interbreed, but are morphologically almost indistinguishable. Cryptic species complicate taxonomic sorting.

factors that influence developemnt and differentiation of the egg cytoplasm

Cytoplasmic material is distributed unequally in the egg and subsequent daughter cells during cleavage (i.e. yolk and gray crescent). Nonuniform distribution of the cytoplasm results in embryonic axes. When cleavages divide the egg, the quality of cytoplamic substances will vary among daughter cells. Substances unique to certain daughter cells may influence their subsequent development.

Nucleosome

DNA is supercoiled around bundles of 8/9 histone proteins. This exists when the cell is not dividing. One of two types: ▪ Euchromatin: loosely bound to nucleosomes, actively being transcribed. ▪ Heterochromatin: areas of tightly packed nucleosomes where DNA is inactive. Contains a lot of junk DNA.

transposons

DNA segments that can move to a new location on the same or a different chromosome

Anti-sense DNA strand

DNA strand not used for transcription used for protection against degradation

chromosomal mutations 1)deletion 2)inversion 3)duplication 4)translocation 5)reciprocal translocation

Deletion: A segment of the chromosome is removed Inversion: A segment of the chromosome is removed and then reinserted "backward" to its original orientation Duplication: A segment of a chromosome is copied and inserted into the homologous chromosome. translocation: the attachment of a chromosomal fragment to a nonhomologous chromosome. 5) reciprocal translocation: exchange of non-homologous chromosome fragments

dendritic cells

Dendritic cells mainly populate tissues, such as skin, that contact the environment. They stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens as they encounter and engulf. ◦ Antigen-presenting cells.

Echinoderms and chordates

Deuterostoems

Dopamine and seratonin

Dopamine and seratonin are released at many sites in the brain and affect sleep, mood, attention, and learning.

X-inactivation

During embryonic development in female mammals, one of the two X chromosomes does not uncoil into chromatin. ▪ It remains a dark and coiled chromosome called a Barr body. Barr bodies cannot be expressed only one X chromosome expressed (random)

during intense muscle activity

During intense muscle activity, oxygen becomes a limiting reagent and ATP is instead generated by lactic acid fermentation. ▪ This generates much less ATP per glucose molecule and creates the burning sensation in the muscles.

C4 plant

During the day, fix CO2 in mesophy;l with PEP --> OAA->malate(4C) --> pyruvate+CO2 enter bundle sheath cells -->CO2 enters calvin cycle. minimize photorespiration found in hot dry climate ->faster and more efficient photosynthesis requires one additional ATP spatial change from C3

Duterostomes

Duterostomes have radial and indeterminate cleavages. Folds of the archentron form the coelom. The anus develops from the blastopore

ELISA

ELISA is a technology to determine if a specific antigen exists. Antibodies are placed on a microtiter plate, and if they bind to their specific antigen there will be a color change in the microtiter plate, indicating that a specific antigen exists.

Disffusion between alveolar chambers and blood

Each bronchiole branches ends in these small sacs, which are surrounded by blood-carrying capillaries

afferent arteriole, efferent arteriole

Each nephron is supplied with blood by an* afferent arteriole *an offshoot of the renal artery that branches and forms the capillaries of the glomerulus. The capillaries converge as they leave the glomerulus, forming an *efferent arteriole*

ribosomes in Eu and Pro

Each ribosome is composed of a large and small subunit. In *eukaryotes*, each ribosome is composed of a* 40S and 60S *subunit. In *prokaryotes*, each ribosome is composed of a *30S and 50S* subunit. It is important to realize that differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes are a common target for many antibiotics.

annelids

Earthworms - one-way digestive tract Crop - food storage Gizzard - grind food Intestine - contains typholosole to increase surface area for absorption

ecosystem ecology

Ecosystem ecologists are especially interested in energy flow, the passage of energy through the components of the ecosystem, and chemical cycling, the transfer of materials within the ecosystem.

ectopic pregnancy

Ectopic pregnancy results when the zygote makes contact and starts to grow in improper places. ▪ *Tubal pregnancies* are when the zygote implants itself into the fallopian tube

Asymmetric cleaveage

Egg has an upper, animal pole, and a lower, vegetal pole. The yolk (stored nutrients) will be distributed unequally, pooling at the vegetal pole.

types of inner cell mass

Epiblast and hypoblast. hypoblast contributes to the yolk sac and disappears. as *epibalst* thickens (in birds, reptiles, mammals) a primitive streak starts to form. (creates left/right and top/bottom axis)

epigenetic inheritance

Epigenetic inheritance is an unconventional finding. It goes against the idea that inheritance happens only through the DNA code that passes from parent to offspring.. ▪ Modifications to the histones can be inherited by offspring. Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence is called epigenetic inheritance

monocistronic

Eukaryotes are monocistronic, meaning that only one polypeptide can be synthesized from the same mRNA.

translation initiation - Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes: 1) Small subunit binds 5'-cap, scans mRNA for first AUG. There is *only one AUG sequence per mRNA* transcript. 2) Once found, the large ribosomal subunit and the charged initiator tRNA (carrying *methionine*) binds.

eutherians

Eutherians are mammals that bear fully developed live young. They are commonly called *placental mammals* because their placentas are more complex than those of marsupials, and the young complete their embryonic development in the mother's uterus attached to the placenta.

bark

Everything external to the vascular cambrium is called bark. The main components of bark are the secondary phloem, the cork cambium, and cork. The youngest secondary phloem (next to the vascular cambium) functions in sugar transport. The older secondary phloem dies, as does the cork cambium you see here. Pushed outward, these tissues and cork produced by the cork cambium help protect the stem until they, too, are sloughed off as part of the bark. Keeping pace with secondary growth, cork cambium keeps regenerating from the younger secondary phloem and keeps producing a steady supply of cork. As the stem thickens and the secondary xylem expands, the original cork and cork cambium are pushed outward and fall off. A new cork cambium forms to the inside. When no cortex is left, it forms from parenchyma cells in the phloem.

Cnidarian - circulatory, excretory

Ex) hydra jellyfish Body walls that are two cells thick; cells in direct contact with either internal and external environment -passive simple diffusion of water soluble waste

Yellow bone marrow

Fat storage

-fertilization

Fertilization (syngamy) takes place in the fallopian tubes (oviduct). Cleavage occurs while the fertilized egg is still moving through the oviduct. The embryo is at the *blastula stage by the time it reaches the uterus for implantation.*

Cell after fertilization

Fertilization in the fallopian tube Cell cleavage for next 3 days-- 32 cells =morula--continue dividing for another 4 days --blastocyst that implants in the uterus around day 6

Collagen

Fibrous proteins and consists of a triple helix Very rich in glycine Rich in Extracellular matrix

Menstrual cycle -phases -hormones

Follicular phase - FSH stimulate the development of follicle which then secrets estrogen Ovulation - day 14; ovarian follicle bursts and releases 2nd oocyte(prophase II), caused by a surge in LH due to a peak in estrogen Luteal - LH induces the rupture of follicle to develop into corpus luteum, which secretes estrogen and progesterone(causes glands of endometrium to mature and produce secretions that prepare for implantation)

efferent neurons

Following processing within the CNS, instructions travel to muscles glands, and endocrine cells along PNS neurons called efferent neurons.

Resting potential

For a resting neuron, between -60 and -80 mV. inside high [K+] & outside high[Na+]

TATA box

For eukaryotes and archaea, the TATA box is the most common sequence of nucleotides a the promoter. The most common sequence of nucleotides at the promoter region is called the consensus sequence; variations from it causes less tight RNA pol binding → lower transcription rate.

Stimulation of the first beath

For newborn, the first breath must be forceful since the newborns lungs are collapsed, and the airways small. Thus collapsed lungs, surface tension, and small airways offer much resistance to air movement. Initiated by high CO2 levels

foraging

Foraging includes not only eating, but also any mechanism an animal uses to search for, recognize, and capture food. ▪ Because adequate nutrition is essential to survival, we should expect natural selection to refine behaviors that enhance the efficiency of foraging. ▪ Animals forage in a great many ways.

gastrula

Formation of the gastrula occurs when a group of cells invaginate (move inward) into the blastula, forming a two layered embryo with an opening from the outside into a center cavity.

Forward genetics

Forward genetics: begin with a change in phenotype and then look to see how changes in genotype cause the observed effects. P-->G

fraternal twins

Fraternal twins result from *more than one egg* being fertilized

freshwwater biomes

Freshwater biomes cover less than 1% of Earth's surface and contain a mere 0.01% of its water but they harbor a disproportionate share of biodiversity—an estimated 6% of all described species. Three major categories: (1) lakes and ponds, (2) rivers and streams, and (3) freshwater wetlands.

Spindle fiber (spindle apparatus)

From centrioles and composed of microtubules

bulk flow of O2

Gas exchange across moist, sac membranes of alveoli. O2 diffuses through alveolar wall, through pulmonary capillary wall, into blood, and into red blood cells. (CO2 is opposite)

oncogenes

Genes that can cause cancer when present in a single copy in the cell are called oncogenes.

Hormonal control (Male)

GnRH-> FSH and LH ▪ *FSH stimulates sertoli cells*, located within the seminiferous tubules, to nourish developing sperm. ▪ *LH causes leydig cell*s, to produce testosterone and other androgens, which promote spermatogenesis. *Neg feedback* ▪ Testosterone regulates blood levels of GnRH, FSH, and LH. ▪ *Inhibin*, a hormone that in males is produced by sertoli cells, acts on the anterior pituitary gland to reduce FSH secretion

GnRH

Gonadotropin releasing hormone made in hypothalamus from neurons controls the secretion of FSH and LH from the AP

faster impulses with ______diameter and ___________myelinated axons

Greater diameter and more heavily myelinated axons will propagate faster impulses. ▪ The larger the diameter, the less resistance to "flow" of ions ▪ A more heavily myelinated axon will have more saltatory conduction

guard cells

Guard cells are specialized epidermal cells that control the opening and closing of stomata. Stomata are openings in the epidermis that allow gas exchange between the inside of the leaf and the external environment.

guard cells

Guard cells help balance water conservation with gas exchange for photosynthesis primarily from the reversible uptake and loss of potassium ions by guard cells. guard cell turgid(when with water) : stoma open(Radially oriented cellulose microfibrils) guard cell flasccid(when losing water): stoma closed

path of electron during noncylic light dependent reaction

H2O→PSII(P680)→plastoquinone→cytochrome b6f→plastocyanin(all ETC)→PSI(P700)→ferrodoxin(NADP+ reductase)→NADPH

what hormone is detected in a pregnancy test

HCG, human chorionic gonadotropin

chloride shift

HCO3- can diffuse out of the cell since negatively charged (polar). when HCO3- leaves the cell, Cl- replace the lost negative charge in the cell.

somatotropin

HGH stimulates bone and muscle grouwth

Ectoderm

Hair eyes teeth skin nervous system lens of the eye

Skin appendages

Hair, nails, and glands.

Crossing over

Happens during prophase I (meiosis i) *Synapsis Chromatids of homologous chromosomes break at corresponding points and exchange equivalent pieces of DNA *not between sister chromatids, bc then there will be no genetic variation

Cardiac output

Heart Rate * Stroke Volume. The volume of blood pumped by the ventricle (per min)

Uniformitarianism

Held that natural forces now changing the shape of the earth's surface have been operating in the past for much of the same way. In other words, the present is the key to understanding the past.

Catastrophism

Held that there were violent and sudden natural catastrophes such as great floods and the rapid formation of of major mountain chains. Plants and animals living in those parts of the world were often killed off. New life forms move din from other areas. As a result, the fossil record for a region shows abrupt changes in species.

pecking order

Hens establish a clear pecking order: the alpha, or top-ranked, hen in the pecking order is dominant; she is not pecked by any other hens and can usually drive off all the others by threats rather than actual pecking. The alpha hen has first access to resources. The beta, or second-ranked, hen similarly subdues all the others except the alpha, and so on down the line to the omega, or lowest, animal.

Oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve A) low pH B) higher T C) high CO2 D) fetal hemoglobin E)Increased BPG

High T, low pH, high CO2(High BPG)=easily give up O2 =shift to the right (more oxygen is unloaded by hemoglobin) fetal: b/c get mommy's help, dont need to dissociate much O2. T: Under a higher T, hemoglobin is more able to unlad oxygen into active, warmer, oxygen-depleted tissues

holoblastic

Holoblastic is when the cleavage furrow passes entirely through the egg

Synapsis

Homologous chromosome come together and intertwine

Disjunction

Homologous pairs separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell During disjunction, each chromosome of paternal orgin separates from its homologoue of maternal origin

Cytokinins

Hormone involved with promoting cell division

hormones

Hormones are transported throughout the body in blood. A small amount generates a large impact. They tend to have slower effects. ▪ Many hormones elicit more than one type of response in the body. ▪ These molecules bind to receptors that are highly specific to their structure. ▪ Some hormones have receptors on almost all cells, some have receptors only on specific tissues.

Gibberllins

Hormones that may induce certain plants flower as well as allow stem elogation

Habitat loss

Human alteration of habitats poses the single greatest threat to biodiversity. Agriculture, urban development, forestry, mining, and environmental pollution have brought about massive destruction and fragmentation of habitats. • Deforestation: clear-cutting of forests. Causes erosion, flooding, and changes in water patterns. • Desertification: overgrazing of grasslands that border deserts transform the grasslands into deserts.

micro-injection

Human oocytes can be fertilized most successfully by the use of micro-injection the use of a glass micropipette to inject a liquid substance at a microscopic or borderline macroscopic level. The target is often a living cell but may also include intercellular space.

K selected species

Humans slow growth rate ( r<K) high surviving rate - In stable or predictable environments - very constant in number and close to the carrying capacity K. - large body size, long life expectancy, the production of fewer offspring, extensive parental care

Hydrostatic prressure from heart

Hydrostatic pressure from heart contracting causes blood to move through arteries. Blood pressure drops as it reaches the capillaries, and reaches near zero in the venules. Blood continues to move through veins because of pumping of the heart assisted by movements of adjacent skeletal muscles, expansion of atria each time heart beats, and falling pressure in chest when a person breathes

DNA polymerase I,II, and III

I: used for primer removal and gap filing of okazaki II: DNA repair III: DNA synthesis same in Eu/ pro

Determinate&indeterminate cleavage

If after the single cell divides nd the cells are separated from each other, they will die. -indeterminate: if the cellls are separated they can develop into a viable organism

Menstruation

If not fertilized, corpus luteum atrophied becoming corpus alibi and (scar) resulting in drop of estrogen and progesterone causes the endometrium to slough off

Which pathway from root hair to vascular tissue (prior to reaching the casparian strip) 1) apop 2)sym 3)trans

If once water enters the*root hair*, it travels from cell to cell, across the cortex, in the CELL WALLS ONLY =apop

algae bloom

If there is an over-supply of nitrogen and phosphorus, it may produce a heavy growth of algae, known as an algae bloom. Algae blooms reduce light penetration and then the algae decomposes, a pond or lake can suffer severe oxygen depletion, killing organisms that need the oxygen.

Hemocyte

Immune. Phagocytic cell in invertebrates

if implantation

Implanated embryo will secrete HCG → sustain corpus luteum → corpus luteum make E and P →maintain endometrium → later placenta takes over E and P production

class actinopterygii

In *ray-finned fishes*, which include tuna, trout, and goldfish, the skeleton is made of bone—*cartilage* reinforced with a hard matrix of calcium phosphate. ▪ Their fins are supported by thin, flexible skeletal rays. ▪ Most have flattened *scales* covering their skin that secrete a coating of *mucus* that reduces drag during swimming. ▪ On each side of the head, a protective flap called an *operculum* covers a chamber housing the gills. Movement of the operculum allows the fish to breathe without swimming. ▪ also have *a lung derivative* that helps keep them buoyant—*the swim bladder.*

Temporal summation

In addition, *two EPSPs can occur at a single synapse* in such a rapid succession that the postsynaptic neuron's membrane potential hasn't returned to resting potential before the arrival of the second EPSP. ▪ When this happens, the EPSPs add together, an effect called temporal summation.

trial and error learning

In another type of associative learning, called trial-and-error learning, an animal learns to associate one of its own behaviors with a positive or negative effect. The animal then tends to repeat the response if it is awarded or avoid the response if it is harmed. • For example, predators quickly learn to associate certain kinds of prey with painful experiences.

yolk sack, yolk

In birds and reptiles, a yolk sack membrane digests enclosed yolk. Yolk provides *nutrients* to embryo. In *placental mammals*, the yolk sack is *empty* as the umbilical cord/placenta delivers nutrients. *less cleavage occurs where yolk is more concentrated*

salt glands

In birds, the transport epithelium are the pair of *nasal salt glands.* ▪ Salt glands use *active transport to secrete excess salts*. They maintain salt balance and allow for saltwater to be drank.

taxis

In contrast to kinesis, a taxis is a response directed toward (positive taxis) or away from (negative taxis) a stimulus. • For example, phototaxis it he movement toward or away from light and chemotaxis is the movement toward or away from a chemical.

glycolytic fibers

In contrast, glycolytic fibers rely on*glycolysis *as their major source of ATP production (anaerobic). -They have the *largest diameter and the low concentrations of myoglobin.* -They have _*high* myosin ATPase activity._ -Fast-twitch fiber -Typically *white* color. -Usually used for power.

endocrine

In endocrine signaling, hormones secreted into extracellular fluid by endocrine cells reach target cells via the bloodstream or hemolymph.

enhancers

In eukaryotes, RNA polymerase requires the assistance of proteins called transcription factors, which bind to DNA control sequences called enhancers.

innate response

In its simplest form, a fixed action pattern is an innate response to a certain stimulus. Although a fixed action pattern is a simple behavior, complex behaviors can result from several fixed action patterns performed sequentially. ▪ Innate behaviors are under strong genetic control, but the animal's performance of most innate behaviors improve with experience. And despite the genetic component, input from the environment is required to trigger the behavior.

spermathecae

In many insect species, the female reproductive system contains one or more spermathecae, sacs in which sperm may be stored for extended periods.

biofilms

In many natural environments, prokaryotes attach to surfaces in highly organized colonies dental plaque is a biofilm that can cause tooth decay.

cloaca.

In many nonmammalian vertebrates, the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems have a common opening to the outside, the cloaca.

apical dominance

In many plants, the terminal bud produces hormones that *inhibit the growth of axillary buds* • By concentrating resources on growing taller, apical dominance is an evolutionary adaptation that* increases the plant's exposure to light.* However, branching is also important for increasing the exposure of the shoot system to the environment, and under certain conditions, the axillary buds begin growing.

courtship ritual

In many species, prospective mates must perform an elaborate courtship ritual, which confirms that individuals are of the same species, of the opposite sex, physically primed for mating, and not threats to each other. • Movements in courtship rituals are FAPs. Thus, the entire routine is a chain of FAPs that must be performed flawlessly if mating is to occur. • This is common among vertebrates and some groups of invertebrates.

neuroendocrine signaling

In neuroendocrine signaling, specialized neurons called neurosecretory cells secrete neurohormones, which diffuse from nerve cell endings into the bloodstream.

zona pellucida

In non-mammals, the zona pellucida plays an important role in preventing crossbreeding of different species (especially in species that fertilize outside the body). ▪ Zona pellucida is commonly used to control wildlife populations by *immunocontraception.* When the zona pellucida of one animal species is injected into the blood stream of another, it results in sterility of the second species due to immune response—fertilization cannot occur because antibodies have already bound the zona pellucida, preventing sperm from binding.

fever

In response to certain pathogens, substances released by activated macrophages cause the body's thermostat to reset to a higher temperature. ▪ Higher temperature is beneficial to help fighting off infections

spatial learning

In spatial learning, animals establish memories of landmarks in their environment that indicate the locations of food, nest sites, prospective mates, and potential hazards.

neutral plate and tube

In the *ecotderm layer *directly above the notochord, a layer of cells form *the neural plate*. The plate indents, forming the neural groove, and then rolls up into a cylinder, *the neural tube*. The neural tube develops into the *nervous system.* Additional cells roll off the top of the developing neural tube and form *the neural crest.* These cells form various tissues: including teeth, bone, and muscles of the skull,+PNS etc.

polar ice

In the Northern Hemisphere, polar ice covers land north of the tundra and in the southern hemisphere, polar ice covers the continent of Antarctica. ▪ The temperature in these regions is extremely cold year-round, and recipitation is very low. • Only a small portion of these landmasses is free of ice or snow, even during the summer. ▪ Nevertheless, small plants and invertebrates and wingless insects inhabit the frigid soil. ▪ The terrestrial polar biome is closely interconnected with the neighboring marine biome.

intertidal zone

In the intertidal zone, where the ocean meets land, the shore is pounded by waves during the high tide and exposed to the sun and drying winds during low tide. • The rocky intertidal zone is home to many sedentary organisms which attach to rocks and are thus prevented from being washed away when the tide comes in.

Radial and spiral cleavage

In* duterostomes*, early cleavages are *radial*, forming cells at the animal and vegetal poles that are aligned together, the top cells directly above the bottom cells. In *protosomtes*, cleavages are *spiral*, forming cells that are shifted with respect to those below them.

inbreeding depression

Inbreeding does not positively affect fitness. Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness in a given population as a result of inbreeding. • Inbreeding decreases the overall genetic variation within the gene pool, and increases the probability of individuals for being homozygous for deleterious alleles. With inbreeding, the allele frequencies stay the same (p and q). Inbreeding causes the loss of heterozygotes.

territorial behavior

Individuals that have established a territory usually proclaim their territorial rights continually. • Usually, intruders will avoid marked territory and a potentially confrontation with its proprietors. • Not all species are territorial.

Nerve gases

Inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase and cause death by respiratory paralysis

steps of transcription

Initiation, elongation, termination

uric aicd

Insects, land snails, and many reptiles, including birds, create uric acid as their primary nitrogenous waste. The advantage is that uric acid is *not toxi*c and it can be disposed with *minimal water loss. *Disadvantage is that it requires *lots of energy.*

insight

Insight: When animal exposed to new situation without prior experience, performs a behavior that generates a positive outcome.

communication

Interactions between animals depend on some form of signaling between the participating individuals The sending of, reception of, and response to signals constitute animal communication, an essential element of interactions between individuals.

myogenic contraction

Ion channels in the plasma membrane of cardiac muscle cells cause rhythmic depolarizations that trigger action potentials WITHOUT nervous system input

Ground tissue system

It accounts for most of the bulk of a young plant, filling the spaces between the epidermis and vascular tissue system. • Ground tissue internal to vascular tissue is called* pith*, and ground tissue external to the vascular tissue is called*cortex.* - no pith or cortex for monocot(b/c vascular bundles are scattered) • function : photosynthesis, storage, and support.

vagus nerve

It contains motor and sensory fibers and, because it passes* through the neck and thorax to the abdomen,* has the widest distribution in the body. parasympathetic nerve

spinal cord

It conveys information to and from the brain and generates basic patterns of locomotion. filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which supplies the CNS with nutrients and hormones and carrying away wastes. made up of gray and white amtter

Endodermis

It is a selective barrier, determining which substances pass between the rest of the cortex and the vascular tissue. with casparian strips active mineral uptake

R-selected population

K-selected population - members have low reproductive rates and are roughly constant in size (at K). Have a carrying capacity that the population levels out at. Carrying capacity is a density dependent factor. (like humans)

karyotype

Karyotyping is a method to count the number of chromosomes. Useful in diagnosing chromsomal disorders such as down's syndrome.

Predominant cell type of epidermis

Keratinocytes

4 cells in epidermis

Keratinocytes; Melanocytes; Langerhans's Cells; Merkel cell

Lac Operon

Lac I gene: encodes for the Lac operon repressor protein *inducible system* : binding of lactose(effector;inducer) to the repressor will lead to transcription only happens when lactose is present and there are no glucose available. activator: cAMP(when no glucose, bind to the promoter and help transcription)

lamprey

Lamprey larvae resemble lancelets. They are suspension feeders that live in freshwater streams, where they are buried in sediment. Most lampreys migrate to the sea or lakes as they mature into adults. Most species of lamprey are parasites. has rasping mouth (no hinged jaw)

Veins

Larger veins often have *valves* to aid in transport of deoxygenated blood back to heart due to fighting gravity (except for pulmonary veins and umbilical vein that carry oxygenated blood)

Lateral diffusion

Lateral diffusion (B) occurs when a phospholipid moves to a location within the same side of the bilayer from which it was originally located

Leaf orientation

Leaf orientation affects light absorption. In low-light conditions, horizontal leaves capture more sunlight. In sunny conditions, vertical leaves are less damaged by sun and allow light to reach lower leaves.

leaves

Leaves generally have broad surface areas and high surface-to-volume ratios. These characteristics help increase photosynthesis and increase water loss through stomata (this is a trade-off).

Keystone species

Less abundant species may exert control over community composition. A keystone species is a species whose impact on its community is much larger than its biomass or abundance would indicate.

Hypodermis/Subcutaneous

Lies immediately below the dermis. It is technically not skin but is a layer of support tissue and consists of *adipose and loose connective tissue.* acts as energy reserve and as a thermoregulatory insulator passage for blood vessels

Dermis

Lies immediately below the epidermis. It is much thicker than the epidermis. primary connective tissue of the skin contains collagen and elastic fibers contains hair follicles, glands, nerves, and blood vessels

Endoderm

Lining of bladder, digestive and respiratory track liver pancreas gall bladder

local regulator

Local regulators are molecules that act over short distances and reach their target cells solely by diffusion. ▪ In *paracrine signaling*, the local regulator targets cells that lie near the secreting cell. ▪ In* autocrine signaling*, the local regulator targets the secreting cell itself.

Aldosterone

Low BP-> aldosterone increases the absorption of Na+ at DCT--> increase water retention Result: serum [Na+] increases --> BP increases

Hormonal Control (Female) -ovulation

Low E&P→ secretion of GnRH → FSH and LH ◦ FSH stimulates the development of the follicle and the oocyte. Also, stimulates the secretion of estrogen from the follicle. ◦ The rising levels of estrogen stimulate the anterior pituitary to create lots of LH. The surge of LH triggers ovulation.

Lymph nodes may contain

Lymphocytes and macrophages

identical twins have identical MHC

MHC allows the body to recognize self vs. nonself cells.

ossicles

MIS (Malleus, incus, stapes)

macroevolution

Macroevolution typically refers to long term evolution (species and longer term) Macroevolution looks at speciation and extinction to explain the evolution of individual species and groups of species. look at the rate of speciation and the rate of extinction

Medulla (in kidney)

Maintains its high salt concentration by reabsorbing urea and salt in ascending loop of henle and in DCT

dominance hierarchies

Many animals live in social groups maintained by agnostic behavior *Pecking order* • Once a hierarchy is established, each animal's status in the group is fixed, often for several months or even years.

stem cells

Many early animal embryos contain stem cells capable of giving rise to differentiated cells of any type (*embryonic stem cells).* Stem cells can be isolated from early embryos at the blastula stage, or the blastocyst stage in humans. These cells can differentiate into many different types of cells.

Red bone marrow

Many mitochondria cytoplasm Function in the formation of RBC, WBC and platelets (thrombocytes) If blood supply is low yellow bone marrow turns into red bone marrow

phytochrome involved in other functions

Many seeds require minimum light exposure before germinating. Phytochrome system detects changes in light amt -> if critical exposure is exceeded (or other facts like water present) -> giberellins produced (or ABA destroyed) -> germination Red to far red ratio is measured by phytochrome to sense quality of light (i.e. if it is being shaded by other plants). If shaded it can stim growth if the plant is shade-intolerant. In C3 plants, CO2 levels are relatively low in leaves when photosynthesis is active during the DAY, when stomata are OPEN. At night stomata close and CO2 levels in leaves increase due to respiration. In CAM plants, stomata closed during day but photosynthesis proceeds because CO2 supplied by metabolic conversion of malic acid

marsupials

Marsupials have a brief gestation and *give birth to tiny, embryonic offspring* that complete development while attached to the mother's nipples. The nursing young are usually housed in an *external pouch*. kangaroo

Cork

Mature cork cells are dead and have thick, waxy walls that protect the underlying tissues of the stem from water loss, physical damage, and pathogens.

medulla oblongata

Medulla oblongata controls breathing, heart rate ,and gastrointesitnal activity.

pheromones

Members of a particular animal species sometimes communicate with each other via pheromones, chemicals that are released into the external environment.

memory

Memory is the key to all associative learning. The brain must form a memory that connects the environmental feature or behavior with the outcome or else associative learning won't occur.

Mesenchyme

Mesenchymal stem cells are *multipotent* stromal cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types, including: *osteoblasts (bone cells), chondrocytes* (cartilage cells), myocytes (muscle cells) and adipocytes (fat cells).

Metaphysis

Metaphysis is the area of the bone which grows during childhood

microevolution

Microevolution typically refers to short term evolution (populations and species)

Microglial

Microglial: defenders of the CNS ;phagocytic cells

MTOC

Microtubule organizing center Only in plants Not visible Does what centrioles do= spindle appartus

migration

Migration is simply the flow of individuals from one population to another. Migration can introduce new alleles to the population. Over time, populations will equilibrate meaning that variation will eventually decrease.

Breakdown of mRNA

Molecules of mRNA do not remain intact forever. Enzymes in the cytoplasm break them down, and the timing of this event is an important factor regulating the amounts of various proteins that are produced in the cell. Long-lived mRNAs can be translated into many more protein molecules than short-lived ones. Prokaryotic mRNAs tend to have much shorter lifetimes than eukaryotic mRNAs.

monocot seed, dicot seed

Monocots have only one seed leaf inside the seed coat. It is often only a thin leaf, because the endosperm to feed the new plant is not inside the seed leaf. Dicots have two seed leaves inside the seed coat. They are usually rounded and fat, because they contain the endosperm to feed the embryo plant.

Macrophage/Monocytes

Monocytes when circulating in blood Once enter a tissue and differentiate it becomes macrophage.

monotremes

Monotremes are basal mammals that lay eggs (Prototheria) instead of giving birth to live young like marsupials (Metatheria) and placental mammals (Eutheria). The only surviving examples of monotremes are all indigenous to Australia and New Guinea the platypus and four species of echidnas

Bird

Most of the yolk in the bird is not involved in cleavages. Instead, the cleavages occur in a blastula that consists of a flattened, disk-shaped region that sits on top of the yolk. This is called a *blastodisc.* When gastrulation occurs, invagination occurs along a line called *the primitive streak.* As cells migrate into the primitive streak, the crevice formed becomes an elongated blastopore.

Stratum corneum

Most superficial layer of the epidermis, characterized by dead *keratinized* squamous cells surrounded by lipids *lamellar granulues* makes it water repellent 25-40 layers of dead cells

urea

Most terrestrial animals and many marine species secrete urea. The advantage is that urea has very *low toxicity.* The disadvantage is that it requires *tremendous amounts of energy*

multifactorial inhertiance

Most traits are controlled by multiple genes. Mutations in two different genes can give the same phenotype. Two genes affecting the trait can show: independence (no interaction) redundancy complementarity (mutual epistasis) epistasis suppression (another specialized case of epistasis)

myoglobin curve

Myoglobin curve = hyperbolic, Hemoglobin curve = sigmoidal. Myoglobin has higher affinity for O2 than hemoglobin. Myoglobin has no change in O2 binding over a pH range.

Myoglobin and hemoglobin curve shapes

Myoglobin: hyperbolic Hemoglobin: sigmoidal Bohr effect * decrease in pH(increase in acidity) decreases the affinity to O2 (enhances O2 release)

nitrogen fixing bacteria

N2 into ammonium root nodules of legumes

NO/YES implantation

NO IMPLANTATION: (negative-feedback on AP from ↑e+p) terminates production of FSH + LH (due to ↓GnRH from hypothalamus) → Corpus luteum (no longer maintained by LH) disintegrates → corpus albicans, no estrogen + progesterone → endometrium shed during menstruation's flow phase. IMPLANTATION: If implantation occurs → embryo (placenta) secretes chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) → maintain corpus luteum → Production of e + p remain high → endometrium stays → HCG is later replaced by progesterone from placenta.

zone of depolarization

Na+ influx during the rising phase creates an electrical current that depolarizes the neighboring region of the axon membrane. action potential

the primary solutes affecting osmolarity in kidneys

NaCl and urea

Interferon

Neighboring cells to produce proteins defend against virus; block against cell-to-cell viral infection, slow down infection.

NEt diversification

Net diversification = speciation - extinction ▪ if speciation >> extinction = speciation explosion ▪ if extinction > speciation = total extinction of the group ▪ Often times, rates of speciation and extinction are pretty close

interneurons (association neurons)

Neurons in the brain or ganglia integrate (analyze and interpret) the sensory input. The vast majority of the neurons in the brain are interneurons (association neurons), which form the local circuits connecting neurons in the brain. A vast majority of nerves (~99%) are interneurons

motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that extend out of the processing centers trigger output in the form of muscle or gland activity. These are called motor (efferent) neurons.

relative number of leukocytes (WBC)

Never Let Monkeys Eat bananas Never= Neutrophils () Let=Lympho Monkeys=mono/macro Eat=Eosino Banana=basophil(mast cells)

Early earth air contain

No O2 CO2, H2O, CO, H2, N2, and small quantities of NH3 H2S CH4

glial cells

Non-neuronal cells in the NS ▪ Nissl bodies are areas of the rough ER that are involved in neuron protein synthesis. ▪ Glia sometimes function in replenishing certain groups of neurons and in transmitting information. ▪ Glial cells vastly outnumber neurons.

Norepinephrine

Norepinephrine is an excitatory neurtornasmiter in the autonomic nervous system, a branch of the PNS.

northern blot

Northern blots are used to analyze length of RNA fragments. Steps: ◦ 1) Run RNA on gel ◦ 2) transfer to membrane ◦ 3) hybridize with radioactive probe

Karyokinesis

Nuclear division (cytokinesis=physical cell division)

Ozone depletion

O2 + UV in atmosphere -> O3 is ozone which absorbs UV radiation, preventing it from reaching surface of earth (UV damages DNA). CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) enter upper atmosphere and break down O3.

rain shadow

On the other side of the high mountain, there is little precipitation,and the dry descending air also absorbs moisture

from casparian strip to xylem

Once through endodermis,* apoplast* pathway takes over to reach xylem by gradient. (which is the major conduction pathway via tracheae and vessels)

oncotic pressure

Oncotic pressure, or colloid osmotic pressure, is a form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins, notably albumin, in a blood vessel's plasma (blood/liquid) that usually tends to* pull water into the circulatory system. *It is the opposing force to hydrostatic pressure.

Melanin

One factor that determines skin color. It is a yellow to brownish black pigment found in some parts of the body such as the skin, retina, and hair.

spatial summation

One neuron is linked up to many other neurons, so it can receive *multiple postsynaptic potentials in rapid succession from different presynaptic neurons.* When this happens, postsynaptic potentials add up in effect to produce one main effect. ▪ EPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by DIFFERENT synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron can add together, an effect called spatial summation.

tissue

Organs of plants contain tissues; a tissue is a group of cells that perform a specialized function.

Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is characterized by low bone mass and structural deterioration of bone tissue. The weakness emerges from an imbalance in the process of bone maintenance—the destruction of bone material exceeds the rate of replacement.

4 types of cells in bones

Osteoprogenitor/Ostreogenic cells Osteoblasts (Bone Building) Osteocytes Osteoclasts

secretion

Other substances, such as toxins and excess ions, are extracted from body fluids and added to the contents of the excretory tubule. This is called secretion

Pancreas

Pancreas (exocrine and endocrine) has bundles of cells called* islets of Landerhans* ▪ Alpha cells secrete glucagon: catabolic, released when energy charge low; raises blood glucose levels. Stimulates liver to break down glycogen into glucose. ▪ Beta cells secrete insulin: anabolic, released when energy charge is high; lower blood glucose levels. Stimulates liver and most other body cells to absorb glucose. Provokes liver and muscles to turn glucose into glycogen and fat cells to turn glucose into fat.

Paracrine Autocrine Endocrine Exocrine

Paracrine: a cell signals to other cells in its surrounding vicinity. (blood clotting factors and tissue healing) Autocrine: send extracellular signals to themselves. (WBC=release factors that stimulate themselves) Endocrine: when hormones are secreted into the blood.. travel throughout the body. (picked up by a complementary target receptor) (Epinephrine, norepinephrine) Exocrine: secreted from glands through a duct (sweat, salivary, mammary glands, and some pancreas and liver func)

5 types of plant cells

Parenchyma cells Collenchyma cells Scherenchyma cells

certainty of paternity

Parental care involves significant costs, including energy expenditure and the loss of mating opportunities. Certainty of paternity (discussed in evolution unit) plays a big role in the mating relationships of females and males.

sutures

immovable joints that holds together the bones of the skull

geographic mosaic theory of evolutoin

Pattern of coevolution doesn't have to be the same everywhere. geographic structure of populations is central to coevolution

photoreceptor

Photoreceptor cells synapse to bipolar cells → ganglion cells → axons of ganglion cells bundle to optic nerve.

producers

Plants are the main producers on land whereas in water, the producers are mainly photosynthetic unicellular protists and cyanobacteria (collectively called phytoplankton).

digestions in plants and fungi

Plants have no digestive system, but intracellular processes similar to animals do occur intracellular & extracellular digestion

ground substance

a sticky, jelly fluid that is made of glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans

organ

Plants, like most animals have organs comprised of different tissues, which in turn are composed of one or more cell types. An organ consists of several types of tissues that together carry out a particular function.

plasmodial slime molds

Plasmodial slime molds: grow as single, spreading mass (*plasmodium*) feeding on decaying vegetation; when no food or desiccation=> stalks bearing spore capsules form => haploid spores released from capsule germinate into haploid amoeboid/flagellated cells, fuse to form diploid cells => grow into plasmodium; not mutualistic with others.

blind spot

Point at which optic nerve exits is called the blind spot (no photoreceptors here)

pollination

Pollination of many kinds of flowers occur as the result of coevolution of finely-turned traits between flower and pollinators.

Cenozoic > mesozoic > paleozoic> precambrian

Precambrian: invertebrates, Minerva, fungi Pales: land vertebrates, land plants, fish, algae Meso: dinosaurs appeared The

DNA replication in Eu/Pro

Pro: circular, double stranded DNA; start at ori and end at ter; bidirectional replication Eu: linear, multiple chromosomes; replicate in diff ori spots and extend to the telomere

Fibroblast

Produce extrracellular fibers and ground substance of connective tissue Make collagen as well

translation elongation

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes 1) Entry of second tRNA into A site. 2) Amino acid bound to tRNA in P site bonds to amino acid bound to tRNA in A site. 3) Ribosome moves down 3 more nucleotides. All tRNAs shift down one site. When the tRNA moves from the P to the E site, the tRNA in the E site gets released. The growing polypeptide remains in the P site. 4) Repeat steps 1-3 to grow the polypeptide chain.

translation initiation - Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes: 1) Small subunit binds to one of the many *shine-dalgarno* (AUG + few other nucleotides) sequences on the mRNA transcript. There are *multiple translation initiation sites.* 2) Once found, the large ribosomal subunit and the charged initiator tRNA (carrying *n-formylmethionine* =fMET) binds. A polysome is a single mRNA molecule bound by multiple ribosomes.

protist

Protists are a diverse collection of mostly unicellular eukaryotes. They are difficult to characterize because of this. *Most are unicellular.*

Molllusks, arthropods, annelids, nematode, platyhelminthes

Protostomes

protostomes

Protostomes have spiral, determinate cleavages. Solid masses of the mesoderm split and form the coelom. The blastopore turns into the mouth

Cnidaria

Protozoa and Hydra oDirect with environment: large surface areas and every cell is either exposed to environment or close to it simple diffusion of gases directly with outside environment (e.g. flatworms). Small animals only.

proximate questions and causes

Proximate questions concern the immediate reason for a behavior—how it is triggered by stimuli (environmental cues that cause a response), what mechanisms play a role, and what underlying genetic factors are at work. Proximate causes are answers to such questions about the immediate mechanism for a behavior.

Depurination

Purine spontaneously leaves the deoxyribose sugar it was bound to.

K-selected population

R-selected population - Rapid exponential population growth, numerous offspring, fast maturation, little postnatal care. Generally found in rapid changing environments affected by density independent factors. Characterized by opportunistic species. (i.e. bacteria)

Mitochondria in RBC, heart, or liver

RBC do not have mitochondria and DNA Heart and liver have larger and more numerous mitochondria be/c high energy requirements

transcription termination

RNA polymerase reaches special sequences that signals for the end of transcription. RNA polymerase will then release the DNA strand from itself.

2) reabsorption_proximal tubule

Reabsorption in the *proximal tubule* is critical for the recapture of ions, water, and valuable nutrients from the huge volume of the initial filtrate. ▪ *NaCl gets reabsorbed.* Epithelial cells pump Na+ into interstitial fluid,and it drives the passive transport of Cl-. ▪ *Glucose, amino acids, and K+ ions are reabsorbed* through active or passive transportation from the filtrate → interstitial fluid → peritubular capillaries. ▪ *Water gets reabsorbed *through passive transport. ▪ Processing of filtrate in proximal tubule*help remains constant pH in body fluids:* Cells in transport epithelium secrete H+ and NH3 into the tubule, which then combines to form NH4+ in the tubule. The more acidic the filtrate is, the more ammonia the cells secrete into the tubule. Proximal tubules also reabsorb the buffer HCO3 - (bicarbonate) from the filtrate, contributing further to balance pH.

How does cooperation evolve? Why should natural selection favor altruism in unrelated individuals?

Reciprocal altruism: altruistic behavior can be maintained evolutionarily if individuals sequentially exchange acts of altruism • it may be beneficial to help an individual (even if they aren't your relative) if the favor will be returned

redundancy

Redundancy results when two genes have the same function and only one gene is necessary for a normal phenotype. ▪ The only way a recessive phenotype can be seen is if the genotypes of both individual genes are homozygous recessive. ▪ F2 generation would produce a *15:1 *dominant:recessive frequency.

DNA polymerase repair activity

Removes wrong base by 3'-5' exonuclease activity, replaces it with right one, and resumes DNA synthesis

Renin and angiotnesin

Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, and later angiotensin I get converted to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a vasoconstrictor and its production increases blood pressure. It also stimulates aldosterone, and make people more thirst..

rods

Rods detect low intensity illumination, are important in night vision, and do not detect color. Rod pigment *rhodopsin *is struck by photons from light, causing hyperpolarization transduction into neural action potential sent to brain.

Cardiac cycle

SA(sinoatrial;pacemaker) -> AV (atrioventricular; send delay impulse to ventricles) -> Bundle of His -> Purkinje fibers

SAME

SA: sensory afferent ME: motor effernt =DAVE: Dorsal afferent ventral efferent

SDS PAGE

SDS page is a detergent used to denature proteins into their primary form and to "decharge" the proteins. When the proteins are ran through gel electrophoresis, then they will only be separated by size, without having to worry about charge. ▪ Smallest proteins travel the longest; largest proteins travel the shortest.

male reproduction system

SEVEnUP seminiferous tubules epididymis Vas deferens Ejaculatory duct Urethra Penis

satellite cells

Satellite cells surround the neuron cell bodies in the ganglia. Ganglia are clusters of neuron cell bodies.

Scherenchyma cells

Scherenchyma cells have *thick secondary cell walls* usually strengthened with *lignin, *the main chemical component of wood. They cannot elongate and are thus found only in regions of the plant that have stopped actively growing in length. When mature, most scherenchyma cells are dead. Their cell walls form a rigid "skeleton" that supports the plant.

Tight junction

Seal the spaces between cells and prevent cell leakage

Carotene

Second factor that determines skin color. It is a yellow pigment found mainly in the stratum corneum and the fat cells of the hypodermis. It is derived from foods such as carrots.

Secondary xylem

Secondary xylem makes up the *wood* of a plant. Over the years, a woody stem gets thicker and thicker, as its vascular cambrium produces layer upon layer of secondary xylem. The cells of the secondary xylem have thick walls rich of* lignin* , giving wood its characteristic hardness and strength.

afferent neurons

Sensory information reaches CNS along PNS neurons designated as afferent neurons

other cost of sex

Sex (recombination) scrambles genotypes, disrupting favorable combinations; asexual reproduction preserves advantageous genotypes. Risk of sexually transmitted disease

Synapomorphies

Shared traits derived from a *common ancestor*

simple twitch

Simple twitch is the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus.

differential reproduction

Since the environment can't support unlimited population growth (there are limited resources) and individuals compete for survival, not all individuals get to reproduce to their full potential. • Continuing on the example, green beetles tend to get eaten by birds and survive to reproduce less often than brown beetles do.

Mesoderm

Skeleton muscles gonads kidney and circulatory system

Venules

Small blood vessels that lead back to veins; very thin and porous; drain blood from capillary bed -> venules combine to veins

Arrector Pili

Smooth muscles that connect hair follicles to the papillary layer of the dermis.

Hermaphrodites

Some species that have both functional male and female gonads Ex) hydra and earthworm

southern blot

Southern blots are used to analyze the length of restriction fragments of DNA. ▪ Steps: 1) cut DNA with restriction enzyme 2) run on gel 3) Transfer DNA to membrane 4) hybridize with radioactive probe

Spermatogenesis

Sperm production occurs @Seminiferous tubules

Arthropods - circulatory, excretory

Spiders, insects Open circulatory system: pump blood into internal cavity called hemocoel(or sinuses) which contain interstitial fluid (hemolymph) -Maldivian tubes are used to dispose of nitrogen waste -*solid Uric acid crystals are later transported to the intestine to be expelled with the solid waste of digestion

Spongy Bone

Spongy (=cancellous=trabecular) bone is less dense and consists of an interconnecting lattice of bony spicules called *trabeculae*. Filled with *red bone marrow*, which is the site of RBC development. ◦ Most of the Ca2+ in body is stored in bone matrix as *hydroxyapatite.* ◦ Bones can be made from a combination of compact and spongy bone.

gap junction

Spreads contraction to surrounding cardiac muscles via electrical synapses made from gap junctions

cohesion tension hypothesis

States that transpiration and water cohesion pulls water from roots to shoots the *negative pressure on leaf* pulls water in the xylem into the leaf. The transpirational pull on xylem sap is transmitted from leaves to roots. water's adhesion and cohesion help offset the gravity and make it possible to pull a column of xylem sap.

Ethylene

Stimulate fruit ripening

Name 5 layers of epidermis

Stratum basale; Stratum spinosum; Stratum granulosum; Stratum lucidum; Stratum corneum

Stratum basale also called

Stratum germinativum

Secondary succession

Succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil. Secondary succession occurs where a disturbance has cleared away an existing community but left the soil in tact

Sudoriferous Glands

Sweat glands which are located in the dermis with their ducts opening onto the epidermis. They consist of the eccrine and apocrine glands.

Protobionts

System that are considered to have possibly ben the precursors to prokaryotic cells . An aggregate of abiotically produced organic molecules surrounded by a membrane or a membrane like structure Inorganic(earliest) > organic > protobionts

t suppressor cells

T suppressor cells serve to town down the T cell response to self cells or following an infection.

junk nucleotide sequence of a telomere

TTAGGG

termperate broadleaf forests

Temperate broadleaf forests grow throughout midlatitude regions, where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large trees. • In the Northern hemisphere,* deciduous trees* characterize temperate broadleaf forests. ▪ very cold in the winter to very hot in the summer. ▪ Annual precipitation is relatively high and usually evenly distributed throughout the year as rain or snow. • a growing season of 5 to 6 months and a distinct annual rhythm. Trees drop their leaves and become dormant in late autumn, preventing water loss and then produce leaves in the spring. ▪ The soil is rich in organic and organic nutrients due to leaf shed. ▪ Vertical stratification: plants and animals live on ground, low branches, and treetops. Many mammals hibernate through cold winter.

temperate grasslands

Temperate grasslands have some characteristics of tropical savannas, but they are mostly treeless and are found in regions of relatively cold winter temperatures. ▪ Precipitation with periodic severe droughts, is too low to support forest growth. ▪ Fires and grazing by large animals also inhibit growth of woody plants but do not harm the belowground grass shoots. ▪ Large grazing animals are characteristics of grasslands. ▪ The amount of annual precipitation influences the height of the grassland vegetation.

Hypothalamus

Temperature regulation

Oncotic pressure

Tends to pull fluid into capillary

Hydrostatic pressure

Tends to push fluid out of a capillary

tetrapods

Tetrapods, jawed vertebrates with two pairs of limbs, were the first vertebrates on land.

6)excretion

The *collecting duct *carries the filtrate through the medulla* to the renal pelvis*. Final processing of the filtrate by the transport epithelium of the collecting duct forms the urine. ▪ Hormonal control determines the extent to which the urine becomes concentrated. When kidneys are conserving water, aquaporin channels in the collecting duct allow H2O molecules to be reabsorbed passively. At the same time, the epithelium remains impermeable to salt and urea. This creates a hyperosomotic urine. In the inner medulla, the duct becomes permeable to urea. Since the urine is hyperosmotic, urea passively gets reabsorbed. When kidneys are producing dilute urine, the kidney actively reabsorbs NaCl without allowing water to follow by osmosis.

5) reabsorption_distal tubule

The *distal tubule *plays a key role in* regulating K+ and NaCl concentration and pH* of body fluid regulation. ▪ *K+ is actively secreted from the epithelium and into the distal tubule*. The amount secreted will regulate the K+ concentration in body fluids. ▪ *Water is passively reabsorbed.* ▪ *NaCl is actively reabsorbed from the filtrate*. The amount reabsorbed will regulate NaCl concentration in body fluids. ▪ Contributes to pH regulation by* actively secreting H+ into the tubule and actively reabsorbing HCO3*

pons

The *pons* is a relay center to allow communication between the cortex and the cerebllum.

A band

The A band is the* region of actin and myosin overlapping.* does *NOT reduce* during contraction

H zone

The H zone is the region containing *ONLY thick* filaments. reduce during contractoin

I band

The I band is the region containing *ONLY thin* filaments. reduce during contractoin

lymphocytes

The adaptive response relies on T and B cells(types of lymphocytes.) ▪ originate from *stem cells in the bone marrow.* Lymphocytes that go to the *thymus (an organ above the heart) mature* into *T* cells. Lymphocytes that *remain and mature in the bone marrow* develop as *B* cells. Lymphocytes of a third type *remain in the blood* and become *natural killer cells* active in innate immunity.

excretion

The altered filtrate (urine) leaves the system and the body. This is called excretion

amnion

The amnion is a membrane encloses the amniotic cavity, a fluid-filled cavity that cushions the developing embryo.

Primary production

The amount of solar energy converted to chemical energy (in organic compounds) by an ecosystem's producers for a given area and for a given time period Each day, Earth receives 10^19 kcal of solar energy. Only about 1% of this is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis.

autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system consists of neurons that carry signals to *smooth and cardiac muscles.* It is generally involuntary. 3 subdivisions: enteric, sympathetic, parasympathetic

axillary buds

The axillary buds, one in each of the angles formed by a leaf and the stem, are usually dormant. can be called lateral buds

Fate of lactate

The blood transports lactate to the liver The cori cycle allows the conversion of lactate back into glucose which can be carried back to the muscles Animals cannot convert fatty acids into glucose. We are missing some key enzymes. (No gluconeogenesis) however, the acetyl coa produced will enter the TCA cycle.

archentron

The center cavity formed by gastrulation. Completely surrounded by endoderm cells. Develops into the digestive tract of an animal

cerebellum

The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance and helps in learning and remembering motor skills. Controls muscular coordination.

chorion

The chorion is the outer membrane that surrounds the embryo. In birds and reptiles, it acts as a membrane for gas exchange. In mammals, the chorion implants into the endometrium. Later, the chorion forms the placenta—a blaned of maternal and embryonic tissues across which gases, nutrients, and wastes are exchanged.

chromosomal theory of inheritance

The chromosomal theory of inheritance states that genes occupy specific loci (positions) on chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis. Thus, it is the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization that accounts for inheritance patterns.

Stratum basale

The deepest layer of the epidermis characterized by cells undergoing rapid mitosis. *Melanin* produced here contains merkel cells and stem cells that divide to produce keratinocytes; attached by basement membrane

photic zone

The depth of light penetration, a maximum of 200m, marks the photic zone. the photic zone includes both the pelagic and benthic realms In these sunlit regions, photosynthesis by phytoplankton (microscopic algae and cyanobacteria) and multicellular algae provides energy and organic carbon for a diverse community of animals. • Zooplankton (small, drifting animals), fish, marine animals, and many other types of animals are abundant in the pelagic photic zone

conjugation

The direct transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another via a sex pilus

sociobiology

The discipline of sociobiology applies evolutionary theory to the study and interpretation of social behavior—the study of how social behaviors are adaptive and how they could have evolved by natural selection.

Inorganic nutrients

The distribution and abundance of photosynthetic organisms depend on the availability of inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.

cytoplasmic inheritance

The egg is much larger than the sperm. The egg contains all of the cytoplasm organelles when fertilized with a sperm. The sperm just carries over DNA. uniparental and the genes are NOT located in the nucleus. read next one "mitochondria"

dormancy

The embryo, surrounded by its endosperm food supply, becomes dormant; it will not develop further until the seed germinates. Dormancy is a key adaptation because it allows time for a plant to disperse its seeds and increases the chance that a new generation of plants will begin growing only when environmental conditions favor survival.

enteric division

The enteric division of the autonomic nervous system are active in controlling the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder.

epipheysis

The epipheysis is the is one of the rounded ends of the long bones of the body which makes up a joint.

amniotes

The evolution of amniotes, tetrapods with a terrestrially adapted egg, completed the transition to land. *reptiles, birds, and mammals * The major derived character of this clade is the amniotic egg. The amniotic egg contains specialized extraembryonic membranes <->anamniotes(no amnion eggs=fish,amphibians; waste removal via diffusion)

determined fate

The fate of a cell is said to be *determined *if its final form cannot be changed. Cells are more likely to be determined later in the developmental sequence than earlier.

Dermis - what type of tissue?

mesoderm; dense connective tissue

Polar body

The haploid egg that does not have ability to be fertilized. Small all with mostly nucleus because during M2, only gets little bit of cytoplasm

heartwood

The heartwood, in the center of the trunk, consists of the older layers of secondary xylem. These cells no longer transport water; they are clogged with resins and other compounds that make heartwood resistant to rotting.

MHC

The host protein that displays the antigen fragment on the cell surface is called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. Most body cells only have MHC II but antigen presenting cells have MHC II and I. infected cells present antigen fragment on MHC molecules -> antigen presentation -> appropriate T cell can then bind to the antigen fragment and the MHC.

hypothalamus

The hypothalamus constitutes the control center that includes the body's thermostat as well as the central biological clock.

semicircular canals

The inner ear also has *semicircular canals *that are *responsible for balance *(fluid + hair cells sense orientation + motion) also contains fluid and hair nerve endings. send info to the brain via the vestibular nerve to thell the brain about the movement.

summary on keratinocytes

The keratinocytes are pushed from stratum basale to the stratum corneum. As they rise, they accumulate keratin and die. When they die, they lose cytoplasm, nucleus, and other organelles. At the outermost layer of the skin, they slough off the body.

class sarcopterygii

The key derived character of the* lobe-fins* is a series of *rod-shaped bones in their muscular pectoral and pelvic fins.*

temperate zone

The latitudes between the tropics and the Arctic Circle in the north and the Antarctic circle in the south are called temperate zones. ▪ Generally, these regions have seasonal variations in climate and more moderate temperatures than the tropics or the polar zones.

Vein

The leaf's vascular tissue system is made up of a network of veins. A vein is a vascular bundle composed of xylem and phloem tissues surrounded by a protective sheath of cells called bundle sheath cells. The vein also functions as a skeleton that reinforces the shape of the leaf.

leaves

The leaves are the main photosynthetic organs in most plants, although green stems also perform photosynthesis. Most leaves consist of a flattened blade and a stalk, or *petiole*, which joins the leaf to a node of the stem.

sapwood

The lighter-colored sapwood is a younger secondary xylem that does conduct xylem fluid (sap).

sensitive period

The limited phase in an animal's development when it can learn certain behaviors

saltatory conduction

The mechanism for propagating action potentials along an axon is called saltatory conduction, because the action potential appears to "jump" along the axon from node to node.

search image

The mechanism that enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently is called a search image. It is the set of key characteristics that will lead an animal to the desired object. • A predator develops a knowledge of a prey type (i.e. looks, smell, etc.) and is "switched on" for that type.

depolarization

The membrane potential increases to positive value . approaching action potential

Epidermis

The most superficial layer of the skin. It is avascular. depends on dermis for oxygen and nutrients

motor system

The motor system consists of neurons that carry signals to skeletal muscles. Can be voluntary or involuntary.

craniates

The next transition after brain was the *development of a head *that consists of a brain at the anterior end of the dorsal nerve cord, eyes and other sensory organs, and a skull. These innovations opened up completely new way of feeding for chordates: active predation. *All chordates with a head are called craniates.*

monotremes

The only existing egg-laying mammals, known as monotremes, are echidnas (spiny anteaters) and the duck-billed platypus.

vertebrae

The origin of a backbone came next. The vertebrates are distinguished by a more extensive skull and a backbone, or vertebral column, composed of a series of bones called vertebrae. The vertebrae encloses the nerve cord.

cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex and is vital for perception, voluntary movement, and learning. The cerebral cortex is mostly made up of association areas—sites of higher mental activities (thinking). The inner portion is called the medulla.

fruit

The ovary develops into a fruit ▪ A fruit is a specialized vessel that houses and protects seeds and helps disperse them from the parent plant. ▪ Fruits are classified by their development: • simple: a single or several fused carpels • aggregate: a single flower with multiple separate carpels • multiple: a group of flowers called an inflorescence the flower drops its petals, and the ovary starts to grow. The ovary expands tremendously, and its wall thickens, (3) forming the fruit.

parasympathetic division

The parasympathetic division causes the opposite response of the sympathetic division and * promotes calming and a return to self-maintenance functions. *Major neurotransmitter is acetylcholine.

pelagic realm

The pelagic realm of the oceans includes all open water, and the substrate

Gene interactions

The phenotypic effect of an allelic combination at one gene is influenced by the allelic combination at another gene.

1) filtration

The porous capillaries and specialized cells of *Bowman's capsule* are permeable to water and small solutes, but not blood cells or large molecules. ▪ contains salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, nitrogenous wastes, and other small molecules. ▪ Concentration of these substances in the initial filtrate are the same as those in blood plasma.

background selection

The process by which an allele is lost because it is physically linked to a nearby deleterious allele. ◦ The hitchhiker in genetic hitchhiking, selective sweep, or background selection can be deleterious, neutral, or beneficial.

DNA cloning

The process of cutting the gene out of the larger chromosome, attaching it to a much smaller piece of carrier DNA, and allow microorganisms to make many copies of it. The result is selective amplification of a particular gene or DNA segment.

ligand-gated ion channel

The receptor protein that binds and responds to neurotransmitters is a ligand-gated ion channel, often called an ionotropic receptor ▪ Binding of the neurotransmitter to a particular part of the receptor opens the channel and allows specific ions to diffuse across the postsynaptic membrane. ▪ The result is a postsynaptic potential, a graded potential in the postsynaptic cell.

pus

The result in the of the increased blood flow is the accumulation of pus. a thick yellowish or greenish opaque liquid produced in infected tissue, consisting of *dead white blood *cells and bacteria with tissue debris and serum.

the seed

The seed consists of an embryo, a hard, resistant seed coat (formed from the integuments), and some kind of storage material, endosperm

epitope

The small, accessible portion of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor is called an epitope. A single antigen usually has several epitopes, each binding to a receptor with different specificity. Each B or T cell displays specificity for a particular epitope, enabling it to respond to any pathogen that produces molecules containing that epitope.

sodium potassium pump

The sodium-potassium pump plays a key role in establishing the resting potential. ▪ This pump uses the energy of ATP hydrolysis to actively transport out 3 Na+ and actively pump in 2 K+ into the cell.

1)contact

The sperm contacts the egg's *jelly coat (corona radiata in mammals), *triggering exocytosis of the sperm's* acrosome*.

spongy mesophyll

The spongy mesophyll consists of parenchyma loosely arranged below the palisade mesophyll. The numerous intercellular spaces *provide air chambers that provide carbon dioxide to photosynthesizing cells and oxygen to respiring cells.*

stems

The stems are the parts of the plant that are generally above ground and support and separate the leaves (thereby promoting photosynthesis) and flowers. A stem has *nodes* , the points at which leaves are attached, and *internodes*, the portions of the stem between nodes.

organ of corti

The structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, the auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane. The Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials.

sympathetic division

The sympathetic division corresponds to the* "fight-or-flight" response* . Major neurotransmitter is norepinephrine.

synergids

The synergids are part of the egg apparatus and are thought to help the pollen nucleus reach the egg cell for fertilization.

termination in Eukaryotes

The termination sequence is usually AAAAAAAAAAA... (3' poly-A) signal. When RNA pol hits this region, it stalls and detaches from the DNA template

thalamus

The thalamus is the main input center for sensory information going to the cerebrum. Takes in sensory information and relays it to the correct areas.

wobble effect

The third nucleotide in the codon is the least important. Usually, this position can vary yet still produce the same amino acid

reabsorption

The transport epithelium then reclaims valuable substances from the filtrate and returns them to body fluids. This is reabsorption

Hagfishes and lampreys

The two most primitive surviving craniates are hagfishes and lampreys(vertebrae). They have bilateral symmetry, triploblasts, eumetazoa, coelomate, two chambered heart circulatory system, complete brain, gills for breathing, and alimentary canal.

vascular cambrium

The vascular cambrium is a cylinder of meristem cells one cell thick between the primary xylem and primary phloem. Secondary growth adds layers of vascular tissue on either side of the vascular cambium, which increases root and stem thickness. -secondary xylem to its interior and secondary phloem to its exterior.

wood rays

The wood rays consist of parenchyma cells that transport water and nutrients, store organic nutrients, and aid in wound repair.

demographic transition

The world population is undergoing a change known as *a demographic transition*, a shift from zero population growth in which birth rates and death rates are high but roughly equal, to zero population growth characterized by low but roughly equal birth and death rates. ▪ Demographic transition comes with economic development. ▪ Reduced family size is the key to demographic transition.

Polar and equatorial cleavages

The yolk begins to affec the relative size of cells produced in the two hemispheres. This division is equatorial if the line is perpentiduclar to the line connecting the poles. The division can also be polar if the line is the same line connecting the poles.

Albumin

Thee most abundant and is importantly for maintaining. The blood's osmotic pressure

marine fish

Their body is hypotonic to the environment and water will naturally flow out. ▪ Gain of water and salt ions from eating food and *drinking seawater.* ▪ Osmotic water loss through gills and other pats of the body surface. ▪ Active excretion of salt ions from gills. ▪ Excretion of *concentrated urine *from kidneys. to prevent water loss

freshwater fish

Their body is hypertonic to the environment, meaning water will naturally flow in. ▪ Gain of water and some ions in food. NO DRINKING. ▪ Uptake of salt ions by gills.(active reabsorption) ▪ Osmotic water gain through gills and other parts of body surface. ▪ Excretion of *dilute urine* form kidneys.

species problem

There are problems with both definitions up above, which explains why there is a species problem. (1) Evolutionary species concept is not helpful for identification. (2) there are misunderstandings about identifying and defining species. so developed four ideas of species concepts

restriction enzyme

They are found in a wide range of bacterial species; they are used originally to cleave foreign DNA (self = methylated DNA) cut specific region usually use type II

Z lines and M lines

Thin filaments attach at *Z lines* which are located at the boundary of a single sarcomere, while thick filaments are anchored at *M lines* centered in the sarcomere.

Hemoglobin

Third contributor to skin color. It is responsible for carrying oxygen in the blood. Well oxygenated blood will give the skin a "ruddy" or pinkish complexion.

greenhouse gases

methane, carbon dioxide, ozone, and chlorofluorohydrocarbons

coenocytic

Those w/out septa are coenocytic (multi-nucleate). in fungi and protists. occurs when a fungal or protista cell divides its nucleus but does not undergo cellular division (cytokinesis)

Three phases of simple twitch

Three phases: ▪* Latent period* is the time between stimulation and onset of contraction. During this time, the action potential propagates along the sacrolemma and Ca2+ ions are released to open up the myosin-binding sites. ▪ Contraction ▪ Relaxation is the absolute *refractory period*. The muscle is now unresponsive to a stimulus during this time.

In absence of Iodine, which endocrine gland gets affected the most?

Thyroid T3 and T4 cannot be synthesized without Iodine.

Toll-like receptors

Toll-like receptors can detect a broad range of human pathogens, as well as a variety of other molecules that activate tissue damage, by a process called pattern recognition. These receptors initiate the innate and the adaptive immune response.

tonus

Tonus is the unconscious low level contraction of your muscles while they are rest. It is a state of partial contraction. ▪ Your muscles are never completely relaxed. ▪ This is what makes your muscles feel somewhat firm while you are resting and not intentionally tensing them.

transduction

Transduction allows genetic recombination in bacteria through an opportunity in a phage's replication cycle. When a phage is replicating within a host bacterium, some of the host's genetic information is enclosed within the phage capsid and can therefore be subsequently transferred to another bacterium.

transformation

Transformation involves the incorporation into a host cells genetic makeup through uptake of naked DNA in the surrounding environment.

actin

micro filaments

Transverse diffusion

Transverse diffusion (A), also called a flip-flop, occurs when a phospholipid moves from the exterior bilayer to the interior, or vice versa. Transverse diffusion is much less likely than lateral diffusion because of the polar/non-polar interaction that would have to occur due to the movement of the phospholipid through the hydrophobic core of the bilayer.

tropical forests

Tropical forests occur in equatorial areas where the temperature is warm and days are 11-12 hours long year-round. • Rainfall in these areas is quite variable, and this variability generally determines the vegetation that grows in a particular tropical forest.

tropical rain forests

Tropical rain forests are found in very humid equatorial areas where rainfall is abundant (200-400 cm per year). It is the most diverse of all biomes, harboring enormous numbers of different species. • The forest contains different layers that provide many habitats: a closed upper *canopy*, 1-2 layers of lower trees, a shrub understory, and a sparse ground layer of plants. • Because of the closed canopy, little sunlight reaches the forest floor. • *Epiphytes* are plants that grow commensally on other plants (like vines).

tundra

Tundra covers expansive areas of the Arctic between the taiga and polar ice. ▪ The climate is often extremely cold, with little light for much of the autumn or winter. ▪ The arctic tundra is characterized by *permafrost*, continuously frozen subsoil—only the upper part of the soil thaws in the summer. ▪ The arctic tundra may receive as little precipitation as some deserts. But poor drainage, due to the permafrost, and slow evaporation keep the soil continually saturated. ▪ Permafrost prevents the roots of plants from penetrating very far in the soil, which is one factor that explains the absence of trees (extremely cold temperatures and high winds are other factors that contribute to this) ▪ During the brief, warm summers, when there is nearly constant daylight, plants grow quickly and flower in a rapid burst. ▪ High winds and cold temperatures create plant communities called *alpine tundra* on very high mountaintops at all latitudes, including the tropics. There is no permafrost beneath alpine tundra. ▪ Animals of the tundra withstand the cold by having good insulation that retains heat.

mammales

Two features—*hair and mammary glands that produce milk*—are the distinguishing traits of mammals. They are *bilateral, triploblasts, eumetazoa, coelomates, have four chambered hearts, complete brains, lungs, and alimentary canals.* endothermic; hair provides insulation efficient repsiratory and circulatory systems differentiation of teeth =eating many kinds of foods other than the platypus, all mammals are born rather than hatched. embryo remain inside the mother: placenta three major linages of mammals: monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians

Seminal vesicles

Two glands, during ejaculation secrete into vas deferens: provide* mucus (liquid for sperm), fructose as ATP, and prostaglandins (stimulate uterine contractions that help sperm move into uterus).*

lymphatic system

Two main functions: *to return tissue fluid back to the circulatory system and to fight infection.* When your body fights infection, lymph that circulates around carries microbes, parts of microbes, and their toxins picked up from infections. Macrophages that reside there engulf the invaders as part of the innate immune response. Lymph nodes fill with huge numbers of defensive cells, causing the tender *"swollen glands"* in your neck and armpits that your doctor looks for as a sign of infection.

ultimate questions and causes

Ultimate questions address why a particular behavior occurs. As a component of the animal's phenotype, behaviors are adaptations that have been shaped by natural selection. The answers to ultimate questions, or ultimate causes, are evolutionary explanations—they lie in the adaptive value of the behavior.

Protozoan - circulatory, excretory

Unicellular Movement of gas and nutrients by simple diffusion within the cell All cells are in contact with the external- passive simple diffusion through the cell membrane of water soluble waste Some freshwater protozoan has a contractile vacuole (water excretion by active transport)

Vagus nerve

Vagus nerve innervates SA node SA beats faster than heartbeat, but beacause SA is innervated by vagus nerve(parasympathetic).... the beats are slower.

ARterioles

Very small, wrapped in smooth muscle, constrict/dilate to *regulate BP* and reroute blood - major determinant of pressure

virtrous humor

Virtrous humor is the clear gel that fills the space between the lens and retina of the eyeball. (basically fills eyeball) It is jelly like, maintains eye shape and optical properties.

Occipital lobe

Vision

Vitamic C deficit = Scurvy

Vitamin is an important cofactor for an enzyme that is essential in collagen processing. symptoms: teeth falling out, scars not forming/opening up = defective collagen

villi

Wall has finger-like projections called villi that increase the surface area for greater digestion/absorption. Each villi has a* lacteal* (lymph vessel surrounded by capillary network; both fxn for *nutrient absorption*). Villi have microvilli, more SA. i.Goblet cells ii.ph ~6 mainly due to bicarbonate ions secreted by pancreas

transmembrane

Water can also enter the vacuoles (which are within the cytoplasm), then pass from vacuole to vacuole.

Prevention Osteoporosis

Ways to prevent osteoporosis: ▪ Weight-bearing exercise such as walking or running strengthens bones. ▪ Strong bones also require an adequate intake of dietary calcium and enough vitamin D which are both essential to bone replacement. ▪ Estrogen the hormone can help maintain bone density.

nephron

Weaving back and forth across the renal cortex and medulla are the nephrons, the functional units of the vertebrate kidney. ▪ 85% of the nephrons are *cortical nephrons*, which reach only a short distance into the medulla. ▪ The remainder, the (juxtamedullary nephrons(, extend deep into the medulla. They are essential for production of urine that is hyperosmotic to body fluids, a key adaptation for water conservation in mammals

western blot

Western blots are used to analyze lengths of protein fragments. Steps: ◦ 1) run protein on gel ◦ 2) transfer to membrane ◦ 3) probe blot with antibody

terminal buds

When a plant stem is growing in length, the terminal bud (also called the apical bud), at the apex (tip) of the stem has developing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes. In many plants, the terminal bud produces hormones that inhibit the growth of axillary buds, a phenomenon called *apical dominance *(more on this later).

nerves,

When bundled together, the axons of neurons form nerves, a communication line consisting of a bundle of neurons tightly rapped in connective tissue. ▪ A plexus is a network of nerve fibers. ▪ The *vagus nerve* is one very important parasympahetic nerve that innverates many of the thoracic and abdominal viscera.

double fertilization

When the pollen tube enters the embryo sac through the micropyle, one sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a diploid zygote. The nucleus of the second sperm fuses with both polar nuclei, forming a triploid nucleus. The triploid nucleus divides by mitosis to produce the endosperm, which provides the nourishment for subsequent development of the embryo and seedling. The fertilization of the egg and the polar nuclei each by a separate sperm nucleus is called double fertilization.

trade-offs involved in foraging selection

Whenever an animal has food choices, there are trade-offs involved in the selection. The amount of energy required to capture the prey for the consumption, the danger of being eaten by a predator, and the nutritional value of the prey varies. • Predation is one of the most significant potential costs for foraging. Studies show that foraging in groups reduces the individual's risk of predation.

contraction of muscle (strength)

Whereas contraction of a single skeletal muscle fiber is a brief all-or-none twitch, *contraction of a whole muscle is graded*; you can voluntarily alter the extend and strength of its contraction. ▪ The nervous system produces graded contractions of whole muscles by varying *(1) the number of muscle fibers that contract and (2) the rate at which muscle fibers are stimulated.* ▪*The strength of a contraction of a single muscle fiber cannot increase but the strength of overall contraction can be increased by recruiting more muscle fibers.*

bundle of muscle fibers

Within a typical skeletal muscle is a bundle of muscle fibers that run parallel to the length of the muscle.

-inner cell mass

Within the trophoblast, a bundle of cells called the inner cell mass (embryonic disk) clusters at one end and flattens into the embryonic disk. This is analogous to the blastodisk of birds and reptiles. A primitve streak develops, gastrulation follows, and development of the embryo and the extraembryonic membranes ensues.

Phosphate bufffer

Works primarily in the intracellular fluids

Bulk flow transport via the xylem

Xylem sap( water and dissolved minerals) is transported from roots to leaves by bulk flow. Bulk flow differs from diffusion. It is driven by differences in pressure potential, not solute potential. It occurs in hollow dead cells, not across the membranes of living cells. It moves the entire solution, not just water or solutes. It is much faster than diffusion

reflex.

You need to detect a change in the environment (a stimulus) and react to the change (a response) in a way that maintains homeostasis. When you do this without thinking, it is called a reflex.

estuary

a biome that occurs where a freshwater stream or river merges with the ocean.

cytokines

a broader class of proteins involved in self-defense the cells discharge cytokines, signaling molecules that modulate immune responses. Cytokines promote blood flow to the injury site or infection includes interferons, interleukins,...etc in many diff types of immune cells

Long interspaced elements (LINE)

a class of autonomous transposable elements that code for reverse transcriptase

Short interspaced elements (SINE)

a class of nonautonomous elements that do not code for reverse transcriptase.

Surfactants

a detergent that reduces the surface tension of the fluid within the infants lungs (prevent the cohesive properties of water) Once the alveoli are expanded, they tend to stay expanded and not colllapse under surface tension after each breath.

vegetative propagation

a form of asexual reproduction in plants

population

a group of individuals of a single species that occupy the same general area. ▪ These individuals rely on the same resources, are influenced by the same environmental factors, and are likely to interact and breed with one another.

Melatonin

a hormone that participates in regulation of biological rhythms.

somatic hypermutation

a key phenomenon of the protective response of the human immune system. -"intentionally" introduced into genes that are responsible for the eventual synthesis of antibodies. - Without mutated genes our immune systems would not be capable of successfully battling the wide variety of, and rapidly changing, assortment of invading pathogens.

hypothalamus

a major connection between the brain and endocrine hormonal control exerts most of its control via the pituitary gland located below thalamus

tunicates

a marine* invertebrate* animal, a member of the subphylum Tunicata, which is part of the Chordata, a phylum which includes all animals with dorsal nerve cords and *notochords.*

acrosome

a membrane-bound structure found at the anterior end of most sperm cells. the acrosome contains hyaluronidase, which is a hydrolytic enzyme that causes the breakdown dof the protective surfaces of the egg.

oval window

a memebrane bound opening which separates the middle ear from the inner ear trasfers vibrations from the stapes to the cochlea... vibratory signal is amplified

Gel eletrophoresis

a method to separate sequences of DNA, RNA, or proteins by their size and charge. ▪ Smaller fragments will travel further down the gel towards the positive side than the larger fragments, which will have a tougher time to move. ▪ The plate is positively charged, so negatively charged molecules will move faster down the plate.

amebocyte

a mobile cell in the body of invertebrates such as echinoderms, mollusks or sponges. They move by* pseudopodia* (a temporary protrusion of the cytoplasm-actin of an amoeba, serving for locomotion or the engulfment of food).

myosin

a motor protein whic motors along actin microfilaments

mesenteries

a network of fat and connective tissue that serves the digestive system through structural support, fat storage, and by providing a framework through which blood supply, nerves, and the lymphatics can reach various locations.

CAM plant

a plant that uses *crassulacean acid *metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in* arid* conditions. *CO2 entering open stomata during the night* is converted to organic acids(OAA and malate) which *release CO2 for the calvin cycle during the day, when the stomata are closed* Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce H2O loss).

Neutralization

a process in which antibodies bind to proteins on the surface of a virus and makes it impossible for the virus to infect the cell.

Bacteriorhodopsin

a protein used by Archaea, most notably by Halobacteria. It acts as a proton pump; that is, it captures light energy and uses it to move protons across the membrane out of the cell. The resulting proton gradient is subsequently converted into chemical energy.

troponin

a regulatory protein in skeletal muscle cells that prevents myosin from binding to actin in the muscle fiber

Promoter region

a sequence, usually found upstream of the gene region, that RNA polymerase and transcription factors bind to.

labor (three stages)

a series of strong uterine contractions ▪ 1. Cervix thins out and dilates, amniotic sac ruptures and releases fluids ▪ 2. Rapid contractions followed by birth ▪ 3. Uterus contracts and expels umbilical cord and placenta

haplotype

a set of alleles at diff loci on the same chromosome

cytokine

a set of over 20 different protein molecules always found in the blood. There are no cells in the system. With an infection, this system of molecules is activated, leading to a sequence of events on the surface of the pathogen that helps destroy the pathogen and eliminate the infection.

complement system

a set of over 20 different protein molecules always found in the blood. no cells in the system. Activation leads to *lysis of the cells.* Activation also can help *attract phagocytes *to these foreign cells. Functions in the inflammatory response as well as the adaptive defenses.

pleiotrophy

a single gene may exert effects on several different phenotypic characteristics

balanced polymorphism

a situation in which two different versions of a gene are maintained in a population of organisms because individuals carrying both versions are better able to survive than those who have two copies of either version alone. ex) sickle cell

tRNA

a special RNA molecule that serves as the intermediate between RNA and amino acids. Contains 2 sites: One site is attached to a specific amino acid. Another site has a special 3 letter sequence called an anticodon

escape and radiate coevolution

a species evolves a defense against enemies and is thereby enabled to proliferate into a diverse clade.

cryo-electron microscopy

a specific type of eletron microscopy where the sample is frozen in liquid nitrogen (cryogenic) kills the cell

mass extinction

a statistically significant departure from background extinction that result in a substantial loss of diversity. Five mass extinctions have been traditionally recognized: • Ordivician-Sularian (440 mya) • Denovian (360 mya) • Permian-Triassic (250 mya; biggest one) • Triassic-Jurassic (200 mya) • Cretaceous-Tertiary (65 mya)

disjunct distribution

a taxon with a disjunct distribution is one that has two or more groups that are related but widely separated from each other geographically. The causes are varied and might demonstrate either the expansion or contraction of a species range. timing and availability of land bridges can explain disjunct distributions

MicroRNAs

a type of short interfering RNAs ▪ MicroRNAs (miRNAs): forms a complex with a protein, then the protein-miRNA complex can bind to any complementary mRNA sequence. Binding can either degrade the target mRNA or block its translation. The process of miRNAs blocking translation is called *RNA interference.*

null allele

a version of a gene that completely lacks normal gene function

transduction

a virus depositing its DNA into a bacterial cell

Predation

a*. True predator*: kills and eats another animal. b. *Parasite*: spends most of its life living on host, host usually doesn't die until parasite complete one life cycle. c*. Parasitoid*: an insect that lays its eggs on host (insect or spider). After eggs hatch, larvae obtain nourishment by consuming host's tissues. Host eventually dies, but not until larvae complete development and begin pupation. d. *Herbivore*: animal that eats plants. *Granivores *are seeds eater (act like predators totally consume organism). *Grazers* (animals that eat grasses) and *browsers* (eat leaves) and eat only part ->weaken it in process.

rhizopoda

a. *Rhizopoda*: amoebas that move by extensions of their cell body called *pseudopodia*; encircle food, phagocytosis.

Bulk flow of air into and out of the lungs

a. Inhalation - diaphragm (under lungs) and intercostal muscles (between ribs) contract/ flattens; increase in volume / decrease in pressure in lungs bulk flow of air into lungs. b. Exhalation - passive process; decrease in lung volume/ increase in air pressureair rushes out; diaphragm relaxes and expands

Sperm

a. Sperm head: haploid (23 chromosomes); at tip is acrosome (a lysosome containing enzymes [hyaluronidase] which are used to penetrate egg-originates from Golgi body vesicles that fused together). Only nuclear portion of sperm enters the egg. b. Midpiece: flagellum (9 + 2 microtubule array), lots of mitochondria. c. Tail: remainder of flagellum; sperm is propelled by whiplike motion of tail and midpiece.

stomach function

a.*Storage *- accordion-like folds allow 2-4 liters of storage b.*Mixing* - mixes food w/ H2O and gastric juice -> chyme c.*Physical breakdown *- muscles break food; d.*Chemical breakdown* - *pepsin* (secreted by Chief cells) digests proteins; *HCl* denatures proteins & kills bacteria e.*Controlled release *- chyme -> small intestine; controlled by *pyloric sphincter*

Adaptations for survival on land:

a.*diploid sporophyte*: provide two copies against genetic damage that plants were more susceptible to once out of water. b. *Cuticle*: waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss) c. *Vascular system* reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) => formation of specialized tissues. Two groups of vascular tissues evolved: d. *pollen*:In primitive plant divisions flagellated sperm require water. In advanced division (coniferophyta and anthophyta), sperm is packaged as pollen (wind). e. *flower=Anthophyta*: gametophytes are enclosed (protected) inside an ovary. f. Adaptations (in coniferophyta + anthophyta) of seasonal variations in availability of water and light. Some are *deciduous* Others like desert plants will germinate, grow, flower, and produce seeds rapidly in brief periods of rain.

-trophoblast

accomplishes implantation on endometrium. It produces *human chorionic gonadotropin,* which maintains progesterone production of the corpus luteum (which, in turn, will maintain the endometrium). Later, the trophoblast forms the *extraembryonic membranes* that will eventually turn into the placenta. extraembryonic membrane includes amnion, yolk sac, chorion, and allantois

G protein coupled receptor *GPCR*

activated by an extracellular ligand, the receptor undergoes a change which causes a G alpha molecule to swap out a GDP for a GTP molecule. -> causes disassociation of the G beta-gamma complex. ... Adenylylate cyclase is turend on during GPCR activation to produce the 2nd msger.

forebrain

activities that include the processing of olfactory input (smells), regulation of sleep, learning, and any complex processing includes cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland

human chorionic gonadotropin

acts on the corpus luteum hormone from placenta:

telomerase

adds these simple repeat units to the chromosome 3' ends. -a class of reverse transcriptase -carries a small RNA template

telomere

adjacent repeats of simple DNA sequences (i.e. in humans the repeat sequence is TTAGGG). These repeats do not code for an RNA or a protein but nevertheless are important.

Merkel cells bound to

adjoining keratinocytes by desmosomes and have intermediate keratin filaments

norepinephrine and epinephrine

adrenaline-increases blood pressure -sympathetic response -fight or flight ◦ These hormones are catecholamines - they are water soluble, bind to receptors on target tissue membranes, and mainly act via a second messenger. ◦ Glycogen → glucose, vasoconstrictor to internal organs and skin but vasodilator to skeletal muscle, increased heartbeat

trade-offs

advantage of a change in a character is correleated with a disadvantage in other chracters

Serotonin

affecting hunger, mood, body T. released from enterochromaffin cells of the gastrointestianl tract.

coniferophyta

aka *gymnosperms *(naked-seeds): cone-bearing (pines, firs, spruces, junipers, redwoods, cedars); pollen-bearing male + ovule-bearing female cones; seeds produced in unprotected megaspores near surface of reproductive structure. Fertilization and seed development are lengthy (requires one to three years).

monophyletic

all can be traced back to one common ancestor a monophyletic taxon is defined as one that includes the most recent common ancestor of a group of organisms, and all of its descendents

*Algaelike (plant-like) protists*

all obtain energy by photosynthesis. All have chlorophyll a, some have others + accessory pigments. Mainly categorized via: form of carb used to store energy, # of flagella, makeup of cell wall Euglenoids, dinoflagellates, diatoms, brown algae, rhodophyta, chloryphyta

action potential

all or nothing Action potentials arise because of*voltage-gated ion channels* ▪ Once a certain membrane potential is experienced, the voltage-gated ion channels will open, causing further depolarization(reaching +55mV). positive feedback

extinction

all populations of a species have disappered, an irreversible situation

motor unit

all the skeletal muscle fibers asingle motor neuron acts on

synovial joints

allow for much more movment. most common filled with *synovial fluid *which acts as a lubricant

foramen ovale

allows blood to bypass pulmonary circulation by entering the left atria directly from the right atria since there is no gas exchange in fetal lung

Ductus venosus

allows blood to bypass the* liver*

Alternative splicing

allows different mRNA to be generated from same RNA transcript by selectively removing differences of an RNA transcript into different combinations. Each combination codes for a different protein product.

peripatric speciation

also known as peripheral isolation is a type of allopatric speciation where a small part of a population becomes isolated on the edges and forms a new species.

Waste products

ammonia for aquatic animals uric acid for birds, reptiles, and insects excretion happens through malphighian tubules for insects

intrasexual selection

among the opposite sex • *sexual dimorphism: *difference between males and females of the same species (color, body size, structures) •* sperm competition*: sexual selection after mating, sperm from multiple males compete for fertilization

intersexual selection

among the same sex • *Direct benefits* benefits that affect a particular female directly (food, nest, protection) • *Indirect benefits*: benefits that affect the genetic quality of a particular female's offspring. •* Sensory bias*: females choose males that have a characteristic that is similar in nature to a preference unrelated to reproduction.

middle ear

amplifies sound; tympanic membrane (eardrum) begins the middle ear and vibrates at the same frequency as incoming sound → ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes (transmit sounds from the air to the cochlea)

ribozyme

an RNA molecule capable of acting as an enzyme. ex) rRNA - catalytic function within ribosome

Behavior

an action carried out by muscles or gland sunder the control of the nervous system in response to an environmental cue. Collectively, behavior is the sum of an animal's responses to internal and external environmental cues.

phenetic species concept

an approach to determining species boundaries in which species are identified as clusters of *phenotypically similar* individuals or populations.

Doldrums

an area of very calm or very light winds at areas near the equator because the high temperatures cause water to evaporate and the most air rises. As warm equatorial air rises, it cools and releases much of its water content, creating the abundant precipitation typical of most tropical regions.

hybrid zone

an area where diverging populations encounter, reproduce, and form hybrid offspring. They can disappear as a result of selection against hybrids.

community

an assemblage of all the populations of organisms living close enough together for potential interaction.

clonal selection

an encounter with an antigen selects which lymphocyte will divide to produce a clonal population for a particular epitope 1)antigen is presented 2)once recognized by a B or T cell, it undergoes multiple cell division (clone) 3)some of clones become effector cells, and the remaining become memory cells

Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny

an idea that suggests embryonic stages of development of an organism repeat the evolutionary history of the species. This idea is not true, but is rather seen as an historical-side note.

diversifying coevolution

an increase in genetic diversity caused by the heterogeneity of processes across the range of ecological settings.

kinesis

an increase or decrease in movement, that does not have a specific direction.

species

an independently evoloving lineage (or the smallest unit of independent evoloving lineage)

integration

analysis and interpretation of the sensory signals and the formulation of the appropriate responses

root system

anchors it in the soil, absorbs and transports minerals and water, and stores food.

structure of the ear

answer nxt index

opsonization

antibodies bound to antigens on bacteria do not block infection, but instead present a readily recognized structure for macrophages or neutrophils.

dueterostome

anus first radial; indeterminate ( totipotent 8 cells; radius outward)

Gene duplication

any duplication of DNA that contains one or many genes

*protozoa (animal like)*

are heterotrophs; consume living cells or dead organic matter; unicellular eukaryotes

apocrine glands

are highly concentrated in regions of the body that contain an abundance of hair, such as the armpits or pubic area. secrete viscous secretions with an unknown function activated by the sympathetic nervous system

Osteocytes

are incapable of mitosis and *exchange nutrients and waste material with the blood. Living bone cells

triiodthyronine, T3 and thyroxine, T4

are necessary for the growth and neurological development in children and *increase basal metabolic rate in body.* - Provide a negative feedback on TSH, meaning high amounts of T3 and T4 will decrease production of TSH.

steroid hormone

are synthesized from cholesterol in the smooth ER. ▪ Includes: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, cortisol, aldosterone, esterogen, progesterone, and testosterone. ▪ They are lipid-soluble hormones, so they are able to diffuse through the plasma membrane. ▪ Steroid hormones attaches to a receptor in the cytoplasm or the nucleus. The hormone+receptor binds to an active portion of DNA and alters the transcription rate. This is an example of *direct stimulation *

Rhizomes

are underground stems that can sprout to produce new shoots and roots for the plant.

Immunodeficiency diseases

are when an immune response is defective or absent. These people are susceptible to frequent and recurrent infections (i.e. AIDS).

sieve plates

areas where cytoplasm of one cell each sieve-tube member

carbon dioxide is more soluble in the blood than oxygen is.

around 5% of carbon dioxide travels as dissolved CO2 in blood plasmsa. 10% of carbon dioxide can bind to hemoglobin and other plasma proteins and travel in the blood. the remainder, the most of CO2 travels in the blood in the form of bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) Red blood cells are packed with an enzyme known as *carbonic anhydrase *

Character displacement (niche shift)

as a result of resource partitioning, certain traits allow for more success in obtaining resources in their partitions -> reduces competition -> divergence of features (character displacement) such as different beak of birds on the same island. The mating calls of 2 species of frogs are different when they occupy the same island. On separate islands, the mating calls are the same.

twofold cost of sex

asexual lineages multiply faster than sexual lineages because all asexual individuals can reproduce. Sexual populations are reliant on the number of females.

Vegetative reproduction

asexual reproduction

transcription elongation

assembles RNA nucleotides using template strand. (coding strand)

tendons

attach muscle to bone

single-stranded DNA binding proteins

attach to the unwound DNA strands to prevent re-annealing of the DNA

phagocytes

attracted to injury by chemical gradients of complement, engulf pathogens and damaged cells.

outer ear

auricle/pinna (what we think of as the ear) and the auditory canal; direct sound into external auditory canal

Simple reflex

automatic 2 nerve (afferent/efferent) response to a stimulus controlled at the spinal cord.

Protists obtain their nutrition in a variety of ways:

autotroph (photosynthesis, algae) heterotroph (protozoans, eating bacteria and other protists... some are fungus-like and some are parasitic) mixotrophs (capable of both photosynthesis and heterotrophy)

Cartillage

avascular connective tissue (supplied with nutrients via diffusion) and it is softer and more flexible.

foraminifera

b.* Foraminifera:* aka forams, have tests (shells) usually made of *calcium carbonate* => sediments indicate oil deposit

denitrification

bacteria can convert nitrate or nitrite to atmospheric N2, and a small amount of N2O <-->nitrification

rho dependent

bacterial termination When a certain mRNA sequence is transcribed, a rho protein binds to the forming RNA transcript. When Rho binds, it unwinds DNA-RNA hybrid and causes RNA polymerase to stall and detach from the DNA.

rho independent

bacterial termination Intrinsic (rho-independent): two regions that have inverted repeats (GC rich) follow by A(U) repeats. make hairpin shape -RNA poly stops-terminate

Flowering plants: annuals, biennials, or perennials.

based on the length of their life cycle, the time of germination through flowering and seed production to death. •* Annuals*complete their life cycle in a single year or less (i.e. grains, legumes). •* Biennials *complete their life cycle in two years, with flowering and seed production usually occurring during the second year (i.e. beets, parsley, turnips) • *Perennials* are plants that live and reproduce for many years (i.e. trees, shrubs)

hypocotyl

becomes* young shoot* (Below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons)

Spermatogenesis

begins at puberty within seminiferous tubules of testes. Spermatogonia cells → (mitosis) primary spermatocytes → (meiosis) 2 secondary spermatocytes → (meiosis II) 4 spermatids.

altruism

behavior by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor

innate behavior (instinct)

behavior that is under strong genetic control and is performed in virtually the same way by all individuals of a species

zone of repolarization

behind the zone of depolarization(action potential) K+ outfllow causes neuron to go back to resting potential

Oogenesis

being during embryonic development; oogonia (fetal cells) → (mitosis) primary oocytes → (meiosis) and remain at *Prophase I until puberty* (one primary oocyte during each menstrual cycle-28days, stim'd by FSH) continue its development through remainder of meiosis I within follicle (protects and nourishes oocyte) → (completion of Meiosis I) secondary oocyte (most of cytoplasm) + polar body formed; now arrested at *metaphase II* until → ovulation

selective sweep

beneficial allele arises and goes to fixation, and because of tight linkage, many other loci go to fixation.

plasmodesmata

between mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells

Melanocytes found

between or beneath cells of stratum basale

"boom-and-bust" cycle

characterized by rapid exponential growth (boom) followed by time which population falls back to a minimal level (bust). ▪ May be caused by winter food shortages. ▪ May be due to predator-prey interactions.

savannas

biome dominated by grasses and scattered trees. ▪ The temperature is warm year around. Rainfall is low, it averages 30-50 cm per year, with dramatic seasonal variation. ▪ Poor soils and a lack of moisture inhibit the establishment of most trees. ▪ Subject to frequent fires caused by lighting or human activity. ▪ Many of the world's large herbivores and their predators inhabit savannas.

amniotes

birds reptiles and humans extraembryonic (outside the embryo) membrane develop : chorion amnion allantois

short interfering RNAs

block mRNA translation by altering the mRNA conformation or configuration before it gets to the ribosome.

Haversian systems

blood vessels and nerves pass through haversian canals

cnidarians

body walls 2 cells thick, therefore all cells in direct contact with either internal or external environment. Ex- hydra diffusion

ligament

bone to bone connector that strengthen joints

cartilaginous joints

bones that are attached by catilage that allow for little movemtn

movable joint

bones that move relative to each other

gray matter and white matter

brain: white in/ gray out spinal cord: white out/ gray in

glycogen

branched polymer of glucose (alpha with starch)) glycogen can be stored intracellularly polysaccharides can make more variety forms than polypeptides potential energy

Acid rain

burning of fossil fuels (e.g. coal) releases into air SO2 and NO2. When they react with water vapor -> sulfuric acid and nitric acid (HNO3) -> kills plants and animals when they rain to earth.

global climate change

burning of fossil fuels and forests increase CO2 in atmosphere. CO2 is part of a class of molecules called greenhouse gases, gases that can absorb heat, allowing less heat to escape back into space. The increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the *greenhouse effect*, an increase in global temperatures. The increase in global temperature leads to a rise in sea level by melting ice (affecting weather patterns).

How is stratum basale separated from dermis

by basement membrane (basal lamina) and attached by hemidesmosomes

apicomplexans

c. *Apicomplexans:* parasites of animals; *apical complex* (complex of organelles located at an end (apex) of the cell); no physical motility; form spores which are dispersed by hosts that complete their life cycle (malaria caused by *sporozoan*).

cAMP

cAMP levels are inversely related to glucose levels. If glucose is high, cAMP lvl is low. If glucose is low, cAMP lvl is high. cAMP binds to catabolite activator protein (*CAP*) and the CAP-cAMP complex will bind upstream of the promoter region to help attract RNA polymerase (increase the rate of transciprion when glucose lvl is low)

megasporangium

called* nucellus *produces *megaspore mother cell *→ (meiosis) → 4 haploid cells, one survives to become *megaspore *(female gametophyte generation). Megaspore →(mitosis) → one egg (in flowering plants) or two eggs (in conifers). One/two tissue layers (*integuments*) surround megasporangium. *Ovule* (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells);* Micropyle* is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.

eccrine gland

can be found over the entire surface of the human body and are especially abundant in areas such as the palms of your hands, your forehead and soles of your foot. most of the body. regulate temperature through perspiration(process of sweating) and eliminate urea

pluripotent stem cells

can give rise to all tissue types, but CANNOT give rise to an entire organism

Malignant melanoma

cancer of the melanocytes, rare but deadly *rapid metastization *survival rate is 50%

transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

captures electrons that are transmitted through a sample. see the internal structures of the sample ... has to cut the sample into slices (kill the cell)

scanning eletron microscopy (SEM)

captures how eletrons are scattered when they hit the sample. see the object in *3D*. good for viewing sample's surface

carcitonin vs. parathyroid hormone

carcitonin (produced in : lowers blood calcium = increase the activity of osteoblast/ decrease the activity of osteoclast. parathyroid hormone : opposite of carcitonin

abscisic acid

cause stomata to close. under dehydrating conditions, plants can produce the hormone abscisic acid and cause stomata to close.

peptic ulcers

caused by failure of mucosal lining to protect stomach -Ulcers can be caused by excess stomach acid or H.pylori as well

Epidermal water barrier established by

cell envelope and lipid envelope of terminally differentially keratinocytes

desmosomes

cell-cell attacehments bewteen adjeacent cells important in skin and mucosa part of the cadherin family of protein (cadherin=Ca+ + adherin.... cadherins rely on calcium to be able to function properly)

What happens in upper part of spinous layer

cells begin to produce keratohyalin granules having intermediate-associated proteins (filaggrin and trichohyalin)

multipotent stem cells

cells give rise to a limited range of cells within a tissue type.

kidneys influence the rate of red blood cell production

cells in the kidney produce the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) EPO stimulates stem cells in the bone marrow to increase production of Red blood cells

Stratum spinosum

cells start to look flattened...8-10 layers thick' lamellar bodies assembled and sent to granulosum while making granules held together by desmosome(keratin involving adhesion proteins) provide strength and flexibility

Non-placental internal development

certain animals (e.g. marsupials, tropical fish) have no placenta. There is limited exchange of food and oxygen between mother and young.

vertical column:

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx

interspecific conflict

conflict between species (predation, limited resources, parasitism)

intraspecific conflcit

conflict within a species (can be for resources, sexual selection) • Intraspecific interactions between members of the same species are influenced by disruptive (competition) and cohesive (reproduction and protection from predators and weather) forces.

intragenomic conflict

conflict within the genome (transposable elements, selfish genetic elements, replication of genes to the detriment of the organism)

vascular plants with seeds

coniferophyta and anthophyta *heterosporous* palnts produce two types of spores microspores&megaspores

coniferophyta

conifers sporophyte vascular wind-dispersed seeds

tendons

connect bones and muscles

fibrous joint

connect bones without allowing any movement lack a joint cavity. ex) suture, between ulna and radius, teeth from jaw bone

endosteum

connective tissue layer in between the cortical bone and cancellous bone (interior)

periosteum

connective tissue layer that sits on top of the cortical bone (Exterior)

Bone

connective tissue that is hard and strong, while elastic and lightweight. organic: collagens inorganic: hydroxyapatite *contains blood and nerves*

endomysium

connective tissue that wraps each individual muscle fiber.

DNA transposon (cut and paste)

conservative transposon is a transposable element that excises itself and moves to a new location.

thalamus

considered the relay center of the brain helps to route signals from one part of the brain to another. also in processing and relaying sensory signals that are coming from peripheral parts of the body to the papropriat ebrain center. wakefulness and sleep

trophoblast

consists of a double layer of cells a layer of tissue on the outside of a mammalian blastula, supplying the embryo with nourishment and later forming the major part of the placenta

palisade mesophyll

consists of parenchyma cells equipped with numerous *chloroplasts and large surface areas, specializations for photosynthesis.* Photosynthesis in leaves occurs primarily in this tissue.

aposematic coloration

conspicuous pattern or coloration of animals that warns predators that they sting, bite, taste bad, poisonous, or other wise to be avoided yellow/black color of bees .

wetlands

constitute a biome that is transitional between an aquatic ecosystem—either marine or freshwater—and a terrestrial one.

scavengers

consume dead animals directly (ex. Vulture, hyena, bacteria of decay)

Birth control pills

contain synthetic estrogen and progestin. (trigger negative feedback) Estrogen and progestin stops pituitary gland from releasing FSH and LH.

myofibrils

contains thin and thick filaments (actin and myosin) The myofibrils in muscle fibers are made up of repeating sections called sarcomeres, which are the basic contractile units of skeletal muscle.

What happens to cells after pushed into stratum granulosum and become flattened and diamond shaped?

continue to stratum corneum where they fallen; lose organelles and nuclei; keratohyalin granules turn into homogenous matrix that forms keratin

Humoral immune response

control of freely circulating pathogens occurs in the blood and lymph. In the humoral response, *antibodies* help neutralize or eliminate toxins in the blood and lymph.

cell mediated immune response

control of intracellular pathogen --> destroy the host cells cells with MHC --> present antigens --> helper T cell comes and bind --> release cytokine to clone/activate B and T cells(cytotoxic and helper) --> cytotoxic T cell kills the host cell (release toxic chemicals to kill)

homoplasy

convergent evolution when two distinct clades develop strikingly similar characteristics despite the fact that there is no common ancestor with the trait. no common ancester. tend to confuse/confound attempts to make phylogenetic trees.

kinship cooperation

cooperation among close relatives • inclusive fitness: sum of direct and indirect fitness • direct fitness: number of viable offspring • indirect fitness: increase in reproduction of relatives due to individual's behavior

monocot

corn in many monocots the endospoerm is the primary storage tissue cotyledon functions to transfer nutrients from endosperm to embryo

4)cortical reaction

cortical granules in the egg fuse with the plasma membrane. The secreted contents clip off the sperm-binding receptors and cause the fertilization envelope to form. This acts as a *slow block to polyspermy.*

disulfide bond

covalent bond exists in antibodies, insulin and hair

Meninges

cover around the brain and spinal cord

Cell types in stratum basale

cuboidal to columnar; mitotically active stem cells

ciliates

d. *Ciliates*: use cilia for moving and other functions; have specialized structures: mouths, pores, contractile vacuoles [H2O balance], two kinds of nuclei (large macronucleus and several small nuclei); most complex of all cells. E.g. *paramecium.*

What happens after cells continue through stratum corneum

dead cells reach surface and are shed; keratinocytes produce keratin layer

frontal lobe

decision making problem solving judgement attention/concentration

Mesoplagic

deep ocean not enough light for photosynthesis, minimal oxygen

fitness

defined as an organism's ability to survive and produce offspring.

species diversity

defined by two components: species richness, or the number of different species in a community, and relative abundance, the proportional representation of a species in a community.

Langerhans' cells

dendritic; antigen-presenting; interact with helper T cells of the immune system are macrophages

Reticular layer

dense connective tissue that is made up of collagen and elastic fibers provide strength and elasticity (stretch marks) Muscle attachment occurs in this thick dermal layer. Locations of blood vessels, sweat and oil glands

1)capaciation

destabilize the plasma membrane surrounding the head of the sperm, making the head more fluid which helps it prepare for fertilization, and makes the sperm hyperactive (with Ca+ influx, Faster and wiggle more) The area of the acrosomal cap is also so altered thereby that the acrosome reaction becomes possible.

Electromagnetic receptors

detect forms of electromagnetic energy such as light, electricity, and magnetism.

Thermoreceptors

detect heat and cold.

Nociceptors

detect pain.

determinate vs. indeterminate growth

determinate- cease growing after reaching a certain size indeterminate - continue to grow (allow a plant to continuously increase its exposure to sunlight, air, and soil)

macrophages

develop from monocyte antigen presenting cell dominate later stage of inflammatory reaction excrete cytokines

B cells

develop in the fetal liver and spleen

testosterone

development of male sex organs a hormone that induces spermatogenesis and secondary male sex characteristics.

radicles

develops from below hypocotyls into* root*

T3 and T4

different on the number of iodines that are attached to the molecules. T3 is the active form of the hormone (4x than T4) but T4 is more common in the body bc longer half life. (T4 is a prohormone for T3)

codon bias

different species prefer different codons that code for the same amino acid. Possible causes: mutations (some mutations are favored over others), natural selection, accuracy of translation.

sexual seelction

differential reproductive success resulting from competition for fertilization can occur through competition among the same sex (intrasexual) or attraction to the opposite sex (intersexual).

Osteoprogenitor/Ostreogenic

differentiate into osteoblasts

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

directs the anterior pituitary to secrete the gnoadotropins, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and lutenizing hormones (LH)

Menstrual cycle

divided into follicular, ovulation, luteal, menstruation (proliferative/secretory/menstruation) Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary initiate: monitor estrogen and progesterone in blood; Low level of E and P→ hypothalamus → GnRH → FSH and LH → Follicle develops → FSH stimulate follicle to secrete estrogen → lots of estrogen (positive feedback on AP) → LH Surge → Ovulation (follicle is now corpus luteum-maintained by LH [which along w/ estrogen begins to decrease after ovulation], secretes → estrogen + progesterone) → Development of endometrium (thickens in prepn for implantation of fertilized egg) → IMPLANTATION OR NOT

twinning

dizygotic twins ( fraternal twins) from two diff eggs monozygotic twins(identical twins) : one zygote splits into two (indeterminate)

antihistamines

drugs that interfere with histamine's action and give temporary relief from an allergy.

sebum

ducted into a hair follicle where it softens and lubricates the hair and skin and has a bactericidal action

Neofunctionalization

duplicated genes diverge and one copy takes on a new function

mutation: duplication translocation inversion

duplication: copied and reinserted translocation: excised and reinserted inversion: excised, flipped and reinserted

Achondroplasia

dwarfism of the thyroid

Testis

each consists of *seminiferous tubules for production of sperm* and interstitial cells (*Leydig cells) produces male sex hormones* (testosterone = androgen) secreted in the presence of *LH*; *sertoli cells stimulated by FSH* surround and *nurture sperm* ; testis contained in scrotum-about 2oC lower than body temp for sperm production.

Epidermis - what type of tissue?

ectoderm; keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

monotremes

egg laying mammals (platypus)

ontogeny

embryonic development & reproductive maturity the origination and development of an organism, from the time of fertilization of the egg to the organism's mature form

cotyledons

embryonic leaves; seed leaves provide nutrition

Ball and socket joints

enable us to rotate our arms and legs and move them in several places

pivot joint

enables us to rotate the forearm at the elbow and move the head from side to side.

simple endocrine pathway

endocrine cells respond directly to an internal or environmental stimulus by a secreting a particular hormone. The hormone will travel in the bloodstream to the target cells, where it will elicit the appropriate responses.

natrual selection

environmental factors are unfavorable for some alleles --> un favorable alleles become less common favorable alleles become more common

mismatch repair

enzyme repair things DNA polymerase missed Mismatch repair is strand-specific. During DNA synthesis the newly synthesised (daughter) strand will commonly include errors. In order to begin repair, the mismatch repair machinery distinguishes the newly synthesised strand from the template (parental).

excision repair

enzymes remove nucleotides damaged by mutagens removing small, non-helix-distorting base lesions from the genome. The related nucleotide excision repair pathway repairs bulky helix-distorting lesions.

bilaminar disc

epiblast and hypoblast press up against each other

Keratinocytes involved in formation of

epidermal water barrier (and they produce keratin)

Thick or thin skin refers to thickness of

epidermis

AA hormone

epinephrine, norepinephrine (adrenal medulla) thyroxine (thyroid gland) melatonin(pineal gland)

endoderm

epithelial lining of most organs(digestive,respiratory+ excretory), thymus, thyroid, and parathryoid glands, liver, and the lungs PLTT : pancreas, liver, thyroid+parathyroid, thymus

ecological footprint

estimate of the amount of land required to provide the raw materials an individual or nation consumes, including food, fuel, water, housing, and waste disposal.

lipid hormoen

estorgen, androgen, or other sex hormones aldosterone cortisol are carried by transport proteins in blood. as a result, they remain in circulation longer than pepetide hormones.

optimality theory

evaluate the effects of costs and benefits on animal behavior (often visualize it) that is usually for maximizing fitness lack clutch : example

Disturbances (Blowouts)

events such as storms, fires, floods, droughts, or human activities that damage biological communities and alter the availability of resources. Communities change drastically following a severe disturbance that strips away vegetation and even soil.

sexual conflict

evolution of phenotypic characteristics that confer a fitness benefit to one sex but a fitness cost to the other.

Prokaryotic transcription regulation

ex) Lac operon Trp operon

jaundice

excess bilirubin causes jaundice (usually a liver issue)

reciprocity

exchanging actions of altruism

Birds

feathered reptiles with adaptations for flight *bilateral, triploblasts, eumetazoa, coelomates, have four chambered hearts, complete brains, lungs, and alimentary canals.* Flying requires a great amount of energy and birds have a high rate of metabolism. Highly efficient circulatory systems help support the high metabolic rate. They are *endothermic,*

lower limbs:

femur, tibia, fibula patella, tarsal, metatarsal

vascular plants without seeds

ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns, *homosprous* plants: only produce one type of spore, which is a *bisexual gametophyte *

excretory processes

filtration reabsorption secretion excertion

microtubules

flagella cilia built by tubulin (9 pairs+2 arrangement of microtubules )

anthophyta

flowering plants sporophyte vascular wind/animal seed

anthophyta

flowering plants, dominant land plant form. The major parts of flower: 1. *Pistil*: female reproductive structure (three-parts: ovary (egg-bearing), style, and stigma). 2. *Stamen*: male reproductive structure (pollen-bearing anther and stalk, filament). 3. Petals: (and sometimes the sepals too) function to attract pollinators. attracts pollinators (insects + birds); ovule protected inside ovary which develops into fruit => dispersal of seeds by wind or other animals.

Population cycle

fluctuations in population size in response to varying effects of limiting factors. when population grows over carrying capacity, it may be limited (lower) than the initial K due to the damage caused to the habitat -> lower new carrying capacity K or it may crash to extinction.

small intestine

food goes from stomach to small intestine through the *pyloric sphincter*; *ileocecal valve *between it and large intestine. Structure is duodenum (most digestion), jejunum, then ileum (jej and il mostly absorption). 90% of digestion and absorption occurs in SI; enzymes: proteolytic enzymes: proteases, maltase and lactase, phosphatases/nucleosidases (nucleotides); lipase peristalsis and segmentation

Secondary growth

for *conifers and Woody dicot plants (such as trees) * -grow in diameter in addition to length, thickening older regions where primary growth has ceased. - increase in thickness of stems and roots - is caused by the activity of dividing cells that are called *lateral meristems*. These diving cells are arranged into two cylinders, known as the *vascular cambium and the cork cambium*, that extend along the length of roots and stems. When secondary growth begins, the epidermis is sloughed off and replaced with a new outer layer called *cork.*

primitive streak

for birds, reptiles and mammals. Not for amphibians; they have dorsal lips

crustaceans

form a large, diverse arthropod taxon which includes such familiar animals as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, woodlice and barnacles.

tyrosine derivatives

formed by enzymes in the cytosol or on the rough ER. ▪ Includes: catecholamines, T3, T4 ▪ They are either water-soluble or lipid-soluble.

ectoderm

forms epidermis skin, nervous and sensory systems, pituitary gland, jaws and teeth, germ cells attracto - skin, nails, hairs, adrenalin(adrenal medulla), nervous system(brain), mammary and sweat glands, eyes, ears

innate immunity

found in all animals nonspecific immune system

Smooth muscle

found mainly in hollow organs such as the digestive tract and blood vessels. They lack striations, are mono-nucleated, and are involuntary. ▪ Thick filaments are scattered throughout the cytoplasm and thin filaments are attached to structures called *dense bodies* ▪ There is less myosin and No sarcomere ▪ The contraction of the thin and thick filaments causes the dense bodies to move closer, which causes the shortening of the intermediate filaments found throughout the cell. This causes the cell to get smaller and contract as a whole. ▪ These muscles are stimulated by the *autonomic nervous system*. ▪ Smooth muscle can respond to hormones, change in pH, oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, temperatures on top of neuronal responses.

means of asexual reproduction

fragmentation (breaking up hyphae), budding (small hyphal outgrowth), and asexual spores, further described as two types:

fixation

frequency of the allele reaches 100% for that population

backbone breaks

from UV ray can break DNA molecule in half

parathyroid hormone

from parathyroid (four pea-shaped structures attached to the back of thyroid) antagonistic to calcitonin. Raises Ca2+ concentrations in the blood by stimulating release from bone. Increases osteocyte absorption of Ca + P from bone; stimulates osteoclast proliferation Increases renal Ca absorption

peptide hormone

from rough ER and modified in Golgi acts on surface receptors typically via 2nd messenger. ~G-protein->cAMP(fromATP)->IP3->Ca++ from ER ~ligand -> RTK FSH LH ACTH hGH TSH prolactin ADH oxytocin, glucagon, insulin

transport of sugars

from source to sink multidirectional companion cells use energy to import sucrose from source cells prior to its entrance into the phloem

Thymine dimer

from the formation of covalent linkages between two T bases.

transduction

from the oval window the vibration is sent to the *cochlea.* the cochlea interiorly has a fluid filled space, and a basement membrane that is lined with* hairs*. the vibrations through the oval window cause the fluid to vibrate and the membrane to oscillate, which flexes the hairs. depending on how and where along the basement membrane of the cochlea these hairs bend, the cochlea will send diff signals to the brain, through the auditory nerve. taking a mechanical signal (Vibration) to a brain/nerve signal is known as transduction.

Abscisic acid (ABA)

function in times of plant *stress* growth inhibitor. *maintains dormancy* in seeds.(prevent premature opening) *in dehydrating, can cause stomata to close)

cellular slime molds

funguslike and protozoalike characteristics; Spores germinate into *amoebas* which feed on bacteria; when no food, amoebas aggregates into single unit* slug* (individual cells of slug mobilize into stalk with capsule at top to release spores => germinate and repeat cycle); their stimulus for aggregation is *cAMP secretion *(secreted by the amoebas that first experience food deprivation).

plasmogamy

fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one from each strain is called dikaryon. *Dikaryotic hypha* is hypha containing dikaryon

karyogamy

fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form single diploid nucleus.

3)contact and fusion of sperm and egg membranes

fusion triggers depolarization of the membrane, which acts as a* fast block to polyspermy* (prevents other sperm from fusing)

nitrous oxide (NO)

gas that functions as a local regulator and a neurotransmitter. When the level of oxygen in the blood falls, endothelial cells in blood vessel walls synthesize and release NO. NO causes vasodilation, which increases blood flow to the tissues.

hormones involved in the digestive process

gastrin secretin cholecystokinin gastric inhibitory peptide

gastrin and histamine

gastrin and histamine increase *HCl* secretion

Subfunctionalization

gene duplication produces gene copies that diverge and divide the work initially undertaken by the gene before duplication.

nondisjuction during meiosisII

generates 1 daughter cell with n + 1 chromosomes, 1 daughter cell with n - 1 chromosomes, and 2 normal daughter cells.

Nondisjuction during meiosisI

generates a daughter cell with n + 1 chromosomes and another daughter cell with n - 1 chromosomes. After meiosis II, 2 daughter cells will be n + 1 and 2 daughter cells will be n-1.

homologs

genes that share common ancestry.

hyperpolarization

getting more polarized (more negative). The membrane potential moves farther from 0. after action potential

hormones increase the amount of blood glucose

glucagon epinephrine (adrenal medulla) Cortisol (adrenal cortex)

Prokaryote Metabolism

glycolysis and ETC do not have a mitochondria and do not carry out the TCA.

post-translational modifications

glycosylation (in golgi, adding sugar) protease activity (cleavage before being active. insulin) miRNA/ siRNA Acetylation (acetyl group=make protein stable) Methylation (epigenetic regulation; methylated histones)

ecological succession

gradual change in living communities that follows a disturbance

gibberellins (GA)

group of hormones that promote cell growth (*flower and stem and shoot elongation*),synth'd in young leaves/roots/seeds then transported to other parts of plant. *Elimination of dormancy* of a seed, flowering, production of fruits, as well as leaf and fruit death.

Capillaries

have *smallest diameter*- single layer of endothelial cells across which gases, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, and waste diffuse *slowest velocity/ Largest total cross area* 4 methods for material to cross capillary wall: pinocytosis, diffusion through capillary cell membrane, movement through pores in the cells (fenestrations), movement through space between the cells

dinoflagellates

have *two flagella*. One is posterior, 2nd flagellum is transverse and rests in encircling mid groove perpendicular to 1st flagellum. Some are bioluminescent. Others produce nerve toxin that concentrate in filter-feeding shellfish => cause illness to human when eaten. Responsible for the *algal bloom known as red tide*: high cxns of algae that can lead to toxin buildup, depletion of dissolved oxygen, and other harmful effects

ascomycota

have septa; reproduce sexually by producing haploid *ascospores*. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal => 4 haploid cells => mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called* ascus*; often grouped together into fruiting body* ascocarp *(yeast). The spores release and germinate into hyphae, cycle repeats

diatoms

have tests (shells) that fit together like a box with a lid; contain SiO2 (silica)

Hemizygous

having one single copy of a gene instead of two one allele male has XY sex. and they are hemizygous. X one chromosome. Y one chromosome

Temporal lobe

hearing speech/language

heart contraction

heart is a large muscle, but unlike skeletal, not anchored to bone. Its fibers form a net and the net contracts upon itself, which squeezes blood into arteries.

medulla

heart rate/ blood pressure breathing rate toxin sensation/vomiting

phagocytes that are involved in inflammatory

heat redness swelling loss of fcn pain neutrophils, monocyte/macrophage, eosinophils, and basophils/mast cells. complement system. (cytokine, membrane-attack complex..)

Keratohyalin granules to do what

help aggregate keratin filaments and conversion of granular cells to cornified cells (i.e. keratinization)

Bohr's effect

hemoglobin O2 binding affinity decreases under conditions of low pH (high CO2 & [H+]) oxygen loads released by hemoglobin • Decrease in CO2 or increase in pH will result in hemoglobin binding more O2 • Result of: CO2 + H2O ↔H2CO3 ↔H+ + HCO3−

common sex-linked disorders

hemophilia, colorblindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy

overdominance

heterozygote advantage The heterozygous allele combination confers the highest fitness increase.

underdominance

heterozygote disadvantage

birth control pills

high dosages of progesterone (or Estrogen and progesterone) to cause negative feedback that suppresses LH and FSH levels which in turn prevents ovulation from occuring.

ligaments

hold bones together at joints

orthologs

homologous genes separated by a speciation event.

paralogs

homologous genes within a genome separated by a gene duplication event.

gene duplication

homologs, paralogs, orthologs

trophic hormones

hormones that act on other glands to make those glands secrete their hormones

pyrogen

hormones that causes the hypothalamus to increase the body Temp. it is cytokine-signaling molecues secreted by cells to communicate with other cells. (made by single cell) endogenous pyrogen =can be made by immune system. (Fever) exogenous pyrogen=a pathogen which has infected the body. ex)gram negative bacteria has lipopolysaccharide(this is exogenous pyrogen.

Chondrogenesis

how cartilage is made: 1) Condensed *mesenchyme tissue* differentiates into chondroblasts 2) Chondroblasts secrete *collagen, hydroxylysine, ground substance, and elastin fiber*. Chondroblasts that get trapped in the ECM are called *chondrocytes*

upper limbs:

humerous, radius, ulna, carpal, metacarpal

3 types of cartilage (differ in the amount of cartilage):

hyaline is most common - reduced friction/absorbs shock in joints fibrocartilage elastic

filtration

hydrostatic pressure drives a process of *filtration*, where a tubule collects a filtrate from the blood. Proteins and other large molecules can't be filtered out of the blood while small solutes can.

cnidaria

hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals; some alternate *medusa/polyp * life cycle. *cnidoblasts* - specialized cells located in the tentacles and bodywalls of cnidaria; interior of cnidoblasts filled with stinging organelles (*nematocysts*)

allergies

hypersensitive (exaggerated) responses to otherwise harmless antigens in our surroundings. ▪ Antigens that cause allergies are called allergens (i.e. protein molecules on pollen grains)

structure that is considered the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system

hypothalamus it help regulate the heart, arterial blood pressure, produce neurosecretory substances, regulate H2O, and eletrolyte balance, body temperature, and maintain homeostasisn

stomach cells

i.*Mucous Cells* - secrete *mucus* that lubricates & protects stomach's epithelial lining from acid environment ii.*Chief Cell*s - ex.gl. secrete *pepsinogen* (zymoegn precursor to pepsin). -Pepsinogen activated to pepsin by low pH in stomach(presence of HCl) iii. *Parietal Cells* - Secrete *HCl*; intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption) iv. *G cells* - secrete *gastrin*, a large peptide hormone which is absorbed into blood -> stims *parietal cell to secrete HCl*

glycogenolysis

if blood glucose levels decreases -> glycogen broken down to glu for release

Stratum lucidum

if present thin clear layer of epidermis consisting of eleidin (transformation product of keratohyalin); usually seen in thick skin only

osteiod

immature bone that is largely unmineralized collagen fibers. when it mineralized with hydroxyapatite, it forms mature bone.

cephalization

in animals with bilateral symmetry (*greater nerve tissue cxn *at anterior end as organisms increase in complexity). E.g. brains have developed + sensory organs

gene migration

in fruit bearing plants (angio), the ovary turns into a fruit. Now the seed can be eaten by an animal, and the seed passes through the animals' digestive system. The seed will be deposited in a new location, and have the genes of this angiosperm spread to new locations

ecdysone

in insects, motling and metamorphosis are regulated by the hormone ecdysone

coleoptiles

in monocots a sheath surrounds and protects epicotyl. in developing young plants, coleotiles appear 1st as leaf, but the 1st true leaves are from the plumule within the coleoptiles

Chemoreceptors

include both general receptors, those that transmit information about total solute concentration and specific receptors, those that respond to individual kinds of molecules (Taste and smell).

Miller Urey experiment

included methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water gases in a closed system to recreate what early earth's atmosphere was like. when the gases and water had heat and electrical charges(i.e. lightning) applied to them , more complex organic matter including amino acids were naturally produced organic molecules could from in that reducing atmosphere

only ecosystem

includes abiotic environment

reptiles

includes lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodilians, birds, and dinosaurs. They are* bilateral, triploblasts, coelomates, have three chambered hearts, complete brains, lungs, and alimentary canals.* other adaptations -reptile skin, covered with *scales* waterproofed with the tough protein keratin -cannot breathe through dry skin and obtain most of oxygen with their *lungs* -*cold-blooded=ectothermic* : abosrb external heat rather than generating metabolically

aldosterone

increaes reabsorption of Na+ and secretion of K+. Causes passive reabsorption of water in the nephron, which will cause a rise in blood volume/pressure.

glaucoma

increase in pressure of eye due to blocking of outflow of aqueous humor. causes blurred vision, distorted vision, or vision loss.

type II diabetes is insulin

independent

migration (gene flow)

individuals with a new allele enter the population --> allele that enters becomes more common

endorphins

inhibit perception of pain

flowering plants

initiate flowering in response to changes in photoperiod 1. Long-day plants: flower in spring and early summer when daylight is increasing. 2. Short-day plants: flower late summer and early fall when daylight is decreasing (need daylight < a critical length) 3. Day-neutral plants: do not flower in response to daylight changes but temp or water.

basic inflammatory response

injury 1)mast cells release histamine--> dilate blood capillaries 2)macrophage/neutrophils release cytokines 3)capillary become more permeable to antimicrobial peptides. signals released by immune cells attract more phyagocytes

intercalating agents

insert themselves between nitrogenous bases and causes indel mutations.

fixed action pattern

instinctual processes that an animals do not need to be taught. Once an FAP is started, it must be completed. A *releaser* is the simple, recognizable feature of a complex stimulus that stimulates a fixed action pattern. (red belly of insect stimulates an attack by other males) typically preserved amongst all members of a particular species animals are capable of learning and altering this resonses.

Diabetes Insipidus

insufficient vasopressin production

peptide hormone

insulin, ADH, oxytocin, FSH, Growth hormone some released in response to stimuli ; are stored within vesicles; cannot pass through PM. thus use receptors on PM.

transmembrane proteins

integral proteins span the cell's memebrane from the intracellular side to the extracellular side.

keratin

intermediate filaments part the cell's cytoskeleton

Buffer in internal fluids and for extracellular fluids

internal - H2PO4- and HPO4-- (b/c abundant anion in cells) extracellular - biocarbonate buffer (HCO3-/ h2CO3)

second massenger

intracellular messenger that is produced when a hormone binds to the extracellular part of the cell and needs to send a singal inside the cell *cAMP*

yolk

intraembryonic (part of the embryo- provide nourishment) not to be confused with the yolk sac (encloses the yolk) an extraembryonic sturcture.

estrogen

involved in the menstrual cycle and produces secondary female sex chracteristics

astigmatism

irregularly shaped cones. Causes blurred vision at any distance.

Evolutionary species concept

is a lineage that maintains a unique identity over time.

amoeba

o Food capture: phagocytosis→food vacuoles o Food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes

chapparrals

is characterized by dense, spiny shrubs with tough, evergreen leaves. ▪ The climate that supports chaparral vegetation results mainly from cool ocean currents circulating offshore, which produce mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. ▪ Limited to small coastal areas, including California. ▪ Perennial shrubs and annual plants are commonly seen. ▪ Chaparral vegetation is adapted to periodic fires, most common by lightnings.

thin filament

is comprised of two strands of actin that are coiled around each other.

Somatostatin

is released by *delta cells* of pancreas; inhibits both insulin and glucagon. Possibly increases nutrient absorption time *inhibit other growth hormones*

oxytocin

is secreted during childbirth. It increases the strength of uterine contractions and stimulates milk ejection.

histamine

is stored in densely packed vesicles of *mast cell*s, found in connective tissue. triggers nearby blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable. The dilation causes capillaries to leak fluid into the neighboring tissues, causing localized swelling.

threshold

is the membrane potential to which an action potential will occur if reached. ▪ In many mammalian neurons, the threshold is -55 mV.

Prezygotic isolating mechanisms

isolating mechanisms that prevent mating from occurring or *prevent fertilization from occurring* (if mating has occurred) • *Habitat isolation*: species do not encounter • *Behavior isolation*: does not perform correct courtship rituals • *temporal isolation*: species mate at different seasons/time • *Mechanical isolation*: male/female genitalia are not compatible • *Gametic isolation*: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes (gametes do not recognize each other)

glomeromycota

lack septa, do not produce zygospores; mutualistic associations with roots of plants (*mycorrhizae*), plants provide carb, fungus increases ability of plant to absorb nutrient (especially phosphorus).

In addition to producing keratohyalin granules what else do cells produce in stratum spinosum

lamellar bodies

cataracts

lens becomes opaque and light cannot enter

RNA world hypothesis

less stable than DNA -> more reactive -> allows RNA to act as an enzyme (catalyst) - one of the first biological catalysts - RNA existed before DNA - RNA are found in all three domains of life.

Ependymal cells

line the brain ventricles and aid in the production circulation, and monitoring of cerebrospinal fluid.

fluorescence.

live cell visualization that utilize fluorescence. when the particle absorbs light, electrons in the particle's atom are excited and when they come to the normal state, they release energy in the form of light.

Companion cell

living parenchyma cells that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member • Alongside each sieve-tube element is at least one *companion cell*, which is connected to the sieve-tube element by numerous plasmodesmata. One companion cell may serve multiple sieve-tube elements by producing and transporting proteins to all of them.

prostaglandins

local regulators that promote inflammation and the sensation of pain in response to injury. They are modified fatty acids.

midbrain

located centrally in the brain, coordinates routing of sensory input.

goblet cells

located in villi secrete mucus to lubricate and protect from mech/chem damage

hormone from thyroid gland

located on the ventral surface of the trachea calcitonin (specifically from parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland) thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)

Melanocytes send out

long processes extending between epidermal cells; contacting them; for transferring melanin granules

Melanin granules from melanocytes are transferred via; to

long processes to cytoplasm of basal keratinocyte

memory cells

long-lived cells that can give rise to effector cells if the same antigen is encountered later in the animal's life.

fascia

loose connective tissue that covers the surface of the entire muscle and is located over the layer of epimysium

placental internal development

lots of exchange of food and oxygen between mother and young.

mesenchyme

mesoderm forms future skeleton

Shoot system

made up of * stems and leaves* + adaptations for reproduction, which in angiosperms are the flowers.

Phloem tissue

made up of cells called *sieve-tube elements* arranged end to end to form fluid-conducting columns called *sieve tubes*

gray matter

made up of neuron cell bodies spinal: gray matter inside brain: gray matter outside

white matter

mainly of bundled axons

phosphate buffer system

maintains pH of internal fluids of all cells; H2PO4- and HPO42- act as acid & base (amphoteric)

Glycogenesis vs. Glycogenlysis

making / breaking glycogen in liver

search cost

males and females must locate each other which costs time and energy and risk of predation. +

colorblindness

malfunction of light-sensitive cells in the eyes. It is a disorder that involves several X-linked genes. often x-linked recessive

marsupials

mammals where the young is carried in a pouch

Biotic potential

maximum growth rate under ideal conditions (unlimited resources and no restrictions). age at reproductive maturity, clutch size (# offspring produced at each reproduction), frequency of reproduction, reproductive lifetime, survivorship of offspring to reproductive maturity.

Carrying capacity (K)

maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by habitat.

phase contrast microscopy

measure the amount the light bends when light passes through a translucent object, the light refracted... diff density=diff speed diff between the refracted light and unrefracted light creates a *phase shift* *allows the visualization of live cells *

hormones from Pineal gland

melatonin

meroblastic

meroblastic means when the cleavage furrow does not pass entirely through the egg.

Langerhans' cells origin

mesenchymal; derived from stem cells of bone marrow - part of mononuclear-phagocytic system

miRNA

microRNA an RNA silencer, a post transcriptional way to regulate eukaryotic gene expression. miRNA will bp with complementary mRNA, silencing the mRNA's translation

types of fibers comprising the cytoskileton

microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments

reproduction of coniferophyta/anthophyta

microsporangia produces microspores (male spores) and macrosporangia produce the macrospores (female spores)

mitochondria

mitochondria contains its own set of circular DNA (mtDNA). We only inherit our mitochondriaDNA from our mother. Therefore, any mutation seen in the mother's mtDNA will affect the progeny cytoplasmic inheritance

valves

mitral =bicuspid valve= left AV tricuspid vavle=right AV pulmonary/aortic SL(semilumar) valves

Learning

modification of behavior as a result of specific experiences. Learning enables animals to change their behaviors in a response to changing environmental conditions. The table below summaries the types of learning that will be discussed next.

fungi

mold, mildew, yeast, mushroom

Juxtaglomerular apparatus

monitors filtrate pressure in DT via granular cells when BP low ->secret *Renin* -> *angiotensin* cascade -> tells Adrenal cortex to make *aldosterone *(also possibly stimulate PP for ADH) -> selective permeability --> high BP

Two major groups of Angiosperm

monocot and dicot

coelom

more advanced animals develop this cavity derived from mesoderm; fluid-filled coelom cushions internal organs. *Acoelomate* animals lack coelom; *pseudocoelomate* animals have a cavity (but not completely lined by mesoderm-derived tissue).

Degenerate

more than one codon per amino acid.

bryophytes

mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. Gametes are produced in *gametangia* (protective structures) on *gametophytes*, *dominant haploid *stage of life cycle of bryophytes. *Antheridium* (male gametangium) produces flagellated sperm that swim through water. *Archegonium* (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still connected to gametophyte). They are anchored by rhizoids rather than roots

bryophytes

mosses,liverworts, hornworts gametophyte nonvascular flagellated sperm spores

Neutrophils

most common, often the first WBC to respond. release Neutrophil Extracellular Trap (NET) to destroy microbes. Dead neutrophils are white and are a main component of pus.

arthropods

most insects and molluscs o*Open circulatory system*- pump blood into internal cavity called *hemocoel* (cavities called* sinuses*), which bathe tissues in oxygen and nutrient containing fluid (*hemolymph*). This fluid returns to pumping mechanism (heart) through holes called* ostia.*

hadopelagic

most life here exists in hydrothermal vents

hydroxyapatite

mostly calcium phosphate with hydroxyl groups

Somatomotor /somatosensory cortex

motor impulses/ major receptive area for touch

Dynein

motor protein that are attached to the microtubules and serve as molecular motor. energy contained in ATP is converted into energy used for movement involved in chromosomal movement during cell division, chromosomes are moved into proper position with the aid of dynein

dynein

motor protein that are attached to the microtubules and serve as molecular motor. energy contained in ATP is converted into energy used for movement involved in chromosomal movement during cell division, chromosomes are moved into proper position with the aid of dynein

Two different components of PNS

motor system and autonomic nervous system

protostome

mouth first spiral; mosaic; determinate (all cells are necessary to grow) schizocoelom: splitting of mesoderm produces coelom

monocytes

move into tissues (diapedesis) where they develop into *macrophages*, which phagocytize cell debris and pathogens. ◦ Are also antigen-presenting cells.

Translocation

movement of carbohydrate through phloem from a source (e.g. leaves) to sink (site of carb utilization). described by pressure-flow hypothesis

protozoan

movement of gas through simple diffusion within cell

taxis

movement that has direction, either towards or away from a astimulus

skeletal muscle

moves bones and body has a hierarchy of smaller and smaller units Each fiber is a single cell with multiple nuclei.(*Each nucleus is derived from one of the embryonic cells that fused to form the muscle cell.)*

brown algae

multicellular and have flagellated sperm cells (giant seaweed)

rotifera

multicellular with specialized organs enclosed in pseudocoelom, complete digestive tract; filter-feeder

polycistronic

multiple polypeptides can be synthesized from the same mRNA.

Tendons

muscle to bone connectors that bend skeleton at movable joints

mesoderm

muscle, bone, kidneys, blood, gonads, and connective tissues means(means you require to have sex): motor (muslce+skeletal), blood system(kidney+blood+spleen), adrenal cortex(androgen=male sex hormone) + gonads

cerebellum

muscular coordination and ballance

mutation

mutation --> new genetic variant appears in the population

microfilament

myosin and actin

myopia

nearsightedness

if no implantation

negative feedback from the high levels of estrogen and progesterone cause the anterior pituitary to cease production of FSH and LH → No FSH and LH →the corpus luteum deteriorates.→ No E and P production →Menstruation

ECL cells

neuroendocrine cells in the digestive tract; gastrin stimulates them to release histamine which in turn stimulates parietal cells to produce gastric acid

synaptic signaling

neurons form specialized junctions called synapses with target cells, such as other neurons and muscle cells. ▪ At most synapses, neurons secrete neurotransmitters.

phyletic gradualism

new species arise by a gradual transformation of an ancestral species through slow and continual change.

Realized niche

niche that an organism occupies in absence of competing species is its fundamental niche. When competitors are present, one/both species may be able to coexist by occupying their realized niches, that part of their existence where niche overlap is absent (occupy areas of niche that don't overlap so no competition for resources) One barnacle species can live on rocks that are exposed to full range of tides (fundamental). In natural environment, 2nd species of barnacle outcompetes the 1st, but only at lower tide levels where desiccation is minimal. The 1st species then only survive in its realized niche, the higher tide levels.

mRNA processing

no modification for prokaryotes; only for eukaryotes 5' cap poly A tail 3' RNA splicing Alternative splicing

lac present, glucose absent

no repressor bound, cAMP high, CAP bound, operon is turned on (high utilization of lactose)

lac present, glucose present

no repressor bound, low cAMP, no CAP bound, operon is turned on but low level of gene expression

Retrotransposon (copy and paste)

nonconservative transposons are transposable elements that creates duplicate copies of themselves to be inserted elsewhere in the genome.

two types of fungi

nonfilamentous and filamentous. Nonfilamentous (no hyphae; yeast) Filamentous (with hyphae; mycelium)

background extinction rate

normal rate of extinction for a clade or taxon refers to the standard rate of extinction in earth's geological and biological history before humans became a primary contributor to extinctions.*prehuman extinction rate*

Heart rate

number of beats per minute

inclusive fitness

number of offspring, how it supports them and how their offspring could support others

arthropods

o Also have jaws for chewing and salivary glands have crop and gizzard too.

paramecium

o Cilia sweep food into cytopharynx o Food vacuole forms and moves toward anterior end of cell

Arthropods

o Grasshopper : Series of chitin-lined respiratory tubules called *trachae* open to surface in openings called *spiracles* through with O2 enters, CO2 exits. No oxygen carrier is needed due to direct distribution and removal of respiratory gases between air and body cells; diffusion across moistened tracheal endings. oSpider:*Book lungs:* stacks of flattened membranes enclosed in internal chamber

cnidarians

o Hydra- intracellular and extracellular digestion

- Cells store energy as insoluble starch - benefit of this = any cell can act as a SINK and get the sugar and water transported there

o Likewise, by breaking down starch, any cell can act as a source (e.g. plant roots at night break down starch when photosynthesis activity is low, they act as a sugar source)

Fish

o Water enters mouth, passes over *gills* (evaginated structures, create large SA, take O2 and deposit CO; can be external/unprotected or internal/protected), exits through *operculum* (gill cover). *Countercurrent exchange* between opposing movements of water and underlying blood maximizes diffusion of O2 into blood and CO2 into water

annelids

o*Closed circulatory system*- blood is confined to vessels. Also seen in certain mollusks (octopus and squid) and vertebrates auxiliary hearts and ventral vessels

Annelids

oMucus secreted by earthworm provides moist surface for gaseous exchange by diffusion oCirculatory system bring O2 to cells and waste products (CO2) back to skin for excretion

cope's rule

observation that clades tend to increase in body size over time

double capillary beds (portal system)

occur in *glomerulus, capillaries that surround loop of Henle, small intestine, liver, and hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland.* Capillary bed pools into another capillary bed (capillary bed 1 → drains into portal vein →capillary bed 2 → drains into vein that returns blood to heart) w/out first going to heart (*transport products in high cxn without spreading to rest of body*)

Logistic growth

occurs when *limiting factors* restrict size of population to the carrying capacity of habitat.

batesian mimicry

occurs when an animal without any special defense mechanism mimics the coloration of an animal that does posses a defense.

mullerian mimicry

occurs when several animals, all with some special defense mechanism, share the same coloration.

Exponential growth

occurs whenever reproductive rate (r) is greater than zero (J-shaped). G=rN (g=growth, N=population size, r=per capita rate of increase)

Eosinofils

often found beneath mucosal surfaces, are important in defending against multicellular invaders.

Sebum

oily substance mixed with cells - keeps skin soft and hair from being brittle - all you girls with split ends.... helps kill bacteria

Adrenal gland

on top of the kidney two main structures: outer cortex, inner medulla

How to pass casparian stripo 1)apop 2)syp 3)trans

once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by *symplast*(due to waxy casparian strips blocking) into the *stele* (vascular cylinder) and is selective permable (K+pass, Na+ blocked-common in soil but unless in plants)

monocot

one cotyledon 3 or multiples - floral parts parallel leaf veins fibrous roots scattered vascular bundles

viviparous mammals

one in which the offspring develop within the uterus

oviparous mammals

one in which the parent lays eggs (birds, some amphibians)

double fertilization

one of the sperm cells unite with the egg to form a zygote. the nucleus of the second sperm unites with this pair to form a 3N cell. occurs only in flowering plants

All living things have

one or more cells, plasma membrane, genetic material in DNA form, and a mechanism of using RNA and ribosomes to translate genetic material into proteins+enzymes.

transport epithelia

one or more layers of epithelial cells specialized for moving particular solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions Typically arranged into complex tubular networks with extensive surface areas.

paraphyletic

one that includes the most recent common ancestor, but not all of its descendents

Euglenoids

one to three flagella at apical (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall: thin, protein strips called *pellicles* that wrap over cell membranes => heterotrophic in absence of light; some have *eyespot* that permits *phototaxis* (ability to move in response to light).

Cardiac muscle

only found in the heart. It is striated and involuntary. They are mononucleated or bi-nucleated. ▪ High amounts of mitochondria ▪ NO summation or tetanus due to long refractory period ▪*myogenic* ▪ Action potentials last much longer than skeletal muscles. ▪ Adjacent cardiac muscle cells are electrically coupled by specialized regions called *intercalated disks*. This enables the action potential generated by specialized cells in one part of the heart to spread, causing the whole heart to contract.

glycine

only optically inactive AA

protist names that are like fungus

oomycota plasmodial slime molds

blastopore

opening into the archentron. Becomes the mouth (in protostomes) or the anus (in duterostomes).

brain

outer gray matter and inner white matter. Surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves that are sensory, motor, and mixed. Most cranial nerves are mixed.

kidney

outer renal cortex inner renal medulla both regions are supplied with blood by a renal artery and drained by a renal vein The fluid that will be excreted as urine is collected in the inner renal pelvis, and exits the kidney via the ureter.

inner ear

oval window+ semicircular canals +cochlea

ovoviviparous animals

oviviparous animal is a combination. The young are hatched from eggs, but the eggs are kept in the mother's body until they are ready to hatch.snake..

secondary compounds

oxic chemicals produced in plants that discourage would-be herbivores

fetal circulation

oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from placenta carried to fetus via umbilical vein → half enters *Ductus venosus * →carried to inferior vena cava → RA → RV → Ductus arteriosus → aorta. Other half enters liver/portal vein → RA → Foramen ovale → LA → LV → aorta.

hormone from posterior pituitary gland

oxytocin and ADH it sotres hormones produced by th ehypothalamus

Natural killer cells

part of innate immune (fast acting, dont need activation) 'perforin' creates holes in the cellular memebrane of its target, which cuases target cell lysis, and inducing apoptosis in rapid dividing cells. granzymes- a protease which stimulates a target cell to undergo apoptosis *similarly Cytotoxic T cell has perforin and granzymes* but rxt rate is diff.

dicot

pea

classes of hormones

peptide hormone steroid hormone tyrosine derivatives

stasis

period of little to no evolutionary change

hinge joints

permit movment in a single plane (elbows and kness)

neutrophils

phagocytic cell develops from stell cells circulate around our body in the bloodstream, and when they sense signals that an infection is present, they are the first cells to migrate to the site of the infection

purple or green bacteria

photosynthetic bacteria in which H2, H2S or D is the electron donor( not oxygen like plants)

Bathypelagic

pitch black, no plant life, most consume detritus

pits perforation

pits: no 2nd cell wall (usually xylem) perforation: no 1st and 2nd ( usually phloem)

pioneer species

plants and animals that are the first to colonize a newly exposed habitat (usually opportunistic, r-selected species); can tolerate harsh conditions (lichens and mosses). later r-selected will be replaced by k-selected, and reach climax where it remains for a long time.

sickle-cell anemia

pleiotropic effects: hemoglobin protein function cell shape cell density malaria resistance → heterozygote (AS) ▪ Because of the pleiotropic functions (namely malaria resistance), both the A and S alleles of the *beta-globin gene* are found in human populations at high frequency. ▪ The polymorphism is maintained by balancing selection. *Heterozygote gives malaria resistance *so it gives higher fitness effects. ▪ Different alleles are favored under different conditions: A allele is better if no malaria-carrying mosquitoes present S allele better if malara-carrying mosquitoes present

pleiotropy vs. polygenic

pleiotropic: where one gene has effects on multiple phenotypes example) sick-cell anemia polygenic: several genes affect one phenotype height, eye color

PCR

polymerase chain reaction Requires knowledge of the DNA sequence in the region of interest (need primers) no host cells are involved requires very little starting material PCR primers: you need primers (sequences of DNA that are complementary to a sequence on a DNA strand) that flank both sides of the target region. Number of DNA strands after "n" cycles of PCR = 2n * 2

polyphyletic

polyphyletic taxon is composed of unrelated organisms descended from more than one ancestor.

punctuated equilibrium

predicts that a lot of evolutionary change takes place in short periods of time tied to speciation events.

progeria

premature aging of the thyroid

Stratum spinosum aka

prickle cell layer

certainty of paternity

probability that a male is the genetic sire of the offspring his mate produces. Males are ready to mate after mating and have selection for parental care when they are certain of paternity

dispersal isolation

process by which a population or species moves individuals or propagules from one area to another.

vicariance isolation

process by which the geographical range of a population or species is split by the formation of a physical or biotic barrier.

parapatric speciation

process of speciation that occurs when diverging populations have distributions that abut one another. (abut:be next to or have a common boundary with.)

sympatric speciation

process of speciation where diverging populations are not geographically separated.

ferns

produce cluster of sporangia called* sori* that develop on undersurface of fern fronds (meiosis => spores).

keratinocytes

produce the protein keratin that helps waterproof the skin

cholecystokinin

produced by S.I. in response to* fats*; stimulates gallbladder to release bile and pancreas to release its enzymes

secretin

produced by cells lining duodenum when food enters; stimulates pancreas to produce bicarbonate (neutralizes the chime)

gastrin inhibitory peptide

produced in response to fat/protein digestates in duodenum; was found to '*decrease the secretion of stomach acid* to protect the small intestine from acid damage, /8reduce the rate* at which food is transferred through the stomach, and inhibit the GI motility and secretion of acid.

prolactin

produces milk in the breast hormone from anterior pituitary gland

microsponrangium

produces numerous* microspore mother cell*, which divide by meiosis to produce 4 haploid cells (*microspores*-male) => mature into *pollen grains* (represent gametophyte generation) which divides into 3 cells (in flowering plants) or 4 cells (in conifers). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of pollen tube, others = sperms.

liver

produces* bile *(no enzymes, emulsifies fats) stored in *gall bladder*, flows thru bile duct which merges with pancreatic duct

Auxin (IAA-indoleacetic acid)

promotes plant growth *stem growth* (elongation of cells) by increasing [H+] in primary cell walls->turgor pressure allow expansion of cells. Produced at tips of shoots and roots (apical meristem). Responsible for *tropisms* influeces plant response to light (phototropism), contact(thigmotropism;vine growing up a wall) and gravity (geotropism). It inhibits lateral buds when it is produced at terminal bud of growing tip. Moves unidirectional from shoot to root.

types of local regulators

prostaglandins cytokines and growth factors nitrous oxide( NO)

phytochrome

protein modified with light-absorbing chromophore. Two forms: Pr (P660-red) and Pfr (P730-far red). They are reversible. When exposed to red light, Pr -> Pfr and vice versa.

Promiscuous proteins

proteins capable of carrying out more than one function (usually sone strongly and one weakly)

protostome vs. dueterostome

protostome (proto:early; stome:mouth) first mouth dueterostome (deutero:second) second mouth

After cells are pushed into stratum spinosum (produce keratohyalin granules and lamellar bodies); what happens?

pushed in stratum granulosum and becomes flattened and diamond shaped; accumulate keratohyaline granules mixed between tonofibrils

Growth rate of population

r = (births - death)/N

genetic drift

random changes in the allele frequency from one generation to another in small populations can lead to elimination of a particular allele by chance alone

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (no evolution)

random mating; no migration, genetic drift, mutation or natural selection --> consequence : allele frequencies do not change

cleavage stage

rapid cell division day 1-3 (morula=8cell stage=totipotent) ▪ during cell cleavage * the nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio *increases ▪ G1 and G2 phase of cell cycle basically skipped, cells are in S and M phase. ▪ No increase in mass ▪ Cleavage partitions of the cytoplasm of the larged fertilized egg into many smaller cells called *blastomeres.* ▪ Pattern of cleavage divisions differs among species.

operational sex ratio (OSR)

ratio of male to female individuals who are available for reproducing at any given time • Often the ratio of male and females in the population are close, but the number of females ready to mate is lower. • When OSR is male biased, males compete for females and there is sexual selection.

Osteoclasts

reabsorb (destroy) bone matrix, releasing minerals back into the blood. develops from *monocytes*(develops from bone marrow; make immune cell such as macrophage and dendritic..)

large intestine

reabsorption of water and salts to form *feces*; 1.5m long b. At beginning is *appendix,* which in herbivores is large cecum (cellulose digestion) with the help of bacteria c. Bacteria (e.g. E.Coli) a*symbiont* in large intestine = main source of *vitamin K *(also Vitamin B)

ancestral range reconstruction

reconstruction of ancestral ranges based on dispersal and vicariance analysis

rhodophyta

red algae (red accessory pigments* phycobilins*); multicellular and gametes do not have flagella

mutation with little to no effect

redundancy in the genetic code, synonymous mutations, mutations in introns, pseudogenes (resemble functional genes but have lost their function).

dispersion pattern

refers the way individuals are spaced within their area three types: clumped, uniform, and random Estimates of population density and dispersion patterns enable researchers to monitor changes in a population and to compare and contrast the growth and stability of populations in different areas.

granulocytes

release granules with chemicals basophils mastcells eosinophils(often fight parasites) heparin:help to prevent clotting

problem solving behavior

relies on cognition Some animals have complex cognitive abilities that include problem solving—the process of applying past experience to overcome obstacles in novel situations. • Problem solving behavior is highly developed in some mammals, especially dolphins and primates. • Also has been observed in some bird species.

DNA gyrase

relieves strain while double strand DNA is being unwound by hlicase

DNA polymerase I

removes the RNA primer and replace with DNA.

DNA Topoisomerase

removes the supercoils; it is ahead of the replication fork

lac absent, glucose absent

repressor bound, cAMP is high, CAP is bound, operon is turned off

lac absent, glucose present

repressor bound, low cAMP, no CAP bound, operon is turned off

Regulatory proteins

repressors and activators influence RNA pol's attachment to the promoter region. ▪ Activators are transcription factors that help RNA polymerase binding to the correct DNA sequence. ▪ Silencers bind to DNA sequences and inhibit the start of translation.

postzygotic isolating mechanisms

reproductive isolating mechanisms that occur after fertilization. Hybrid inviability and sterility, and can lead to embryos that do not develop fully. • *Hybrid inviability*: zygote fails to develop properly and dies before reaching maturity • *Hybrid sterility*: hybrids become functional adults but cannot produce • *Hybrid breakdown*: hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability/fertility (hybrid's children cannot produce)

capacitation

required by a spermatozoa in the female oviduct and uteus that allows for penetration. acutally a functional maturation of the sperematozoa. during capacitation, physiological changes like intracellular ion concentrations, motility, and metabolism happen.

endospore

resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall made only by gram-positive

gravitropism

response to gravity by stems and roots (auxin and gibberellins involved). - If stem is horizontal, auxin concentrates on lower side => stem bends upward. - If root is horizontal, auxin is produced at apical meristem moves up in root and concentrates on lower side.

phototropism

response to light (achieved by hormone auxin). Auxin is produced in apical meristem moves downward by active transport into zone of elongation generate growth by stimming elongation. - Stem grows straight when all sides of apical meristem are equally illuminated. But growth can be differential if... - When not equally illuminated, auxin moves more toward shady side (grow more) stem bends toward light.

indentical twins

result from *indeterminate cleavage *

Autoimmune diseases

result when the immune system goes awry and turns against some of the body's own molecules.

RT-PCR

reverse-transcriptase PCR amplify mRNA sequence into many DNA sequences with the help of reverse transcriptase. ▪ Steps: 1) reverse-transcribe the mRNA into a mRNA/cDNA hybrid 2) use RNAse to degrade the RNA. You are now left with a cDNA strand. 3) use cDNA as template in a PCR reaction.

visual purple

rhodopsin a light sensitive pigment

pulmonary circuit

right atrium->right ventricle->pulmonary artery -> arterioles -> capillaries of the lungs -> collects in venules -> veins -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium

basic organs of platns

roots, stems, leaves

nematoda

roundworms: pseudocoelomate with complete digestive tract; free-living soil dwellers help decompose and recycle nutrients (causes trichinosis in human, when ingested via incompletely cooked meat).

agonistic behavior

rsult if two animals conflict over a mate or food source

volkmann's canals

run perpendicularly to connect nearby osteons to each other. also, connect the haversian canals to the periosteum.

echinodermata

sea stars, urchin, sand dollars; coelomate deuterostomes; complete digestive tract; adults have radial symmetry but are bilateral when young; some features are bilateral (ancestors are believed to have been bilateral).

adaptations that have evolved as a result of convolution

secondary compounds camouflage aposematic coloration mimicry pollination

mast cells

secrete *histamine* and work in the allergic and inflammatory response.

Osteoblasts

secrete collagen and organic compounds upon which bone is formed. ◦ '*Incapable of mitosis* ◦ As matrix is released around them, they are enveloped by the matrix and *differentiate into osteocytes.*

Ceruminous glands

secrete ear wax

mammary glands

secrete milk

Bulbourethral glands (aka Cowper's)

secrete small amount of fluid of unknown function into urethra.

What happens to contents of lamellar bodies

secreted by exocytosis into EC spaces between stratum granulosum and corneum

serotonin

secreted from the enterochromaffin cells of the gastrointestinal tract. affect hunger, mood, and body temperature

cholecystokinin

secreted from the small intestine, causes the contarction of the gallbladder to release bile in the presence of high fatty food

secretin

secreted from the small intestine, neutralizes the acidity of chyme by enhancing the secretion of alkaline bicarbonate

pancreases

secretes *bicarbonate*; also acts as exocrine gland releasing major enzymes from acinar cells via pancreatic duct => duodenum - Trypsin & chymotrypsin (proteases), lipase, pancreatic amylase, deoxy&ribonucleases - All exist as *zymogens/proenzymes* (inactive) first. Trypsin gets activated, then activates the other enzymes - These enzymes in alkaline solution (pancreatic duct => duodenum)

stomach

secretes *gastric juice* (digestive enzymes and HCl) - food enters stomach through lower *esophageal/cardiac sphincter*. The stomach contains exocrine glands (local secretion by way of duct) within *gastric pits *(indentations in stomach that denote entrance to the gastric glands, which contain secreting chief cells, parietal cells, and mucous cells (secrete mucus to prevent backwash)

Prostate gland

secretes milky alkaline fluid into urethra; neutralizes acidity of urine that may still be in urethra, also vagina acidity. Also neutralizes seminal fluid (too acidic from metabolic waste of sperm)

gastrin

secretes stimulation of HCl when food is in the stomach

cotyledon

seed leaf store food for the germinating seedling

community ecology

seek to understand how abiotic factors and interactions between populations affect the composition and distribution of communities.

quantitativ genetics

sees the evolution traits as four tasks: (1) estimate heritability, (2) determine the response to selection, (3) examine the effect of environment, and (4) determine the genetic location of quantitative trait loci (1) VG is quantified as heritability. Heritability is a property of a population. within a population. (2) One of three responses can occur to selection: directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection (3) Look for a reaction norm, the distribution of phenotypes for one genotype over a range of environmental conditions. (4) Quantitative trait loci (QTL): the genetic loci that contribute to a quantitative trait. If we want to identify loci that are important for a quantitative trait we can do QTL mapping.

annelida

segmented worms (Leeches - have suckers at both ends for attachment and movement and are predators of small animals/blood parasites; earthworms; and polychaete worms - mostly marine, exhibit variety lifestyles). Septa divide the coelom into separate compartments.

reciprocal selection

selection that occurs in two species due to their interactions with one another

semicircular canals

sense of balance

basidiomycota

septa, reproduce sexually by producing haploid *basidiospores*. Plasmogamy => mitosis =>fruiting body (*basidiocarp*) such as mushroom; Karyogamy occurs in terminal hyphal cells called basidia, followed by meiosis to produce 4 haploid basidiospores.

endosperm

serve as food for a flowering plant embryo, and later for the germinating seedling -3N cell develops into specialized endosperm tissue (one of the sperm cells unite with the egg to form a zygote. the nucleus of the second sperm unites with this pair to form a 3N celll. )

extracellular digestion

several plants must obtain nutrient from environment •Fungi -rhizoids of bread mold, secrete enzymes into bread, producing simple digestive products which are then absorbed by diffusion into rhizoid •Venus flytrap - enzymes digest trapped fly (serves as nitrate source); hetero and autotrophic

guild (diffuse) coevolution

several species involved and the responses are not independent

androgens

sex hormones these hormones are converted elsewhere in the body to form estrogens and androgens; however, these steroid hormones are produced in much larger amounts by the gonads.

fisher-muller hypothesis

sexual reproduction can combine beneficial mutations from different individuals, accelerating adaptive evolution ▪ Generates novel phenotypes ▪ Clearance of deleterious mutations

class chondrichthyes

sharks and rays Have a flexible skeleton made of *cartilage*. ▪ Some are suspension feeders while others are adept predators. have a *lateral line system*, a row of sensory organs running along each side that are *sensitive to changes in water pressure* and can detect minor vibrations caused by animals swimming nearby. Bodies of sharks are streamlined for swimming in the open ocean. ▪ Rays are adapted for life on the bottom of the ocean. Their bodies are dorsoventrally flattened, with eyes on the top of the head. The tails of stingrays bear sharp spines with venom and glands at the base.

bottlenecks

sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental effects (i.e. earthquakes, floods, etc.) or human activities (i.e. genocide).

Graded potentials

shifts in the membrane potential that do not reach the threshold needed for an action potential. ▪ Can be a hyperpolarization or a depolarization.

shoot growing

shoot grows from *apical meristem*, which is a dome-shaped mass of dividing cells at the tip of the terminal bud. Elongation occurs just below this meristem, and the elongating cells push the apical meristem upward. As the apical meristem advances upward, some of its cells remain behind, and these become new axillary bud meristems at the base of the leaves.

electron microscopy

shoots electrons at a sample which has been *fixed and metal coated*. = kills the cell eletrons travel within a vacuum

effector cells

short-lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen and any pathogens producing that antigens. The effector forms of B cells are *plasma cells*, which secretes antibodies. The effector forms of T cells are *helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells*.

Sigma factor

sigma factor binds to core RNA polymerase to form RNA polymerase holoenzyme (coenzyme+enzyme) makes prokaryotic RNA pol have more specific binding to promoter regions

single muscle fiber

sing long fiber cell that has many nuclei and myofibrils has sarcoplasm, sarcoplasmic recticum, sarcolemma, myofibril(into sarcomere) and mitochondria

promoter

site where RNA polymerase binds

Operator

site where repressor protein binds

Class chondrichthys

skates and sharks

pons

sleep and dreaming

steroid hormones

small and non polar. diffuse through plasma membrane cannot move through blood(polar/hydrophili) so need carrier proteins to be transported in the blood (when on carrier proteins, the bioavailability of hormones decreases) synthesized in smooth ER from cholestrol. include glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids(adrenal cortex; cortisol or aldosterone), estrogen.. other sex hormones

characteristics of model organisms

small, easy to culture, have short generation times have small genomes, and are easy to transport.

diameter of intermediate, microfilaments and microtubuels

small: microfilaments intermediate: intermediate filaments large: microtubules

snRNPs

snRNA(small neclear RNA) + spliceosome

mollusca

snail, octopus (highly developed NS w/ complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (2 part shells e.g. clams and mussels); no shell in octopus, small and internal shell in squid. *coelomate* bodies, complete digestive tract, usually open circulatory system w/ internal cavity called *hemocoel*. *Exoskeletons* are *CaCO3* *radula*= mini tooth to break down food before it enters digestive tract - Class Gastropoda - largest Molluscan class; ex. slugs & snails; characterized by single shell - Class Cephalopoda - octopus and squid; have high O2 demand, giant nerve fibers,* closed circulatory system + tentacles* - Class Bivalvia - clams, mussels, scallops, oysters

ammonification

some bacteria convert nitrogen to ammonia, which will rapidly dissolve in water to produce NH4+ *N2-> NH3* *nitrogen fixing bacteria in root nodules, or in soil or lightning*

Kingdom Fungi

some fungi grow as filaments *(hyphae)*, *Mycellium* is a mass of hyphae; some fungi have* septum* which divide filament into compartments containing single nucleus.Those *w/out septa* are *coenocytic*(multi-nucleate). - Cell walls contain *chitin* - Fungi are either parasites/saprobes (decomposer) absorbing food products due to digestive enzymes. Parasitic fungi have hyphae (*haustoria*) that penetrate host.

shuttle vectors

some have multiple ori sites so it can be used in more than one species

segmentation

sometimes repetitive and sometimes specialized (seen in: arthropods, annelids, chordates)

cline

spatial gradient in genotypes and phenotypes that exists because of different selective conditions

Kupfer cells

specialized macrophages that are in liver

statoliths

specialized starch-storing plastids

allopatric speciation

speciation between populations that are geographically separated.

cospeciation

speciation in one species leads to speciation in another.

biological species concept

species are composed of actually or potentially *interbreeding individuals that are reproductively isolated.* Problems: • restricted to sexual, outcrossing (not selfing) organisms • doesn't have a concept of time (i.e. can't say whether today's sunflower could interbreed with a sunflower fossil) • there is no way to practically test reproductive isolation • hybrids

phylogenetic species concept

species are defined as the smallest monophyletic group

why are species important

species are important because many species are the basic biological unit and the study of speciation is essential for biology

evolutionary arms race

species interact antagonistically in a way that result in each species exerting reciprocal directional selection on the other. • Example would be in predation and herbivory interactions. The prey will evolve to gain defense from the predator. Then the predator will evolve in response to the prey's adaptation so they can continue eating the prey.

6)fusion of nuclei and replication of DNA

sperm and ovum nuclei fuse to create the zygote

internal fertilization

sperm is deposited in or near the female reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs within the tract. requires copulation (sexual intercourse)

arthropoda

spiders, insects, crustaceans; jointed appendages, well-developed nervous system; specialized body segments, exoskeleton (chitin). Two kinds of life cycles: Nymphs (small version of adult, change shape as growth proceeds). Larvae are maggots specialized for eating; when they reach certain size => enclose themselves within pupa (cocoon) to undergo metamorphosis into adults (specialized to disperse and reproduce). Classes include: - Insects - three pairs of legs, spiracles, tracheal tubes for breathing. More species than any other class on earth. - Arachnids - four pair of legs and "book lungs" (spiders & scorpions) - Crustaceans (subphylum)- segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles

post-transcriptional modifications

splicing

photolysis

splitting of water molecule

porifera (parazoa)

sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (*choanocytes*-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through *osculum* opening. Choanocytes pass food to *amoebocytes* (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains *spicules* (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed). Used in development + research of antibiotics.)

invasive speices

spreading far beyond the original point of introduction and causing environmental or economic damage by colonizing and dominating wherever they find a suitable habitat.

three types of epithelial tissue

squamous: thin flat plates with elliptical nuclei cuboidal : square shaped and can be found in ducts of the glands columnar: can be cilitated and found in the nose and fallopian tubes

linkage disequilibrium

statistical association of alleles at different loci due to linkage. ▪ For example,* if A is more likely to be with B than b, then there is linkage disequilibrium.* ▪ Sources of linkage disequilibrium: • mutations • natural selection • migration • genetic drift • mating preference

Cytokinins

stimulate cytokinesis [cell division], stimulate organogenesis; stimulate growth of lateral buds;* delay senescence* (aging) of leaves. The ratio of *auxin:cytokinin* affects cell growth.

interleukins

stimulate proliferation of T cells, B cells and macrophages. positive feedback of activating T helper cells.

chewing

stimulates release of salivary amylase in the mouth

basophils

store histamine and work in inflammatory response. Are the least common WBC.

intracellular digestion

store primarily *starc*h in seeds, stems, and roots; when nutrients are required, polymers are broken down (into glucose, fatty acid, glycerol, and amino acids) by enzymatic hydrolysis

Which layer of epidermis varies most in thickness

stratum corneum; esp thick in callused skin

Where does cell division occur in epidermis

stratum germinativum; 1 cell remains other is pushed toward surface

Cells in epidermis pushed into

stratum spinosum

distension of the stomach

stretching = distension -> signal for G cells -> G cell release gastrin -> gastrin stimulate parietal cells -> release of gastric juice (HCl) gastrin also stimulates chief cells(pepsinogen)

Hypodermis - what type of tissue?

subcutaneous tissue / fascia deep to dermis; provides anchorage

how do proteins take new functions?

subfunctionalization neofunctionalization promiscuous protiens gene recruitment gene duplicatoin

Macroglial

subgroups: 1) scwann cells(myelin sheath) 2) Astrocytes (provide blood supply 3)Satellite cells (similar to astrocytes but in PNS) 4)Ependymal cells (create cerebrospinal fluid which bathes the spinal cord and the brain

founder effects

subsample of a population move to a new area

vaccines

substances that stimulate the production of memory cells. Inactivated viruses or fragments of viruses, bacteria, or other microorganisms are used as vaccines. Once memory cells have formed, the introduction of a live microorganism will stimulate a swift response by the immune system before any disease can become established. ▪ vaccine = active immunity that is artificially acquired

lamellae

successive bone layers are formed in circles- these bone lyaers are called *lamella*. At the junction between lamella, there is a cavity known as *lacunae*. The lacunae cavity contains bone cells, called *osteocytes*. when osteoblasts have trapped themselves with the collagen matrix the osteoblast is secreting, it turns into an osteocyte.

complex adaptation

suites of coexpressed traits that together experience selection for a function

Bone function

supports soft tissue, protects internal organs, assists in body movement, stores minerals (mainly calcium), produces blood cells, and *stores energy in the form of adipose cells in bone marrow.*

Appendular skeleton

supports the attachment and functions of the upper and lower limbs of the human body. Consist of pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, upper limbs (arms) and lower limbs (legs).

Epiplagic

surface layer of water, only photic zone since enough light for penetration, nearly all primary production of ocean occurs hear

arteries

sympathetic NS

peptide hormone

synthesized in the rough ER as a larger preprohormone, cleaved in the ER lumen to a prohormone and then cleaved/modified in the golgi body to the final form. ▪ Includes: FSH, LH, ACTH, HGH, TSH, prolactin, ADH, oxytocin, PTH, glucagon and insulin ▪ water-soluble hormones, so they cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane. ▪ They attach to a membrane receptor and initiate signal transduction pathways. Secondary messengers are created along the pathways; which create the actual effects. This is* indirect stimulation.*

DNA polymerase III

synthesizes DNA in a 5' to 3'

sensory input

the conduction of signals from sensory receptors to the central nervous system

telencephalon

telencephalon = cerebral cortex + olfactory bulb

two types of buds

terminal bud and axillary buds

amphibians

tetrapods - vertebrates with two pairs of limbs ◦ Amphibians include salamanders, frogs, and caecilians. They are *bilateral, triploblasts, eumetazoa, coelomates, have three chambered hearts, complete brains, gills, and alimentary canals.* ◦ Most amphibians are found in damp habitats, where *their most skin supplements their lungs for gas exchange.* ◦ Amphibian skin usually has poison glands that may play a role in defense. ◦ Many amphibians "live a double life." For example, frogs spend much of its time on land, but lay their eggs in water. Eggs are encapsulated in a jellylike material so they must be surrounded by moisture to prevent them from drying out. ◦ The larval stage, called a *tadpole*, is a legless, aquatic algae-eater with gills, a lateral line system, and a long, finned tail. In changing into a frog, the tadpole undergoes a *radical metamorphosis.* ◦ Not all amphibians live such a double life; some are strictly terrestrial and some are strictly aquatic. ◦ The term *toad* is a term generally used to refer to frogs that have rough skin and live entirely in terrestrial habitats. ◦ Amphibians were the first vertebrates to colonize the land. However, the distribution of amphibians was limited by their vulnerability to dehydration.

Parenchyma cells

the *most abundant* type of cell in most plants. They usually only have primary cell walls, which are thin and flexible. They perform most of the metabolic functions of a plant and food storage. Most parenchyma cells can divide and differentiate into other types of plant cells under certain conditions, such as during the repair of an injury.

phenotypic plasticity

the ability to change phenotype in response to local nvironmental conditions. • Phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to cope with short-term environmental changes.

divergent evolution

the accumulation of differences between groups which can lead to the formation of new species, usually a result of diffusion of the same species to a different and isolated environments which blocks the gene flow among the distinct populations allowing differentiated fixation of characteristics.

striation

the alternating between the thin actin filaments and the thick myosin filaments is responsible for striations in the skeletal muscle.

Net primary production

the amount of biomass produced minus the amount used by producers as fuel for their own cellular respiration.

biomass

the amount, or mass of living organic material in the ecosystem

per capita rate of increase

the average contribution of each individual to population growth (r) Per capita rate of increase = number of births/total number of people

flexion

the bending of a joint

inflammatory response

the changes brought about by signaling molecules released upon injury or infection. -histamine -complement system -phagocytes -cytokines -pus -fever

lack clutch

the clutch size (number of eggs laid in a single brood by a nesting pair of birds) that maximizes the number of surviving offspring. • Trade-off between clutch size and offspring survival.

Gene recruitment

the co-option of a particular gene or network for a totally different function as a result of mutation.

deserts

the driest of all terrestrial biomes, characterized by low and unpredictable rainfall • Large tracts of desert occur in two regions of descending dry air centered around 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south latitudes. • At higher latitudes, large deserts may occur in the rain shadows of mountains. ▪ Deserts experience large daily temperature fluctuations, hot during the day, cold at night. ▪ The cycles of growth and reproduction of plants in the desert are keyed to rainfall. ▪ Plants and animals adapt to conserve as much water as possible. ▪ The process of desertification, the conversion of semi-arid regions to desert, is a significant environmental problem.

transpiration

the evaporation of water from a plant's surface. Transpired water is replaced as water travels up from the roots.

kin selection

the evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction Kin altruism is altruistic behaviour whose evolution is driven by kin selection. Kin selection is an instance of *inclusive fitness,* which combines the number of offspring produced with the number an individual can ensure the production of by supporting others, such as siblings.

external fertilization

the female releases eggs into the environemnt moist habitat is mostly required for external fertil.

2)acrosomal reaction

the hydrolytic enzymes make a hole in the jelly coat. *Actin filaments extend from the sperm* onto sperm-binding receptors (ZP3) on the plasma membrane (zona pellucida) of the egg.

coevolution

the influence of closely associated species on each other in their evolution.

embryonic induction

the influence of one cell group or group of cells over neighboring cells. Cells that exert this influence are called organizers; they do this by secreting chemicals that diffuse to neighboring cells, influencing their development. ▪ The dorsal lip functions as an organizer for the notochord.

population dynamics

the interactions between biotic and abiotic factors that cause variation in population sizes.

life history

the investment of an organism make sin growth in reproduction

self tolerance

the lack of reactivity against an animal's own molecules and cells As lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow or thymus, their antigen receptors are tested for self-reactivity. If this fails the test, they are destroyed by apoptosis.

canaliculi

the lamella surround a central canal, known as the haversian canal. the haversian canal contains the blood supply for cortical bone. The lacunae in an osteon are connected to each other, as well as to the central haverisan canal by small canals, known as *canaliculi*. it helps to spread nutrients throughout the bone.

replicon

the length of DNA that is replicated following one initiation event at a single region.

prevailing winds

the major global air movements Prevailing winds (pink arrows) result from the combined effects of the rising and falling of air masses (blue and brown arrows) and Earth's rotation (gray arrows). ▪ Because Earth is spherical, its surface moves faster at the equator (where the diameter is greatest) than at other latitudes. • In the tropics, Earth's rapidly moving surface deflects vertically circulating air, making the *trade winds *blow from east to west. • In temperate zones, the slower-moving surface produces the *westerlies*, winds that blow from west to east. • doldrum in the equator

B-form DNA

the most stable structure for DNA molecule under physiological conditions. right-handed, 10bp major: wide, deep minor: narrow, shallow

totipotent stem cells

the most versatile of stem cell types. Can give rise to ANY and ALL human cells. Can give rise to an entire organism. First few divisions in embryonic development produce totipotent cells.

flagellin

the name of the protein building blocks that from the flagella in prokayotes in Eukaryotic flagella -microtubule proteins in Prokayotic flagella-flagellin proteins

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

the neurotransmitter at most inhibitory synapses in the brain. ▪ Binding of GABA to receptors in postsynatpic cells increases membrane permeability to Cl-, resulting in an IPSP.

effective population size

the number of individuals in an ideal population (where every individual reproduces, no migration, mutation, etc.) in which the rate of genetic drift (measured by the decline in heterozygosity) would be the same as it is in the actual population. the smaller it is, the less variation exists in the population the number of individuals in a population who contribute offspring to the next generation. In an ecological sense, the size of a population can be measured by simply counting the number of adults in a locality. the size of an ideal population (i.e., one that meets all the Hardy-Weinberg assumptions) that would lose heterozygosity at a rate equal to that of the observed population.

mycoplasma

the only genus of bacteria that contains cholesterol in its membrane. all other prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes.

Myoglobin

the oxygen-storing protein

Axial skeleton

the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and the trunk (skull, vertebra and ribs) of a vertebrate.

Sarcolemma

the plasma membrane of muscle cells - It can propagate an action potential - It is invaginated by *transverse tubules*, channels for ion flow. - It wraps several myofibrils together to form a muscle cell/muscle fiber

insertion

the point of attachment of muscle to bone that moves muscle attaches to the more movable end of a bone

Origin

the point of attachment of muscle to stationary bone muscle attaches to the less movable end of a bone

genetic hitchhiking

the process by which an allele is able to "ride along" with a nearby favorable allele to which it is physically linked and thus increase in frequency

genetic drift

the process of random fluctuation in allele frequencies due to *sampling effects.* This is only seen in finite populations. *occurs when a small, non representative sample of a population evolves independently due to less genetic variation within the group \

Convergent evolution

the process whereby organisms not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.

esophagus

tube leading to stomach, food travels by contractions (*peristalsis*),

behavior

the result of both genetic and environmental factors ▪ Just like phenotype, behavior is the result of the environment as well as genes. ▪ Many environmental factors, including diet and social interactions, can modify how genetic instructions are carried out.

ecology

the scientific study of the interactions of organisms with the environment.

benthic realm

the seafloor

Self-pruning

the shedding of lower shaded leaves when they respire more than they photosynthesize.

antigenic determinant

the site on an antigen to which an antibody binds, thus forming an antigen-antibody complex

petiole

the stalk that joins a leaf to a stem; leafstalk.

simple neuroendocrine pathway

the stimulus is received by a sensory neuron, which stimulates a neurosecretory cell. The neurosecretory cell then secretes a neurohormone, which will diffuse into the bloodstream and travel to target cells.

Extension

the straighteninng of a joint

Behavioral ecology

the study of behavior in an evolutionary context. Tries to describe the details of animal behavior and investigate how they develop, evolve, and contribute to the animal's survival and reproductive success.

quantitative genetics

the study of quantitative traits and the genotype-phenotype connection. They study genotype-phenotype starting from the phenotype and go down. Tries to answer the question: how much of the phenotypic variation (in a trait) we see in a population is due to genetic variation and not other things (like environment). V_P =V_G + V_E Where VG = variation due to genes, VE = variation due to environment, and VP = observed variation in the phenotype.

biogeography

the study of the distribution of species in space and time

phylogeography

the study of the processes that govern the geographical distribution of genes within species and populations.

continental shelves

the submerged parts of continents

eponychium (cuticle)

the thickened layer of skin surrounding fingernails and toenails. Its function is to protect the area between the nail and epidermis from exposure to bacteria.

alimentary canal

the whole passage along which food passes through the body from mouth to anus. It includes the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.

vitelline layer

the zona pellucida is the mammalian equivalent to the vitelline lyaer of the sea urchin.

functions of the skin

thermoregulation protection environmental sensory input excretion (water and salts excreted through skin) immunity blood reservoir (vessels in the dermis hold up to 10% of the blood in resting adult ) vitamin D synthesis

pharynx (throat)

this is where food and air passages cross; the *epiglottis*, flap of tissue, blocks trachea so only solid and liquid enter...

5)entry of sperm nucleus

this triggers meiosis II

tunicates

thought to be the first group to branch from the chordate lineage. ◦ Unlike tunicates, all other chordates have a brain, albeit a small one in the lancelets (only a swollen tip of the nerve cord).

photosynthesis: light dependent reaction

thylakoid memebrane H2O= eletron donor (photosysem II oxides H2O) ETC: more H+ inside of thylakoid.

DNA microarray

to determine which genes are expressed and which genes are not expressed in a given sample.(at a given stage in the organism's development or under a particular set of environmental conditions.) Steps: 1) Begin with a glass slide or chip. Attach thousands of copies of DNA for the genes you want to test for. 2) take all mRNA being transcribe and convert it to cDNA. 3) Use the cDNA as a probe and wash it over your chip. The cDNA will hybridize (bond) to the complementary strands if they match. When they do, they will light up with florescence. The brighter the signal, the more you know that gene is being transcribed.

epicotyl

top portion of embryo becomes *shoot tip*

two types of xylem tissue

tracheids and vessel elements Both have rigid, lignin-containing secondary cell walls. Most xylem cells are *dead* at maturity; that is, they are essentially cell wall, completely lacking cellular components, and contain only the material being transported.

Vascular plants

tracheophytes ): true root, leaves, and stems; germination of antheridium + archegonium (swim) produces diploid zygote into sporophyte (dominant generation).

bright field microscopes

traditional microscopes (=compound microscope; many lenses) light illumiinate the sample has poor contrast and samples are best viewed when fixed and stained

Melanocytes Melanin

transfer skin pigment melanin to keratinocytes MElanin protects the cell nucleus from UV. individual and racial diff in skin color is due to diff in melanocyte activity mainly stratum basale

Vas deferens

transfer sperms from one epididymis to urethra

integrin

transmembrane proteins that send signals to the cell about its extracellular environment. the signals tell the cell whether it should grow, divide, differentiate, or undergo apoptosis.

Sensory (afferent) neurons

transmit information about external stimuli or internal conditions

Penis

transport semen (fluid containing sperm and secretions) into vagina.

deciduous tree

trees shedding its leaves annually

three germ layers

triploblastic

greatest specie diversity is in

tropical forest

each gene pair tends to assort into gametes independently of other gene pairs that are located on non-homologous chromosomes = true or false

true

Red blood cells are the most abundant type of blood cell

true make up 40% of the cells in blood.

true breeding

true breeding organisms are pure breeding. It is homozygous for its traits.

components of hemoglobin can be excreted from the body through the gastrointestinal tract

true: heme(from broken down hemoglobin) becomes *bilirubin*, and bilirubin is transported to the liver and forms *bile*. Build is secreted into the GI tract and some of it will be excreted from the body during defecation

tubulin

tubulin protein arranges to make up microtubules -function in providing structural integrity to the cell as part of the cytoskeleton (along with microfilaments and intermediate filaments) microtubules also act in the flagella

dicot

two cotyledons four, five or multiples -floral branched veins on leaf vascular bundles arranged in ring in the center taproot

T cell antigen receptor

two diff polypepptide chians, alpha and beta , linked by a disulfide bridge. variable regions of the alpha and beta form a single-antigen binding site remainder = constant region T cells can bind only to fragments of antigens that are displayed, or presented, on the surface of host cells, unlike B cells (to attack)

spleen and liver

two main sites that contribute to breaking down and recycling old red blood cells. part of mononuclaer phagocyte system , also known as the reticuloendothelial system.

physical linkage

two or more loci on the same chromosome. In the absence of recombination, loci that are physically linked segregate in the production of gametes. If genes are close enough together on the same chromosome, they will not independently segregate.

specific coevolution

two species evolve in response to each other.

Resource partitioning

two species occupy *same niche but pursue slightly different resources *or securing their resources in different ways, individuals minimize competition and maximize success (multiple species-slightly different niches).

Competitive exclusion principle (Gause's principle)

two species* compete for exactly the same resources *(or occupy the same niche), one is likely to be more successful (no two species can sustain coexistence if they occupy the same niche).

type 1 diabetic type 2 diabetic

type 1: low production of insulin ( insensitive) type 2:

balancing selection

type of selection that favors an intermediate phenotype (heterozyote) and leads to a balanced polymorphism. occur b/c of overdominance

antigen

typically foreign and are large molecules that protrude from the surface of foreign cells or viruses. ▪ In adaptive immunity, recognition occurs when a B or T cell binds to an antigen via *antigen receptor*. ▪ All of the antigen receptors made by a single B or T cell are identical. ▪binds to just one part of one molecule from a particular pathogen. -can bind to epitopes of intact antigens on pathogens or circulating free in body fluids

mosaicism

undergo *nondisjunction in mitosis* during embryonic development; fraction of body cells have extra or missing chromosome.

buds

undeveloped shoots

DNA helicase

unwinds the DNA helix

Where is thickest skin

upper portion of back based on thickness of dermis; still considered "thin skin" because of epidermal thickness

Langerhans' cells uptake and do what

uptake antigens in skin and transport to lymph node

inheritance of acquired characteristics

use and disuse: body parts can develop with increased usage and unused parts were weakened. body features acquired during the lifetime can be passed down to offspring

pulsed field gel electrophoresis

used to separate the fragments of YAC when cut up by restriction endonucleases. It is a variation of gel electrophoresis that can separate very large DNA segments.

neutral variation

variation without selective value (e.g. fingerprints in humans) Most molecular variation in populations is selectively neutral and most mutations in DNA, and RNA are selectively neutral. Therefore, genetic drift is the most important process in DNA sequence change (not selection).

living tissues in a tree trunk

vascular cambium, the youngest secondadry phloem, the cork cambium, and cells in the wood rays the rest is dead

systole phase

ventricles contract blood is forced through pulmonary arteries and aorta (to the lungs and to the body)

diastole phase

ventricles relax backflow into ventricles causes semilunar valves to close

Acetylcholine

vital for nervous system function that includes muscle stimulation, memory formation, and learning. Two main acetylcholine receptors: ligand-gated ion(neuromuscular junction, EPSP) and metabotropic receptor (G protein , IPSP)

Skeletal muscle

voluntary, striated, and moves bone. It is multi-nucleated. They generally don't undergo mitosis to create new cells (*hyperplasia*), but will increase in size (*hypertrophy*).

oomycota

water molds, milders, white rusts; either parasites or *saprobes* (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter); form filaments (*hyphae*) which secrete enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi do.* Hyphae lacks septa* (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; so they are *coenocytic* (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of cellulose rather than chitin of fungi. name might be confusing but its protist!!! not fungi

operant conditioning

when an animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with either a reward or a punishment. B.F.Skinner

stomata

when closed --> CO2 not available --> cannot photosynthesize when open --> CO2 can enter leaf --> photosyntheisze but plant riskes desiccation from traspiration (loss of water) About 95% of the water a plant loses escapes through stomata

florigen

when flowering is initiated, this flowering hormone is produced in leaves and travels to shoot tips

stomata will open more readily when guard cells __________

when guard cells become turgid Stomata allow gas exchange to occur between the plant interior and exterior environment. Guard cells surround the opening and dictate whether or not the pore is open. If an* influx of wate*r into the guard cells causes them to become *turgid*, stomata will *open*. On the other hand, if an *efflux of water out *of the guard cells causes them to become* flaccid*, stomata will *close*.

epistasis

when mutation at one gene masks phenotypic effects of mutation at another gene ▪ If the epistatic gene is recessive, then the phenotype will be the same, regardless of the genotype of the other gene. If A is epistatic over B, then aaBB, aaBb, aabb will all produce the same phenotype. ▪ F2 generation would see a *9:4:3 *frequency.

Directional selection

when one allele is favored over another, selection drives in one direction. If that allele is consistently being favored over a long period of time, then the allele will reach fixation. this is an example of underdominance

passive immunity

when the antibodies in the blood of a pregnant female cross the placenta to her fetus. ▪ Newborn infants are protected by passive immunity also by drinking breast milk. Breast milk contains antibodies.

antagnoistic coevolution

when the effect of interaction is negative.

Cooperativity of hemoglobins

when the first O2 bind,s many salt bridges are broken or distubed upon bidning. the consequence of this is a conformational change in the molecules and additional O2 moleclues can more easily bind

Geese following Konrad Lorenz

when the incubator-hatched graylag goslings spent their first few hours with Lorenz, rather than their mother, they steadfastly followed Lorenz and showed no recognition of their mother or other adults of their species. Lorenz showed that the most important imprinting stimulus f or graylag geese was the movement of an object away from the hatchlings

Intrinsic rate

when the reproductive rate (r) is maximum (biotic potential)

test cross

when you cross a *phenotypically dominant * (Aa or AA) with a homozygous recessive (aa).

refractory period

where a second action potential cannot be initiated. This limits the maximum frequency at which an action potential can be generated. It is due to inactivation of sodium channels.

Alveoli

where gas exchange between the circulatory system and the lungs occurs; *surfactant *reduces the surface tension (prevents H2O from collapsing alveoli). There are two types of epithelial cells in human alveoli: *type 1 *(structural support) and *type 2* (produce surfactant)

Thick filaments

which are staggered arrays of myosin molecules.

Neutrophils

which circulate in the blood, are attracted by chemicals from infected tissues in a process called chemotaxis and then engulf and destroy the infecting pathogens. ◦ Are the most common WBC. ◦ Move into tissues via diapedesis.

haploinsufficient

wild type x null allele null allele=dominant b/c WW (normal), WN(no trait) , NN(no trait) since W is haploinsufficient. *Null acts dominantly to haloinsufficient wild type*

chordates

with notochord when developing

xylem vs. phloem

xylem: dead phloem: living but lack nuclues and ribosomes

yellow bone marrow vs. red bone marrow

yellow: contains adipose cells for fat storage red: the site of RBC development

plumule

young leaves often attached to epicotyl; pulmule can refer to both together

fungi

zygomycetes, basidiomycetes, and ascomycetes = fungi Lichem = combination of blue-green algae and fungi (algae supplies the food while the fungus protects the alga and absorbs water and minerals for both)

six fungus groups

zygomycota, glomeromycota, ascomycota, basidiomycota, euteromycota, lichems

Pits

• *Pits,* where the cell wall is relatively thin, allow migration of water between plant cells.

plasmodesmata

• *Plasmodesmata* are open channels in adjacent cell walls through which cytoplasm and various molecules can flow from cell to cell.

Vascular tissue system

• *Xylem* tissue contains water-conducting cells that convey water and dissolved minerals upward from roots. (No ATP used; unidirectional) •* Phloem *tissue contains cells that transport sugars and other organic nutrients from leaves or storage tissues to other parts of the plant. (ATP used; active transport)

plant cell wall

• A primary cell wall is laid down first, and then a more rigid secondary cell wall forms between the plasma membrane and the primary wall. • The primary cell walls in adjacent cells in plant tissues are held together by a sticky layer called the* middle lamella*.

rivers and streams

• A river or stream changes greatly between its source and the point at which it empties into the lake or ocean. • Near the source, the water is usually cold, low in nutrients, and clear. The channel is often narrow, with a swift current that does not allow much to accumulate on the bottom. • Downstream, a river or stream generally widens and slows. The water is usually warmer and murkier because of sediments and phytoplankton suspended in it.

Archaea

• Archaea are prokaryotes but differ from bacteria. • Archael *cell walls* (different from bacteria) contain various *polysaccharides and proteins, but not peptidoglycan.* • *Phospholipid* components (different from eukaryotes and bacteria): glycerol with ether-linkages instead of ester-linkages.

genetic drift, mutation, and selection

• Beneficial mutations may not always go to fixation because initial mutations will be so infrequent at first, selection has to be strong enough to overcome genetic drift. • Genetic drift may overpower natural selection in very small populations (even if they are frequent at first. Two important elements that determine if selection or drift will dominate are effective population size and the strength of selection

examples of communication

• Chemical - chemicals used for communication are called pheromones. May be smelled or eaten. ◦ Chemicals that trigger reversible behavioral changes are called releaser pheromones. ◦ Chemicals that trigger long term physiological and behavior changes are called primer pheromones • Visual - occur during displays of aggression or during courtship • Auditory • Tactile: common in social bonding, infant care, grooming, and mating

Mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization

• Dioecious species have staminate and carpellate flowers on separate plants. • Others have stamens and carpels that mature at different times or are arranged to prevent selfing. • The most common is self-incompatibility, a plant's ability to reject its own pollen. Recognition of a self pollen triggers a signal transduction pathway leading to a block in growth of a pollen tube.

Bacteria

• Distinct from archaea and eukaryotes by these features: ◦ cell wall made up peptidoglycan ◦ bacterial DNA not associated with histones ◦ ribosome activity is inhibited by streptomycin and chloramphenicol

modified leaves

• Grasses and many other monocots have long leaves without petioles. • Some eudicots, such as celery, have enormous petioles. • Some plants have a modified leaf called a *tendril*, with its tips coiled around a support structure. Tendrils help plants climb.

lakes and ponds

• In the benthic realm, large population of microorganisms decompose dead organisms that sink to the bottom. Respiration by these microbes remove oxygen from water. • Temperature plays an important role in these biomes: during the summer, deep lakes have a distinct upper layer of water that has been warmed by the sun and does not mix with the underlying, cooler water. • The mineral nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus typically determine the amount of phytoplankton growth in a lake or pond.

young dicot root

• In the center of the root, the vascular tissue system forms a *vascular cylinder*. The outer part of the vascular cylinder consists of one to several layers of cells called the *pericycle*, from which lateral roots arise. • The cortex cells store food as starch and take up minerals that have entered the root through the epidermis. The innermost layer of the cortex is the *endodermis*, a cylinder one cell thick.

pyramid of production

• Producers convert only 1% of the energy in the sunlight available to them to primary production. • Ideally, 10% of the energy available at each trophic level becomes incorporated into the next higher level (usually ranges from 5% to 20%).

mating systems

• Promiscuous: no strong pair-bonds or lasting relationships between males and females • Monogamous: a bond between one male and one female, with shared parental care • Polygamous: An individual of one sex mating with several of the other ◦ Polygamous relationships often involve a single male and many females

sieve tube

• Sieve-tube elements remain alive at maturity, although they lose most organelles, including the nucleus and ribosomes. This reduction in cell contents enables nutrients to pass more easily through the cell. • The end walls between sieve-tube members, called *sieve plates*, have pores that allow fluid to flow from cell to cell along the sieve tube.

Archaea

• Similarity with eukaryotes (*Archaea is more similar to eukaryotes than bacteria*): ◦ DNA of both archaea and eukaryotes are associated with histones, but bacterial DNA is not. ◦ Ribosome activity is not inhibited by certain antibiotics, unlike bacteria.

Three transport routes for water and solutes

• The apoplastic route, through cell walls and extracellular spaces. • The symplastic route, through the cytosol. • The transmembrane route, across cell walls.

tracheids and vessel elements

• Tracheids are long, thin cells with tapered ends. • Vessel elements are wider, shorter, and less tapered. A column of vessel members is called a vessel. Water passes from one vessel member to another through areas that lack 1st and 2nd cell walls. These areas are called* perforations* and are literally holes between cells. • *Vessel elements are more efficient at moving water than tracheids*; therefore, vessel elements are considered a more evolutionary advanced feature. They are found most predominantly among the *flowering plants.*

young monocot root

• an outer layer of epidermis (dermal tissue), surrounding a large cortex (ground tissue), with a vascular cylinder (vascular tissue) at the center surrounded by the *pericycle*. • But in a monocot root, the vascular tissue consists of a central core of cells (pith) surrounded by a ring of xylem and a ring of phloem.

dermal tissue system

• consists of a single layer of tightly packed cells called* the epidermis*. The epidermis of leaves and most stems has a waxy coating called the *cuticle*, which helps prevent water loss. The cuticle is made up of a waxy material called *cutin.* • Roots do not have a cuticle because having a cuticle would prevent them from absorbing water.

plant respiration

•Photosynthesis only takes place during the day. oPhotosynthesis produces glucose and gives off oxygen oWhile respiration requires oxygen to degrade glucose •Plants undergo aerobic respiration similar to animals oGlucose 2ATP + 2 pyruvic acid oGases diffuse into air space by entering and leaving through stomata of leaves or lenticels in woody stems oAnaerobic respiration takes place in simple plants when molecular oxygen is lacking

Change

∆N/∆t = rN = births - deaths

powering repetitive contraction requires two other storage compounds

▪ *Creatine phosphate*, which will transfer a group from phosphocreatine to ADP in an enzyme-catalyzed transphosphorylation reaction. ( serves as a rapidly mobilizable reserve of high-energy phosphates in skeletal muscle and the brain.) ▪* Glycogen *can be broken down into glucose, which can be metabolized quickly to create ATP.

what might cause increases in speciation

▪ *Key innovation: *phenotypic or genotypic trait that is associated with an increase in diversification. ▪ colonization of a new area (or niche) or expansion into area (or niche) ▪ *Adaptive radiation: *evolutionary lineages that have undergone rapid diversification into a variety of lifestyles or ecological niches.

kinesis

▪ A random movement in response to a stimulus is called a kinesis. • A kinesis may merely be starting or stopping, changing speed, or turning more or less frequently.

protein activation

▪ After translation is complete, some polypeptides require alterations before they become functional. ▪ Post-translational control mechanisms in eukaryotes often involve the cleavage of a polypeptide to yield a smaller final product that is the active protein. ▪ By controlling the timing of such protein modifications, the rate of reactions can be further fine-tuned.

The water cycle

▪ All parts of the biomes are linked by the global water cycle. for almost all metabolic processes. ▪ *Abiotic reservoir*: surface and atmospheric water. ▪ *Enter food chain* plants absorb water from soil; animals drink and eat other organisms ▪ *Recycling*: transpiration ▪ *Return to abiotic*: evaporation and runoff

cognitive map

▪ An animal can move around its environment using landmarks alone. An even more powerful mechanism is a cognitive map, an internal representation, or code, of the spatial relationships among objects in an animal's surroundings.

social learning

▪ Another form of learning is social learning—learning by observing the behavior of others. • For example, many predators seem to learn some of their basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating others.

Axon

▪ Axons are much longer than dendrites. ▪ The axon divides into many branches at its end. ▪ The greater the diameter of the axon, the faster impulses will propagate. This is because larger diameter axons have less resistance to "flow" of ions.

cooperation: costs and benefits

▪ Benefits: vigilance (increased awareness of danger), dilution effect (if a predator attacks, less chance you will be attacked because you are with many other organisms that the predator can attack), enhanced defense, cooperative hunting/foraging, defense of resources ▪ Costs: increased visibility to predators, increased competition for food, increased competition for mates, decreased certainty of paternity, increased disease transmission

Bone growth

▪ Bone formation occurs during the fetal stage of development in a developing human.

Mendelian genetics

▪ Chromosomal crossover and segregation help produce novel allele combinations in gametes. ▪ The random joining of gametes (fertilization in sexual reproduction) produce novel zygote combinations. ▪ Presence of two or more chromosomes (diploidy/polyploidy) permits the presence of a heterozygous condition, where a recessive allele can remain in the gene pool and be "stored" for later generations.

nephron

▪ Each nephron consists of a single long tubule as well as a ball of *glomerulus*. The blind end of the tubule forms a cup-shaped swelling, called *Bowman's capsule*, which surrounds the glomerulus. ▪ Processing occurs as the filtrate passes through three major regions of the nephron: *the proximal tubule the loop of Henle, and the distal tubule.* ▪ A *collecting duct* receives processed filtrate from many nephrons and transports it to the renal pelvis

oxidated fibers

▪ Fibers that rely mostly on aerobic respiration - many mitochondria for ATP synthesis. - rich blood supply for easy access to nutrients. - high myoglobin content. - *Slow oxidative muscle* fibers have a *low*rate of myosin ATPase activity. They have *the smallest diameter and are the most highly resistant to fatigue*. Are *slow-twitch fibers*, meaning that they contract slowly but they contract for a much longer period of time. Muscles that need to be active continuously have many of these fibers.=*marathon* - *Fast oxidative muscle* fibers have a *high* rate of myosin ATPase activity. They have an intermediate diameter and are intermediate in resistance to fatigue. They are *fast-twitch fibers*, meaning that they contract very fast. Fast-twitch fibers enable_brief, rapid, powerful contractions. =*sprinter*

4 lobes of forebrain

▪ Frontal lobe - concerned with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions and problem solving. ▪ Parietal lobe - concerned with perception of stimuli such as touch, pressure, temperature and pain. ▪ Temporal lobe - concerned with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli (hearing) and memory. ▪ Occipital lobe - concerned with many aspects of vision.

types of antibodies

▪ IgG is most abundant antibody ▪ IgM is the first antibody to appear in response to an antigen ▪ IgA is present in mucosal secretions ▪ IgE is present in the allergic response ▪ IgD crosses the placenta and activates T-cells

Tumor-suppressor genes

▪ In addition to genes whose products normally promote cell division, cells contain genes whose normal products inhibit cell division. Such genes are called tumor-suppressor genes because the proteins they encode prevent uncontrolled cell growth. ▪ Any mutation that decreases the normal activity of a tumor-suppressor protein may contribute to the onset of cancer, in effect stimulating growth through the absence of suppression.

agnostic behaivor

▪ In many species, conflicts that arise over limited resources such as food, mates, or territories, are settled by agnostic behavior, including threats, rituals, and sometimes combat that determine which competitor gains access to the resource. ▪ Because violent combat may injure the victor as well as the vanquished in a way that reduces reproductive fitness, we would predict that natural selection would favor ritualized contests. And this is what usually happen sin nature. ▪ Often the victor of an agnostic ritual gains first or exclusive access to mates, and so this form of social behavior can directly affect an individual's evolutionary fitness.

nodes of Ranvier

▪ In myleinated axons, *voltage-gated sodium channels* are restricted to gaps in the mylein sheath called *nodes of Ranvier.* The extracellular fluid is only in contact with the axon membranes at the nodes. Depolarization occurs at the nodes of Ranvier.

excretory organs

▪ In the* lungs*, CO2 and water vapor diffuse from the blood and are continually exhaled. ▪ The* liver *produces nitrogenous wastes, blood pigment wastes, and other chemical wastes. ▪ The* skin sweat glands* excrete water and dissolved salts to regulate body temperature. ▪ The excretory system consists o*f kidneys*, a pair of organs for transporting and storing urine. ▪ Urine produced by each kidney exits through a duct called the* ureter*; the two ureters drain into a common sac called the urinary bladder. ▪ During urination, urine is expelled from the *bladder* through a tube called the *urethra* ▪ *Sphincter muscles *near the junction of the urethra and bladder regulate urination.

Large subunit ; small subunit

▪ Large subunit is the site of peptidyl transferase activity (tRNA binds here). ▪ Small subunit is the initial binding of mRNA. ▪ Exit site = E site, Peptidyl site = P site, Aminoacyl site = A site.

Cartillage

▪ Made up of mostly collagen ▪ Found on the ear, nose, larynx, trachea, and joints ▪arises from *mesenchyme * ▪ In* fetal development*, the greater part of the skeleton is cartilaginous. The cartilage is replaced by bone, a process that ends at puberty. ▪ Made up of specialized cells called *chondrocytes* that produce a ground substance (supports the cells and fibers and helps determine the consistency of the ECM).

initiation to translation

▪ Many proteins control the start of translation (polypeptide synthesis). ▪ By controlling the start of protein synthesis, cells can avoid wasting energy if the needed components are currently unavailable.

Animal movement may be a response to stimuli or require spatial learning

▪ Moving in a directed way enables animals to avoid predators, migrate to a more favorable environment, obtain food, and find mates and nest sites. ▪ The simplest movement do not involve learning.

population community ecosystem landscpaes biosphere

▪ Populations, a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular geographic area. ▪ Community, an assemblage of all the populations of organisms living close enough together for potential interaction—all the biotic factors in the environment. ▪ Ecosystem, includes both the biotic and abiotic components of the environments. ▪ Landscapes, arrays of ecosystems. Usually visible from the air as distinctive patches. A landscape perspective emphasizes the absence of clearly defined ecosystem boundaries; energy, materials, and organisms may be exchanged within a landscape. ▪ The biosphere, which extends from the atmosphere several kilometers above the Earth to the depths of the oceans, is all of Earth that is inhabited by life.

translation in Eu/Pro

▪ Prokaryotes: transcription and translation occur *simultaneously* ▪ Eukaryotes: transcription and translation are *spatially and temporally separate.* Transcription occurs first in the nucleus, and translation occurs second in the cytoplasm. ▪ 50S + 30S = 70S (prokaryotic ribosome) ▪ 60S + 40S = 80S (eukaryotic ribosome; bigger)

Adaptive immunity

▪ Recognition and response occurs with tremendous specificity. ▪ Is activated after the innate immune response and develops more slowly.

how do genes duplicate?

▪ Slippage during replication ▪ Ectopic recombination: error in recombination where unequal parts of the homologous chromosomes recombine ▪ Retrotransposition ▪ Whole genome duplication (e.g., polyploidy)

migartion

▪ Studies of cognitive maps have involved animals that exhibit migration, the regular back-and-forth movement of animals between two geographic areas. Migration allows many species to access food resources throughout the year and to breed or winter in areas that favor survival. • Researchers have found that migrating animals stay on course by using a variety of cues (i.e. gray whales use the coastline to pilot their way north and south, birds navigate at night by the stars).

protein breakdown

▪ The final control mechanism operating after translation is the selective breakdown of proteins. ▪ This regulation allows a cell to adjust the kinds and amounts of proteins in response to changes in its environment. ▪ It also enables the cell to maintain its proteins in prime working order.

The seasons of the year result from the permanent tilt of the planet on its axis as it orbits the sun.

▪ The globe's position relative to the sun changes through the year. ▪ The northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere is tipped most toward the sun for a few months and tipped furthest away from the sun for a few months. This creates seasonal change. ▪ The tropics, the region surrounding the equator between latitudes 23.5 degrees north and 23.5 degrees south experience the least seasonal variation in solar radiation

countercurrent multiplier system

▪ The nephron uses a countercurrent multiplier system in which it expends *energy to create concentration gradients.* ▪ The countercurrent multiplier system *makes the medulla very salty* which facilitates water reabsorption.

temperate rain forests

▪ The temperate rain forests of coastal North America (from Alaska to Oregon) are also coniferous forests. • Warm, moist air from the Pacific Ocean supports this unique biome, which, unlike most coniferous forests, is dominated by a few tree species.

schwann cells

▪ They nourish neurons, insulate the axons of neurons, and regulate the extracellular fluid surrounding neurons. myelin sheath

frog ( amphibian)

▪ When the sperm penetrates a frog egg, a reorganization of the cytoplasm results in the appearance of a gray, crescent-shaped region, called the* gray crescent.*(opposite of sperm entrance/ establish dorsal side) ▪ The* dorsal lip*, which forms at *the site of the grey crescent,* is the site of initiation of gastrulation in the amphibian embryo. The bottom and sides of the blastopore edge are called the *ventral and lateral lips.* ▪ Cells from the *vegetal pole rich in yolk* material form a* yolk plug *near the dorsal lip. Vegetal=inactive=less cleavage

Mylein sheath

▪ an electrically insulating material (made of lipid). ▪ increases the speed of an action potential ▪ Mylein sheath is created by *glial* cells: Central nervous system neuronal mylein sheath called *oligodendrocytes*. Peripheral nervous system neuronal mylein sheath called *Schwann cells*.

the nitrogen cycle

▪ an ingredient of proteins and nucleic acids ▪ *Abiotic reservoir:* Atmospheric N2 (makes up 80% of the atmosphere) and nitrogen in the soil • Atmospheric N2 cannot be absorbed by plants. *nitrogen fixation* converts N2 to compounds of nitrogen that can be used by plants. •*Fixation* *lightning and free-living bacteria* in the soil or bacteria living symbiotically in the roots of certain species of plants • N2 is converted into ammonia (NH3), which then picks up another H+ to become ammonium (NH4 +). • *NH4 +* is then converted into NO2 (nitrite)and NO3 (nitrate) by *nitrifying bacteria.* Nitrates and nitrites are more readily absorbed by plants. ▪ *Enter food chain:* Plants uptake nitrites, nitrates, and/or ammonium and then synthesize organic molecules. Higher order consumers gain nitrogen from their prey. ▪* Return to abiotic*: excrete waste nitrogen, decomposition of detritus releases ammonium from organic compounds back into the soil (nitrifying bacteria can convert this ammonium back into nitrites or nitrates), denitrifying bacteria strips oxygens from nitrites and nitrates, releasing N2 back into the atmosphere (this occurs in low-oxygen conditions), aerobic denitrification produces N2O.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

▪ binds an amino acid to a specific tRNA. One enzyme for each amino acid.

the phosphorous cycle

▪an ingredient of nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP, and as a mineral component of bones and teeth. ▪ Unlike other cycles, the phosphorus cycle does not have an atmospheric component (only rocks). ▪ *Abiotic reservoir*: rocks, minerals soil ▪* Enter food chain*: weathering (break down) of rock release soluble phosphate to the soil. Plants then uptake the soluble phosphate through the soil and build them into organic compounds. Consumers obtain phosphorus in organic form by eating plants. ▪ *Return to abiotic:* decomposers release phosphate to the soil by decomposing animal waste and the remains of dead plants and animals. Some phosphate drains from terrestrial ecosystems into the sea, where it may settle and eventually become part of new rocks. This phosphorus *will not cycle back into living organisms until geologic processes uplift and expose them* ▪ *Because phosphates are transferred from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems much more rapidly than they are replaced, the amount in terrestrial ecosystems gradually diminishes over time.*

4 characteristics of adaptive immunity

▪lymphocytes and receptors detect pathogens never encountered ▪self-tolerance ▪ cell proliferation triggered by activation greatly increases number of B and T cells specific for the antigen ▪a stronger and more rapid response to an antigen encountered previously

The carbon cycle

▪the major ingredient of all organic molecules ▪ *Abiotic reservoir*: CO2 in atmosphere, fossil fuels, peat, sedimentary rocks, and as dissolved carbon compounds in the oceans. ▪ *Enter food chain*: Photosynthesis (carbon fixation in Calvin cycle) by primary producers, which will then get eaten up by consumers. ▪ *Return to abiotic*: cellular respiration, combustion of wood and fossil fuels, decomposition of detritus

B cells

◦ Activation of B cells involve both helper T cells and antigens ◦ When an antigen first binds to receptors on antigen receptor of B cell, B cell takes in the antigen by endocytosis. ◦ The class II MHC protein of the B cell presents an antigen fragment to a helper T cell. The T cell attaches to that antigen. The direct cell-to-cell contact is usually critical to B cell activation. ◦ A single activated B cell gives rise to thousands of clones. These clones begin producing and secreting antibodies.

Hormonal Control (Female) - menstruation

◦ After ovulation, the corpus luteum continues to develop under the influence of LH and secretes both estrogen and progesterone.

excretory systems in simple organisms

◦ All of the cells in protozoans and cnidarians are in contact with the external, aqueous environment. Water soluble wastes (i.e. ammonia, carbon dioxide) exit by *simple diffusion.* ◦ Protists such as paramecium and amoebas possess *contractile vacuoules* which pump water out of the cell by active transport. ◦ Excess carbon dioxide, waste oxygen, and water leave plants by diffusion through stomata* and lenticels in a process called *transpiration.*

birds cont.

◦ Almost all birds can fly, and nearly every part of a bird's body reflects adaptations that enhance flight. The forelimbs have been remodeled as feather-covered wings that act as airfoils, providing lift and maneuverability in the air. Large flight muscles anchored to a central ridge along the breastbone provide power. Few birds are flightless (i.e. ostrich). Many features help reduce weight for flight: ▪ birds lack teeth ▪ their tail is supported by only a few small vertebrae ▪ their feathers have hollow shafts ▪ their bones have a honeycombed structure +excellent eye sight +Courtship often involves elaborate rituals +Strong evidence indicates that birds evolved from a lineage of small, two-legged dinosaurs called theropods.

osteon

◦ An entire system of haversian canals and lamellae is called an *osteon*, or a *Haversian system*. ◦ Also filled with *yellow bone marrow* that contains adipose cells for fat storage.

Eukaryotic genome

◦ Contains multiple linear chromosomes that are condensed via histones ◦ Contain at least two copies of each gene (diploid or polyploid) ◦ Extrachromosomal plasmids are not common ◦ *97% of human DNA is non-coding.*(regulatory sequences, introns, repetitive sequences, etc.) ◦ Contains *trandem repeats* - abnormally long stretches of back to back repetitive sequences within an effected gene. ◦ Genome size does not correlate with the total number of genes

Estrogen and Progesterone

◦ Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the development of the endometrium. Estrogen thickens the endometrium whereas progesterone develops and maintains the endometrial wall.

Types of urine produced in other animals

◦ Mammals can produce hyperosmotic urine. ◦ Birds can produce hyperosmotic urine, but their main water conservation adaptation is *uric acid*. birds have a* long loop of henle*, thus *concentrated urine* ◦ Reptiles can only produce* isoosmotic or hypoosmotic* urine. ◦ Freshwater fishes *cannot* produce hyperosmotic urine. ◦ Amphibians *cannot* produce hyperosmotic urine.

How bacteria is classfied

◦ Mode of nutrition/how they metabolize resources ◦ Ability to produce endospores (resistant bodies that contain DNA and a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a durable wall) ◦ Means of motility: flagella, corckscrew motion, or gliding through slime material ◦ Shapes: cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spirilla/spirochetes (spiral) ◦ Thick peptidoglycan cell wall (gram-positive), thin peptidoglcyan cell wall covered with lipopolysaccharides (gram-negative).

two types of scherenchyma cells

◦ One, called a *fiber*, is long and slender and is usually arranged in bundles. ◦ *Sclereids*, which are shorter than fiber cells, have thick, irregular, and very hard secondary walls.

Compact bone

◦ Osteoclasts burrow tunnels called *Haversian canals* throughout. They contain blood and lymph vessels and are connected by* Volkmann's canals*. ◦ Osteoclasts are followed by osteoblasts, which lay down new matrix onto tunnel walls, forming concentric rings called* lamellae.* ◦ Osteocytes prated between the lamella in spaces called* lacunae *exchange nutrients via* canaliculi*, small canals between the lacunae of bone.

Unicellular locomotion

◦ Protozoans and primitive algae use flagella by means of power stroke or recovery stroke. ◦ Amoeba extend pseudopodia; advancing the cell membrane as it extends forward.

sensory receptors

◦ Sensory receptors respond strongly to own stimuli and weakly to others. ◦ The neural pathways separate for each type of receptor and all terminate somewhere in the CNS.

leak channels for potassium

◦ Some ion channels are always open. These ion channels are called* leak channels* and only allow the passive movement of potassium ions. ▪ Since the internal [K+] is greater than the external [K+], there will be a net movement of potassium ions out of the cell. This helps generate the internal negative charge of the neuron

the ear

◦ The Ear transduces sound energy into impulses.

Bacteria/Archea genomes

◦ Though archaea are more closely related to eukaryotes, they have similar genomic architecture to bacteria ◦ Mostly haploid ◦ Both generally have a singular circular chromosome ◦ Both can potentially contain plasmids: ◦ *Most of the genome is coding (85-95%)*. Very little is intergenic, non-coding regions ◦ Have *pseudogenes*: nonfunctional and typically untranslated segment of DNA that arises from a previously functional gene. ◦ Genome size correlates highly with the total number of genes

viral genome

◦ Viral genomes are very small because there is high selection for smaller genomes ◦ In many cases, genes can overlap

sex hormones

◦ androgens = testosterone ◦ estrogens = estradiol and progesterone

pregnancy

◦ first trimester of pregnancy is where organs are formed ◦ at approximately 8 weeks, the embryo is called a *fetus* ◦ at 5 weeks, eyes, heart, liver, pancreas, and limb buds have begun development

Ovarian cycle

◦ follicular phase: development of the egg and secretion of the estrogen from the follicle. ◦ Ovulation: the midcycle release of the egg ◦ Luteal phase: the secretion of estrogen and progesterone from the corpus luteum after ovulation.

Menstrual cycle

◦ menstrual phase is when the endometrium is shed ◦ proliferative phase is when estrogens allow the endometrium to thicken as allow glands and arteries to grow during the secretory phase ◦ secretory phase is when the corpus luteum produces progestrone which allows the endometrium to be receptive to implantation of the blastocyst. Progesterone levels are at the highest during this phase.

five types of muscle contraction

◦* Isotonic* contraction is when a muscle shortens against a fixed load while the tension on the muscle remains constant ◦ A *concentric* contraction is a type of dynamic contraction where the muscle fibers shorten and the tension on the muscle fiber increases. ◦ An *eccentric* contraction is a type of dynamic contraction where the muscle fiber lengthens and the tension on the muscle increases. ◦ *Dynamic* contraction involves both concentric and eccentric type of contractions. ◦ An* isometric* contraction occur when both ends of the muscle are fixed and no change in length occurs during the contraction, but the tension increases.