Dat's it boi
intrusion symptoms
-type of PTSD symptom -recurrent reliving of teh event, flashbacks, nightmares, prolonged distress
obligate aerobes
bacteria that require oxygen for metabolism
anaerobes
bacteria that use fermentation
Starling forces
balance of the opposing pressures, hydrostatic and oncotic pressure
how does body react to alkalemia (pulmonary)
body will seek to increase acidity -respiratory rate slows, so more CO2 will be retained, shifting buffer equation to the right and producing more H+ and bicarbonate ions --> lower pH
where is water absorbed
both small and large intestine
most veins contain (oxygenated/deoxygenated) blood
deoxygenated! -the pulmonary veins and umbilical veins contain oxygenated blood
complete blood count
measures quantity of each cell type in the blood
flagella
move the cell -composed of MTs -9+2 structure (9 pairs of MTs forming an outer ring with 2 MTs in the center), only seen in eukaryotic organelles of motility
adductor
moves a part of the body toward the midline (like the pectoralis major)
deletion mutation - chromosome
occur when a large segment of DNA is lost from a chromosome -small deletion mutations are considered frameshift mutations
translocation mutations
occur when a segment of DNA from one chromosome is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome
the kidneys use what kind of transport to reabsorb and secrete various solutes into and out of the filtrate
secondary active
integument
skin
p. 403 biochem numba 3
do it to it
DNA is ____-stranded
double
Typically most severe type of mutation
Frameshift but it depends
interphase
G1, S, and G2 -longest part of cell cycle -in chromatin form (individual chromosomes not visible) bc genes must be available to be transcribed
low-affinity glucose transporter in hepatocytes and pancreatic cells
GLUT 2
glucose transporter in adipose tissue and muscle
GLUT 4
enzyme necessary for metabolism of chylomicrons and VLDL
lipoprotein lipase (LPL)
what organ detoxifies things and does drug metabolism
liver
where are clotting factors produced
liver
what organ produces bile
liver (the gallbladder stores and concentrates it)
unless told otherwise, sex-linked diseases are (recessive/dominant)
recessive
can antibodies be on B cell surface?
yes, or secreted into body fluids
Medicaid
covers patients with significant financial need
Max Weber
focused on understanding social processes and interaction; attempted to understand and describe social action
rate-limiting enzyme for glycogenolysis
glycogen phosphorylase
paternalism
"doctor knows best" mentality -one recent goal in US healthcare is to decrease this
social trust
"faith in people" comes from 2 sources: social norms of reciprocity, and social networks
vasa recta
the second capillary bed in the kidney portal system; surround the loop of Henle
mindguards
- appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing groups -feature of groupthink
collective rationalization
- ignoring warnings against the idea of the group -feature of groupthink
monocistronic
-Each mRNA molecule translates into only one protein product -Eukaryotic mRNA
pyloric glands
-contained in the antrum and pylorus -contain G-cells that secrete gastrin
supplemental energy reserves in muscle
-creatine phosphate -myoglobin
lipase
-enzyme in saliva that catalyzes the hydrolysis of lipids
cardiovascular system
-heart -blood vessels -blood
what products does the stomach secrete? what are their functions?
1. HCl (kills microbes, denatures proteins, and converts pepsinogen into pepsin) 2. pepsinogen (cleaved to pepsin in the stomach; an enzyme that partially digests proteins) 3. mucus (protects mucosa) 4. bicarbonate (protects mucosa) 5. water (dissolves and dilutes ingested material) 6. intrinsic factor (required for normal absorption of vitamin B12)
sqroot(2)
1.4
pico
10^-12
suicide and major depressive disorder
15% die from suicide
palmitic acid structure
16 C, no double bonds
normal BMI
18.5-25
net energy products of glycolysis
2 ATP, 2 NADH
homologs
2 copies of each chromosome that a human has
overweight BMI
25-30
normal glucose concentration in peripheral blood
4-6 mM
fastest growing age cohort in US
85 and older
9+2 structure
9 pairs of MTs forming an outer ring with 2 MTs in the center, only seen in eukaryotic organelles of motility (cilia and flagella)
L-DOPA
A precursor that is converted to dopamine once in the brain, replacing dopamine which is lost due to PD
Supercoiling
A wrapping of DNA on itself as its helical structure is pushed ever farther toward the telomeres during replication -DNA topoisomerases alleviate this problem
Template strand
Complementary and antiparallel to mRNA; anti-sense strand
who has lowest life expectancy of any racial or gender category
African Americans
Recombinant DNA
Allows a DNA fragment from any source to be multiplied either by gene cloning or PCR
AP site
Apurinic/apyrimidinic aka abasic site -In base excision repair when a base is recognized and removed by a glycosylase enzyme it leaves this behind
Negative, positive, inducible system, repressible system
Any combo of control and system are possible -Lac happens to be negative inducible -Trp happens to be negative repressible
Dose-response relationship
As the study or independent variable increases, there is a proportional increase in teh response -The more consistent this relationship, the more likely to be causal -Hill criteria
Reciprocal determinism
Aspect of the social cognitive perspective (personality theory) -Our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation
PCNA protein
Assembles into a trimer to form the sliding clamp, which helps to strengthen the interaction between DNA pol δ and ε and the template strand
Type theorists
Attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types
Chargaff's rules
Because of specific base-pairing in DNA, the amount of A equals the amount of T and the amount of G equals the amount of C... So the total purines = total pyrimidines. ***Applies to DNA only!!! RNA is single-stranded so complementarity does not apply
probability of a type II error is sometimes symbolized by
Beta
Operator site
Binds repressor protein
Heterochromatin
Compacted chromatin -Dark and dense -Transcriptionally silent
Where are free fatty acids found
Circulate in the blood bonded noncovalently to serum albumin
Scab
Clot that forms on a surface vessel that has been cut
what part of nephron is responsive to aldosterone
DCT and collecting duct
Trait theorists
Describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors
Euchromatin
Dispersed chromatin -Light and uncondensed -Genetically active
fructose metabolism
ENTERS GLYCOLYSIS AT DHAP AND GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE (which is converted from glyceraldehyde) -reaches liver through hepatic portal vein -the liver phosphorylates fructose using *fructokinase* to trap it in the cell -the resulting fructose-1-phosphate is then cleaved into glyceraldehyde and DHAP by *aldolase B* -smaller amounts are metabolized in renal proximal tubules
how do hepatic and adipose tissue produce triacylglycerol
F16BP --> DHAP --> glycerol 3-phosphate --> glycerol (backbone of triacylglycerols)
Triacylglycerols and energy storage
Great 1) Very reduced 2) Hydrophobic, so do not draw in water and do not require hydration for stability --> decreases their weight
Vitamin E
Group of closely related lipids called tocopherols and tocotrienols -Characterized by substituted aromatic ring with long isoprenoid side chain -Characteristically hydrophobic -Biological antioxidants (aromatic ring destroys free radicals and thus prevents oxidative damage)
Histone
Group of small basic proteins - about 200 base pairs of DNA wrap around it to form a nucleosome, and a bunch of these form chromatin -5 histone proteins; 2 each of H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 form a histone core, and the last histone H1 seals off the DNA as it enters and leaves the nucleosome, stabilizing the structure
Menaquinones are
Group of vitamin K
what units get bigger and smaller during muscle contraction (HIA)
H-zone and I-band shorten, A-band is unchanged
Centromere composition
Heterochromatin, which is in turn composed of tandem repeat sequences that also contain high GC-content -During cell division, the 2 sister chromatids can thus remain connected at the centromere until microtubules separate the chromatids during anaphase
Nucleosome
In eukaryotes, DNA is wound around histone proteins to form these, which may then be stabilized by H1
Alternative splicing
In eukaryotic cells the hnRNA transcript may be spliced together in different ways to produce multiple variants of proteins encoded by the same original gene
Signal molecules (DNA)
Include steroid hormones and second messengers, which bind to their receptors in the nucleus; these receptors are TFs
What stages of protein synthesis require energy
Initiation, termination, and elongation - all of em!!
endogenous pathway
MHC-I pathway - binds antigens from inside the cell
Psychoticism
Measure of nonconformity or social deviance
Autonomy
Medicine core ethical tenet - Responsibility to respect patients' decisions and choices about their own healthcare
Start codon
Methionine, AUG
Missense mutation
Mutation where one AA substitutes for another
Nonsense mutation
Mutation where the codon now encodes for a premature stop codon (aka truncation mutation)
Nucleotide excision repair vs. base excision repair
NER corrects lesions that re large enough to distort the double helix (like thymidine dimers); BER corrects lesions that are small enough not to distort the double helix (like deaminated cytosine which forms uracil)
does glucose produced by hepatic gluconeogenesis represent an energy source for the liver?
NO! -gluconeogenesis requires expenditure of ATP that is provided by B-oxidation of fatty acids -so hepatic gluconeogenesis is always dependent on B-oxidation of fatty acids in theliver -during periods of low blood sugar, adipose tissue releases these fatty acids by breaking down triacylglycerols to glycerol (which can also be converted to DHAP) and free fatty acids
Do prokaryotes have nucleosomes
No
Do prokaryotes have telomeres
No
Intron
Noncoding sequence
Big Five traits of personality
Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
What is used to ID criminal suspects, familial relationships, and disease-causing bacteria and viruses
PCR
rate-limiting enzyme for glycolysis
PFK-1
Secondary traits
Personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one's personialty that only appear in close groups or certain social situations
Somatotypes
Personality types based on body type (all short stocky people are jolly)
Beneficence - research
Pillar of research ethics -Must be our intent to cause net positive change for both the study population and general population, and we must do our best to minimize any potential harms -May be intangible (personal satisfaction) and unrelated to purpose of study (financial incentives) or even future benefit -Research should be minimally invasive/painful/traumatic -Equipoise
Prokaryotic DNA polymerases
Pol III - synthesizes daughter strand of DNA Pol I - removes RNA primer and adds nucleotides where RNA primer had been
Glycosylation
Post-translational modification -Addition of oligosaccharides as proteins pass thru ER and Golgi to determine cellular destination
src
Proto-oncogene -Abnormal alleles encode proteins that are more active than normal proteins, promoting rapid cell cycle advancement -A mutation in only one copy is sufficient to promote tumor growth - thus dominant
Promoter site
Provides place for RNA polymerase to bind (prok)
Who could a person with B+ blood receive a blood transfusion from? Who could he donate to?
Receive from O-, O+, B-, or B+ Donate to B+ or AB+
AP endonuclease
Recognizes AP sites in base excision repair and removes the damaged sequence from the DNA
How is DNA reannealed
Remove the denaturing condition
Heterocycle
Ring structure that contains at least 2 different elements in the ring -Purines and pyrimidines are aromatic heterocycles
Shine-Dalgarno sequence
Sequence in 5'UTR of prokaryotes that the small ribosomal subunit binds to
Response element
Sequence of DNA that binds only to specific transcription factors
Enhancers
Several response elements grouped together (outside of normal promoter region); allows control of one's gene expression by multiple signals -In example shown, signal molecules cAMP, cortisol, and estrogen bind to their specific receptors (which are all TFs that bind to their respective response elements in the enhancer) -Distance between enhancer and pormoter --> loop to bring them together -Can be up to 1000 bp away from gene or can be in an intron (promoters can only be 25 bases max from start of gene) -Increased likelihood of amplification because of the variety of signals that can increase transcription levels
Selection bias
Subjects used for the study are not representative of the target population
Lye
The common name for sodium or potassium hydroxide -Used for saponification
p53
Tumor suppressor gene
how does citrate affect acetyl-CoA
activates (this is the enzyme that activates acetyl-CoA for incorporation into fatty acids)
Rb
Tumor suppressor gene
Gene amplification
Way to control gene expression in eukaryotes -Sometimes expression must be increased in response to signals like hormones -Accomplished thru enhancers and gene duplication
gene pool
all the alleles that exist within a species
TATA box
Where RNA polymerase binds -In the promoter region -Usually at -25
evolution results from changes in ___ frequencies
allele
what does HWE mean for the next generation
allele frequencies are unchanged compared to parent generation
capacity of stomach
about 2 L
is inhalation active or passive
active
what prevents surfaces of leg bones from rubbing against each other?
articular cartilage
where are the nuclei found in a muscle cell
at the periphery of the cell
intergenerational mobility
changes in social status that happen from parents to children
just-world hypothesis
cognitive bias in impression formation -in this world, good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people -consequences may be attributed to a universal restoring force like karma (Hinduism) -increases the likeliness of blaming the victim
semen
combo of sperm and seminal fluid
edema
condition resulting from accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitium
majority influence aka
conformity
intercalated disks
connect cardiac muscle cells; contain many gap junctions; allow these cells to communicate
what are bones made of
connective tissue
what are joints made of
connective tissue
immovable joints
consist of bones that are fused together to form sutures or similar fibrous joints -primarily in the head, where they anchor the bones of the skull together
articular cartilage
contributes to a movable joint by coating the articular surfaces of the bones so that impact is restricted to the lubricated joint cartilage rather than bones -prevents surfaces of leg bones from rubbing against each other
___ was historically called hysteria
conversion disorder
characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions
conversion disorder
alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase
convert alcohol to acetyl-CoA -but this is accompanied by NADH buildup, which inhibits the Krebs cycle -so the acetyl-CoA formed through this process is used primarily to synthesize fatty acids
capitalist economics has led to (increase/decrease) in social inequality, (increase/decrease) in social cohesion, and (increase/decrease) of social capital
decrease, decrease, decrease
-characterized by continuous need for reassurance -remain dependent on one specific person, like a parent or significant other, to take actions or make decisions
dependent personality disorder
mood disorders include
depressive disorders and bipolar/related disorders
metaphyses
diaphyses swell at each end to form these (long bone) -full of bone marrow
epiphyses
diaphyses terminate here (long bone) -use their spongy core for effective dispersion of force and pressure at the joints -internal edge = growth (epiphyseal) plate
role strain
difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role
ingest
eat
hidden curriculum
education includes not only the information and cognitive skills students learn, but also the hidden curriculum of transmitting social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students
central route processing
elaborating extensively - think deeply about info, scrutinize it, draw conclusions based on this thought -aspect of elaboration likelihood model
vomiting aka
emesis
exoskeleton
encases whole organism; usually found in arthropods like crustaceans and insects -must be shed and regrown to accommodate growth
origin
end of the muscle with a larger attachment to bone (usually the proximal connection)
insertion (musculoskeletal system)
end of the muscle with smaller attachment to bone (usually the distal connection)
pinocytosis
endocytosis of fluids and dissolved particles
glycogen stored in muscle - purpose
energy reserve for muscle contraction
slum
extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation
masklike facies
facial expression consisting of static and expressionless facial features, staring eyes, and a partially open mouth (PD)
chondrin
firm and elastic matrix that makes up cartilage -chondrocytes
macrosociology
focuses on large groups and social structure
capitalist
free market, laissez-faire policies
rate-limiting enzyme for glycogenesis
glycogen synthase
dyad
group of 2 members
proletariat
have-nots
bourgeoisie
haves
troponin and tropomyosin purpose
help regulate the interaction between actin and myosin
cues and types
help us understand the behavior of others -consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness cues
CD4+ T cells aka
helper T cells
giving the wrong blood type can lead to
hemolysis (rupture or destruction of RBCs)
hnRNA
heterogenous nuclear RNA -the primary transcript formed by transcription -becomes mRNA thru posttranslational modifications
water moves toward the component with the (highest/lowest) osmotic pressure during osmosis
highest
where does fructose come from
honey and fruit in the disaccharide sucrose
movable joints
include hinge joints (elbow or knee), ball-and-socket joints (shoulder or hip), and others -permit bones to shift relative to one another -strengthened by ligaments and consist of a synovial capsule
cristae
infoldings in the inner mitochondrial membrane that increase the available surface area for the integral proteins associated with the membrane
gametic isolation
intercourse can occur, but gametic cannot
Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated
internalization (type of conformity)
citrate to ___ in CAC
isocitrate -via aconitase -cis-aconitase intermediate
rate limiting step of CAC
isocitrate --> a-KG via isocitrate dehydrogenase -first loss of carbons (CO2) and first NADH production
slightly different versions of the same protein
isoforms
venules
join to form veins -after the capillary
LCAT
lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase -a specialized enzyme involved in the transport of cholesterol -found in the bloodstream -activated by HDL apoproteins -adds a fatty acid to cholesterol, which produces soluble cholesteryl esters like those in HDL -HDL cholesteryl esters can be distributed to other lipoproteins like IDL, which becomes LDL by acquiring these cholesterol esters (facilitated by CETP)
more muscular: right heart or left heart
left heart because has to pump farther, and because systemic arteries provide lots of reistance
what hormones stimulate feelings of satiety?
leptin and cholecystokinin
relationship between social capital and social cohesion
less social capital --> more social inequality --> decreased social cohesion
hold bones together at joints
ligaments
sects
like a denomination but refers more properly to a religious group that has chosen to break off from the parent religion
magical thinking
like superstitiousness or a belief in clairvoyance -characterize schizotypal personality disorder
GLUT 2
low-affinity glucose transporter in hepatocytes and pancreatic cells -after a meal, blood traveling from the hepatic portal vein from the intestine is rich in glucose; GLUT 2 captures the excess glucose primarily for storage -when [glucose] drops below Km for the transporter, much of the remainder bypasses the liver and enters the peripheral circulation -the Km of GLUT 2 is high (~15 mM), so the liver will pick up glucose in proportion to its concentration in the blood (first-order kinetics) - it will pick up excess glucose and store it preferentially after a meal, when blood glucose levels are high -in the Beta-islet cells of the pancreas, GLUT 2 and glucokinase are glucose sensor for insulin release
synovial fluid
lubricates the movement of structures in the joint space
fundamentalism
maintenance of strict adherence to religious code
bipolar disorders
major type of mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania -bipolar I -bipolar II -cyclothymic (related disorder)
gluconeogenesis
making glucose
aligning actions
making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses -justifications for missing deadlines, blaming bad grades on too little sleep -method of impression management / self-presentation
polygyny
male having an exclusive relationship with multiple females
medications for schizophrenia
many block dopamine receptors
promiscuity
member of one sex mating with any member of the opposite sex, without exclusivity
visceral pleura
membrane around and adjacent to lungs; closed sac against which lung expands
bone comes from what level
mesoderm
molecular clock model
molecular evolutionists correlate the degree of genomic similarity with the amount of time since 2 species split off from the same common ancestor; the more similar the genomes, the more recently the 2 species separated from each other
carnitine
molecule that gets a fatty acyl group attached to it so that it can cross the inner membrane of the mitochondria and bring fatty acyl CoA into the matrix where it can form acetyl-CoA
social inequality is (more/less) pronounced in racial and ethnic minorities
more
viral life cycle: progeny release
multiple ways 1) viral progeny may initiate cell death --> spilling of viral progeny 2) host cell may lyse bc full of many virions --> disadvantage for virus bc can no longer use cell to carry out its life cycle 3) extrusion, where virus leaves cell by fusing with its plasma membrane; allows for survival of host cell and continued use of host cell by the virus; a virus in this state is said to be in a productive cycle
where is body protein catabolized (organs)
muscle and liver (during prolonged fasting or starvation)
folkways
norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions, like shaking hands after a sports match
Haversian system aka
osteon
most common type of anxiety disorder
phobia
chiasma
point of crossing over
theocracy
power is held by religious leaders
frequency of recessive phenotype
q^2
H-zone
region of sarcomere containing only thick filaments (H is a thick letter)
ceramide
simplest sphingolipid -single hydrogen atom as its head group
bradykinesia
slowness in movement (PD)
taboo
socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible
z-tests / t-tests rely on
standard distribution / t-distribution (closely related)
Carotenoids
tetraterpenes -include B-carotene and lutein
teacher expectancy
the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students
symbol
thing to which we attach meaning
immediate networks
those that are dense with strong ties -like composed of friends (rather than acquaintances)
transporters, channels, and receptors are usually ____ proteins
transmembrane
toll-like receptors
type of pattern recognition receptor
Latino / Hispanic American health profile
varied in comparison to whites
epididymis
where sperm are stored until ejaculation; flagella gain motility there
Sodium-potassium pump
-Na+/K+ ATPase -pump that regulates the concentration of intracellular and extracellular sodium and potassium ions using ATP (primary active transport) -maintains low [Na+] and high [K+] intracellularly by pumping 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in; this removes one positive charge from the intracellular space of the cell, which maintains the negative resting potential of the cell -remember the cell membrane also contains leak channels; cell membranes are more permeable to K+ ions than Na+ ions at rest because there are more K+ leak channels than Na+ leak channels
locations of best healthcare quality in US
-New England and Mid-Atlantic -worst in the South
list of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
-OCD -body dysmorphic disorder
OCD vs. OCPD (timing 2)
-OCD has obsessions and compulsions that are focal and acquired; OCPD is lifelong -OCD is ego-dystonic (I can't stop washing my hands because of the germs!); OCPD is ego-syntonic (I just like rules and order!) -OCD has obsessions and compulsions; OCPD people are perfectionistic and inflexible -OCD is an OC and related disorders; OCPD is a personality disorder
Hawthorne effect
-Observation bias -Posits that the behavior of study participants is altered simply because they recognize that they are being studied
Where are triacylglycerols found
-Oily droplets in the cytosol -Adipocytes in animals -Deposits in seeds as oils in plants -Travel bidirectionally between liver and adipose tissue
Proto-oncogenes
-Oncogenes are mutated genes that cause cancer, and these are the genes before they are mutated -src
list of trauma- and stressor-related disorders
-PTSD -acute stress disorder (PTSD but symptoms for less than 1 month and more than 3 days)
Kohlberg social contract
-Postconventional morality stage 5 -Sees moral rules as designed for the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights -Everyone has a right to live, businesses have the right to profit from their products
Kohlberg universal human ethics
-Postconventional morality stage 6 -It is wrong for one person to hold another's life for ransom
Prenylation
-Posttranslational modification -Addition of lipid groups to certain membrane-bound enzymes
Kohlberg obedience
-Preconventional morality stage 1 -If I steal the drug, I'll go to jail
Kohlberg self-interest
-Preconventional morality stage 2 -I need to save my wife because I want to spend the rest of my life with her -Aka instrumental relativist stage (reciprocity and sharing)
Translation in prok vs euk
-Prok - ribosomes start translating before the mRNA is complete -Euk - Transcription and translation happen at separate times and in separate locations
DNA repair mechanisms (and when)
-Proofreading (S) -Mismatch repair (G2) -Nucleotide excision repair (G1/G2) -Base excision repair (G1/G2)
Pillars of RESEARCH ethics
-Respect for persons -Justice -Beneficence (more inclusive than medicine)
Rickets
-Results from lack of vitamin D -Condition seen in children and characterized by underdeveloped, curved long bones and impeded growth
Retinoic acid
-Retinol, the storage form of vitamin A, is oxidized to this -Regulates gene expression during epithelial development
B-DNA
-Right-handed helix characterizing most DNA -Turn every 3.4 nm -10 bases per turn -Major and minor grooves are often site of protein binding
factors that assess the completeness of immigrant assimilation
-SES -geographic distribution -language attainment -intermarriage
polycistronic
-Starting translation at different locations in the mRNA can result in different proteins (each mRNA molecule can translate into a variety of protein products) -Prokaryotic mRNA
rRNA
-Synthesized in the nucleolus -Part of ribosomal machinery during protein assembly in cytoplasm (much of the structural and catalytic component of the ribosome) -Helps catalyze the formation of peptide bonds (acting as a ribozyme), important in splicing out its own introns in the nucleus -Many rRNA molecules act as ribozymes
Inducible systems
-The repressor is bonded tightly to the operator system and acts as a roadblock; RNA polymerase can't get from promoter to structural gene because the repressor is in the way (negative control mechanism) -To remove that block, an inducer binds the repressor protein so RNA polymerase can move down the gene -Increasing [inducer] frees up more genes for transcription -Products produced only when needed -Lac operon
mRNA general process
-Transcribed from template DNA by RNA polymerase in the nucleus of cell -May undergo a host of posttranslational modifications before leaving the nucleus -Carries the info specifying the AA sequence of the protein to the ribosome
Control of gene expression in eukaryotes involves
-Transcription factors -Gene amplification -Regulation of chromatin structure
hexokinase vs. glucokinase
-both are the first enzyme in glycolysis but in different places and with some differences -hexokinase is widely distributed in tissues and inhibited by its product G6P; glucokinase is induced by insulin in hepatocytes (liver) -glucokinase is found only in liver cells and pancreatic B-islet cells; in the liver, glucokinase is induced by insulin (along with GLUT 2, acts as the glucose censor) -hexokinase has low Km (reaches max velocity at low [glucose]); glucokinase has high Km (acts on glucose proportionally to its concentration)
bile salts
-a component of bile derived from cholesterol -not enzymes so do not directly perform chemical digestion -however serve an important role in the mechanical digestion of fats and ultimately facilitate the chemical digestion of lipids -have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, allowing them to serve as a bridge between aqueous and lipid environments (kinda like soaps) -in the small intestine, they emulsify fats and cholesterol into micelles -without bile, fats would spontaneously separate out of the aqueous mixture in the duodenum and would not be accessible to pancreatic lipase, which is water-soluble -plus these micelles increase the S.A. of the fats, increasing the rate at which lipase can act -proper fat digestion depends on both bile and lipase -bile gets the fats into the solution and increases their SA by placing them in micelles (mechanical digestion) -then lipase can come in to hydrolyze the ester bonds holding the lipids together (chemical digestion)
glucose-6-phosphatase
-a key enzyme in gluconeogenesis that converts G6P to glucose -found only in the ER lumen in liver cells -G6P is transported into ER, free glucose is transported back into the cytoplasm, from there it can diffuse out of the cell using GLUT transporters
fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
-a key enzyme in gluconeogenesis that converts fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate -the rate-limiting step of gluconeogenesis -activated by ATP and inhibited by AMP and F-2,6-BP
pyruvate carboxylase
-a key enzyme in gluconeogenesis that converts pyruvate to OAA -mitochondrial enzyme activated by acetyl-CoA from B-oxidation (and thus from fatty acids); the product, OAA, is a CAC intermediate -OAA can't leave the mitochondrion so it is reduced to malate which leaves the mito via the malate-aspartate shuttle and in the cytoplasm is then oxidized to OAA
melanin
-a pigment produced by melanocytes in the stratum basale of the epidermis that serves to protect the skin from DNA damage by UV radiation -once produced, the pigment is passed to keratinocytes
albumin and where is it produced
-a protein synthesized in the liver -maintains plasma oncotic pressure and serves as a carrier for many drugs and hormones
glutathione
-a reducing agent that can help reverse radical formation before damage is done to the cell -NADPH helps maintain a supply of reduced glutathione
biological basis of depression
-abnormally high glucose metabolism in amygdala -hippocampal atrophy after long duration of illness -abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) -decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine (monoamine theory of depression)* *both these NTs and their metabolites are decreased so their actual production is decreased (not just production staying same and degradation increasing
cholesterol amount in membrane
-about 20% of the cell membrane by mass -about half by mole fraction -so the membrane will definitely remain fluid
why are fatty acids used to create ketone bodies instead of glucose
-acetyl-CoA from fatty acid degradation cannot go through gluconeogenesis (only odd-numbered fatty acids can act as a source of carbon for gluconeogenesis and this is very limited) -energy is packed into ketone bodies for consumption by the brain and muscles
social action
-actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and preforming because others are around -the idea is humans will behave differently based on their social environment -NOT social interaction - social action just focuses on the individual that is surrounded by others -Max Weber
pyruvate kinase activation
-activated by F-1,6-BP from the PFK-1 reaction (feed-forward activation)
Vitamin D
-activated by parathyroid hormone -promotes resorption of bone -but isn't it used to promote bone strength? indeed, the resorption of bone in vitamin D encourages growth of new, stronger bone, thus overcompensating for the effect of resorbing bone in the first place
steps of fatty acid catabolism (very broad!)
-activation -entry into mitochondria -B-oxidation
direct benefits (mating)
-advantages to the MATE rather than the offspring -providing material advantages, protection, or financial support
indirect benefits (mating)
-advantages to the OFFSPRING rather than the mate -promoting better survival in offspring
acetyl-coa shuttling
-after a large meal, acetyl-CoA accumulates in the mito matrix and needs to be moved to the cytosol for fatty acid biosynthesis -acetyl-CoA goes through the CAC and over time as the cell becomes energetically satisfied it slows the CAC which causes citrate accumulation -citrate can then cross the mito membrane -in the cytosol, citrate lyase splits citrate back into acetyl-CoA and OAA -the OAA can then return to the mito to continue moving acetyl-CoA
luteal phase
-after ovulation, LH causes the ruptured follicle to form the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone -progesterone levels begin to rise while estrogen remains high -high progesterone again causes negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, and LH, preventing the ovulation of multiple eggs
filtrate post collecting duct
-after the collecting duct there are no more opportunities for reabsorption; anything in the tubule will be excreted -as filtrate leaves tubule it is collected in renal pelvis -fluid which carries mostly urea, uric acid, and excess ions flows through the ureter to the bladder where it's stored until voiding -then out thru urethra
lungs
-bronchi continue to divide into bronchioles, which divide further into alveoli -gas exchange occurs here -require skeletal muscle to generate the negative pressure for expansion
helper T cells
-aka CD4+ cells -coordinate the immune response by secreting lymphokines -these recruit other immune cells and increase their activity -loss of these cells prevents immune system from mounting adequate response to infection (HIV) -respond to antigens presented on MHC-II molecules, so best against bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections
runaway selection
-aka Fisherian selection -mechanism of intersexual selection aka mate choice -positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time -a trait is deemed sexually desirable and thus is more likely to be passed on -bright plumage of peacock
osteons
-aka Haversian systems -structural units into which the bony matrix is ordered -each osteon contains concentric circles of bony matrix (lamellae) surrounding central microscopic channel
regulation of the enteric nervous system
-can function independently of the brain and spinal cord, but heavily regulated by the autonomic NS -the parasympathetic division is involved in stimulation of digestive activities, increasing secretions from exocrine glands, and promoting peristalsis -the sympathetic division is involved in inhibition of these activities
IDL
-aka VLDL remnant, as this is the resulting particle once triacylglycerol is removed from VLDL -intermediate-density lipoprotein (denser than VLDL but less dense than LDL) -some is reabsorbed by the liver by apolipoproteins on its exterior, and some is further processed in the bloodstream (ex: picks up cholesteryl esters from HDL to become LDL) -thus is a transition prticle between triacylglycerol transport (chylomicrons and VLDL) and cholesterol transport (LDL and HDL)
spongy bone
-aka cancellous bone -found in the interior core of the bone -lattice structure -consists of tiny spicules (points), trabeculae -cavities between trabeculae are filled with bone marrow (red or yellow)
lower esophageal sphincter
-aka cardiac sphincter -a muscular ring that, as the bolus approaches the stomach, relaxes and opens to allow the passage of food
secondary active transport
-aka coupled transport -type of active transport that does not use direct coupling to ATP hydrolysis for its energy source, but rather harnesses the energy released by one particle going down its electrochemical gradient to drive a different particle up its gradient -symport or antiport
mere exposure effect
-aka familiarity effect -people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently
hypercarbia
-aka hypercapnia -high [CO2] in the blood -increases the respiratory rate so that more CO2 is exhaled and CO2 levels in blood fall
hypercapnia
-aka hypercarbia -high [CO2] in the blood -increases the respiratory rate so that more CO2 is exhaled and CO2 levels in blood fall
self-presentation
-aka impression management -our attempts to influence how others perceive us; can be done thru the regulation or controlling of information in social interactions -also defined as the process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors -3 selves: authentic, ideal, and tactical
cardiac sphincter
-aka lower esophageal sphincter -a muscular ring that, as the bolus approaches the stomach, relaxes and opens to allow the passage of food
familiarity effect
-aka mere exposure effect -people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently
symbolic culture
-aka nonmaterial culture -focuses on the ideas that represent a group of people -these ideas may be encoded in mottos, songs, etc. or may be themes pervasive in the culture -like the phrase "free enterprise" for US culture -informs both cognitive and behavioral components - it informs cultural values and belief, as well as cultural norms and communication styles -can rally people into action during wars/crisis
innate immunity
-aka nonspecific immunity -composed of defenses that are always active against infection, but lack the ability to target specific invaders over others -near entry points to the body -if it fails to contain a pathogen the adaptive division kicks in
membrane-assisted proteins (and aka)
-aka peripheral proteins -may be bound through electrostatic interactions with the lipid bilayer, especially at lipid rafts, or to other transmembrane or embedded proteins, like G proteins in GPCRs -tend to be involved in signaling or are recognition molecules on the extracellular surface
salivary amylase
-aka ptyalin -enzyme in saliva that hydrolyzes starch into smaller sugars (maltose and dextrins)
suppressor T cells
-aka regulatory T cells or Treg -also express CD4 (like helper) but different because they express the protein Foxp3 -help tone down the immune response once infection has been adequately contained -turn off self-reactive lymphocytes to prevent autoimmune disease - self-tolerance
Fisherian selection
-aka runaway selection -mechanism of intersexual selection aka mate choice -positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time -a trait is deemed sexually desirable and thus is more likely to be passed on -bright plumage of peacock
ptyalin
-aka salivary amylase -enzyme in saliva that hydrolyzes starch into smaller sugars (maltose and dextrins
impression management
-aka self-presentation -our attempts to influence how others perceive us; can be done thru the regulation or controlling of information in social interactions -also defined as the process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors -3 selves: authentic, ideal, and tactical
self-serving bias
-aka self-serving attributional bias -refers to the fact that individuals will view their own success based on internal factors, while viewing failures based on external factors -used to protect our self-esteem -influenced by motivational processes like self-enhancement, cognitive processes like locus of control, relationships, and emotion -more likely to be exhibited by people with higher self-esteem
social perception
-aka social cognition -provides tools to make judgments and impressions regarding other people -we form these impressions through observation of their behavior, past experiences, and personal beliefs and attitudes
adaptive immunity
-aka specific immunity -defenses that target a specific pathogen -slower to act but can maintain immunological memory
cancellous bone
-aka spongy bone -lattice structure -found in the interior core of the bone -consists of tiny spicules (points), trabeculae -cavities between trabeculae are filled with bone marrow (red or yellow)
glucogenic amino acids
-all AAs except leucine and lysine -can be converted into intermediates that feed into gluconeogenesis
number of melanocytes in people
-all humans have comparable numbers -skin color is caused by varying levels of melanocytes - more active --> darker skin tones -upon exposure to UV radiation melanocytes increase activity resulting in darker skin color
gap junctions
-allow for direct cell-cell communication and movement of water and some solutes directly between cells -are often found in small bunches together -aka *connexons* -formed by the alignment and interaction of pores composed of 6 molecules of connexon -proteins are generally not transferred through gap junctions (-unlike tight junctions, do not prevent paracellular transport) -discontinuous bunches around the cell
possible alternatives for competitors when dealing with strategic interactions
-altruism -cooperation -spite -selfishness
urea cycle
-amino groups removed from AAs constitute a potential toxin to the body in the form of ammonia and are excreted through this process -NOTE: MCAT v unlikely to test on the intermediates and steps directly but this is a point of reference
biological contributions to aggression
-amygdala - responsible for associating stimuli and their corresponding rewards or punishments - so teling us whether something is a threat; if activated, increases aggression -higher order brain structures like PFC can place brakes on a revved-up amygdala, reducing emotional reactivity and impulsiveness - reduced activity in the PFC is linked to aggressive behavior -hormonal control - higher testosterone in both males and females --> more aggression (there are also psychological and situational predictors of aggression)
myofibril
-an arrangement of many sarcomeres (attached end to end) in series -surrounded by the sarcoplasmic reticulum
enteropeptidase
-an enzyme in the duodenum that activates trypsinogen to trypsin, a pancreatic protease -the MASTER SWITCH because when it activates trypsinogen to trypsin, it can then activate the other zymogens (chymotrypsinogen and carboxypeptidases A and B), all of which are in the pancreatic juices
cluster B
-antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders (WILD) -marked by behavior that is labeled as dramatic, emotional, or erratic by others
elasticity of veins and arteries
-arteries are elastic -veins are inelastic
joint cavity
-articular cavity -part of movable joint containing synovial fluid
multiculturalism, assimilation, melting pot, cultural mosaic
-assimilation = melting pot (melting into one homogenous culture) -multiculturalism = cultural mosaic (cultures coexist)
social construction model
-assumes that there are no biological bases for emotion and that emotions are solely based on experiences and the situational context -also suggests that certain emotions can only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently - and thus play different roles - across cultures -one must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform teh corresponding emotional behaviors in a given social situation -direct contrast to Darwin's basic theory
appendix
-attached to the cecum (part of the large intestine) -small fingerlike projection that was once thought to be vestigial, though recent evidence suggests it may have a role in warding off certain bacterial infections and repopulating the large intestine with normal flora after diarrhea
NS control of circulatory system
-autonomic -sympathetic signals speed up heart rate and increase contractility of cardiac muscle -parasympathetic signals, provided by the vagus nerve, slow it down
cluster C
-avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders -marked by behavior that is labeled as anxious or fearful by others (WORRIED)
follicular phase
-begins with menstrual flow -GnRH secretion from HT increases in response to decreased conc of estrogen and progesterone, which fall of toward the end of each cycle -higher [GnRH] cause increased secretion of FSH and LH --> develop several ovarian folliclse -follicles begin to produce estrogen, which has negative feedback effects and causes GnRH, LH, and FSH concentrations to level off -estrogen works to regrow the endometrial lining, stimulating vascularization and glandularization of decidua
digestive tract order/anatomy
-begins with the oral cavity (mouth) -pharynx -esophagus -stomach -small intestine -large intestine -feces stored in rectum until release from... -anus in addition to the actual organs of the digestive tract, the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder help provide the enzymes and lubrication necessary to aid the digestion of food
Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation
-behavior, personal factors, and environment influence each other (Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation) -for example, work ethic of company's employees (behavior) is affected by how hard their colleagues work, their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal), and the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment) --> reciprocally, this may create a change in the employee's attitude toward work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment)
how do bile and pancreatic lipase work together to digest fats?
-bile accomplishes mechanical digestion of fats, emulsifying them (and forming micelles) and increasing their surface area -pancreatic lipase accomplishes chemical digestion of fats, breaking their ester bonds
vein
-blood to the heart -blood empties into the superior and inferior venae cavae for entry into the right side of the heart -thin-walled, inelastic -less smooth muscle than arteries so less recoil -stretch to accommodate up to 3x as much blood as arteries
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft
"Community and society," a theory by Tönnies that distinguishes 2 major types of groups -Geimenschaft (community) refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography; families and neighborhoods are examples -Gesellschaft (society) refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward teh same goal; companies and countries
arteries
-blood travels away from the heart -the largest is the aorta -major arteries divide the bloodflow from the aorta to different peripheral tissues -branch into arterioles -muscular and elastic, creating resistance to blood flow and requiring left heart to generate higher pressures; once filled with blood, the recoil from their walls maintains high pressure and forces blood forward
sesquiterpenes
("one and a half") -contain 3 isoprene units
blood flow challenges and solutions
-bloodflow in most veins is upward from lower back to heart, against gravity -in inferior vena cava, this means lots of blood in a vertical column; the pressure at the bottom of this venous column can be v high -so veins have valves to (push blood forward and) prevent backflow -also small amount of smooth muscle in veins --> veins must rely on surrounding skeletal muscles contracting to push blood to heart
disturbance of affect symptoms
-blunting (severe reduction in intensity of affect expression) -flat affect (no signs of emotional expression) -inappropriate affect (affect discordant w content of individual's speech) schizo negative symptoms
atrial systole
(atrial contraction) -most ventricular filling is passive, but atrial systole results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricles (atrial kick)
how does the excretory system contribute to the bicarbonate buffer system?
-can selectively decrease or increase the secretion of both hydrogen ions and bicarbonate -when blood pH is too low, the kidneys excrete more H+ ions and increase reabsorption of bicarbonate, resulting in higher pH -when blood pH is too high, the kidneys can excrete more bicarbonate and increase reabsorption of H+ ions -slower than respiratory response but v effective way to maintain acid-base balance
what do capillaries and lacteals in the small intestine absorb
-capillaries: WATER-soluble nutrients like monosaccharides, AAs, small fatty acids, water-soluble vitamins, and water -lacteals: FAT-soluble nutrients like fats, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins
how can types of food molecules be absorbed
-carbs must be broken down into monosaccharides for absorption -di- and even tripeptides can be absorbed across the small intestine wall
shivering
-caused by skeletal muscle contracting rapidly in cold -requires a lot of ATP but a significant portion of the ATP is converted into thermal energy
negative selection
-causing apoptosis in T cells that are self-reactive (activated by proteins produced by the organism itself) -occurs in thymus
sarcolemma
-cell membrane of a myocyte -capable of propagating an AP and can distribute the AP to all sarcomeres in a muscle using a system of T-tubules perpendicular to the myofibrils
water absorption in small intestine
(note: also occurs in large intestine) -in fact, much of the water in chyme is the result of secretions -the average person may drink up to 2 L of fluid per day, but secretions into the upper GI tract may total up to 7 -to maintain proper fluid levels within the body, much of this fluid must be reabsorbed by osmosis -as solutes are absorbed in the bloodstream, water is drawn with it, eventually reaching the capillaries -water passes both transcellularly (across cell membrane) and paracellularly (squeezing between cells) to reach the blood
UTRs
(shown in pic) Untranslated regions of mRNA -Still exist after posttranslational modification at the 5' and 3' ends of the transcript because the ribosome initiates translation at the start codon and will end at the stop codon
SA node
(sinoatrial node) -impulse initiation begins here -small collection of cells located in the wall of the right atrium -generates 60-100 signals per minute without requiring any neurological input (myogenic activity) -depolarization wave spreads from here and causes the 2 atria to contract simultaneously (causing atrial kick) -from here the signal goes to the AV node
First base transcribed from DNA to RNA
+1 base of that gene region
illusion of morality
- belief that group's decisions are morally correct -feature of groupthink
illusion of invulnerability
- creation of optimisim and encouragement of risk-taking -feature of groupthink
pressure for conformity
- opposition is viewed as disloyal, pressuring anyone in the group who expresses opinions against the group -feature of groupthink
excessive stereotyping
- stereotypes against outside opinions -feature of groupthink
self-censorship
- withholding opposing views -feature of groupthink
situational attributions
-"external" -those that relate to features of the surroundings, like threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure -like chalking up a friend;s award to luck -according to attribution theory, one of the causes for attribution
dispositional attributions
-"internal" -those that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics -according to attribution theory, one of the causes for attribution
fatty acid synthesis (after acetyl-CoA enters the cytoplasm via the citrate shuttle)
-*acetyl-CoA carboxylase* (rate-limiting) activates acetyl-CoA - uses biotin and ATP to add CO2 to form malonyl-CoA (note: this CO2 will be removed by fatty acid synthase) -*fatty acid synthase* adds acetyl-CoA groups (8 total required to produce palmitate) -fatty acyl-CoA can be elongated and desaturated to an extent using enzymes of the SER -form triglycerides by attaching 3 fatty acids (as fatty acyl-CoA) to glycerol - this occurs in the liver (some in adipose tissue, small contribution from diet) -in liver, triglycerides are packaged and sent to adipose tissue as VLDL, leaving only a small amount stored
components of social perception (and defns)
-*perceiver* - influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state -*target* - the person about which the perception is made -*situation* - a given context can determine what information is available to perceiver
exchange theory
--sociology theory -extension of rational choice theory -whereas rational choice theory can be applied to an individual independently of social interaction (What should I eat for dinner tonight?), exchange theory focuses on interactions in groups -posits that an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and will avoid certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments -assumes that behavior that is met with approval by others will reinforce that behavior and encourage its continuation, while behavior met with disapproval by others is punished, discouraging its continuation (similar to operant)
ATP-producing steps in glycolysis
-1,3-BPG to 3-PG via 3-phosphoglycerate kinase -PEP to pyruvate via pyruvate kinase
salivary glands
-3 pairs of these produce saliva -contains salivary amylase (ptyalin) and lipase -innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system -presence of food in the oral cavity triggers a neural circuit that leads to increased parasympathetic stimulation of these glands; can also be triggered by signals that food is near like smell or sight
Prokaryotic ribosome structure
-5S and 23S make up the 50S subunit -16S makes up the 30S subunit -Together they join to create the 70S ribosome
blood antigens
-ABO antigens -Rh factor ^Both expressed on RBCs
discrimination
-ACTION -when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others -typically a negative behavior -influenced by power, prestige, and class
prejudice
-AFFECTIVE -an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity -influenced by power, prestige, and class
Tumor suppressor genes
-Aka antioncogenes -Encode proteins that inhibit the cell cycle or participate in DNA repair processes -Normally function to stop tumor suppression, but mutations in these genes result in the loss of this tumor suppression activity and therefore promote cancer -Inactivation of both alleles is necessary for loss of function because even one copy of the normal protein can inhibit tumor formation -Like p53 or Rb
Restriction endonucleases
-Aka restriction enzymes -Isolated from bacteria (virus protection) -Enzymes that recognize specific double-stranded DNA sequences -These sequences are palindromic (5' to 3' sequence of one strand is identical to the 5' to 3' sequence of the other strand but they're antiparallel) -Once a specific sequence has been identified, the restriction enzyme can cut through the backbones of the double helix -Some produce sticky ends (from offset cuts) which facilitate the recombination of a restriction fragment with the vector DNA -Vector of choice can also be cut w the same restriction enzyme, allowing the fragments to be inserted directly into the vector
Gel electrophoresis of DNA
-All molecules of DNA are - charged so they will migrate toward anode -Preferred gel is agarose gel (for proteins is polyacrylamide gel) -Longer strand migrates slower -Often used w Southern blot
Base excision repair
-Alterations to bases can occur with cellular insults -Ex: thermal energy can be absorbed by DNA leading to cytosine deamination which converts it to uracil, which shouldn't be found in a DNA molecule and is easily detected as an error - however detection systems exist for small, non-helix-distorting mutations too -BER repairs this 1) Affected base is recognized and removed by a glycosylase enzyme, leaving behind an apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site (abasic site) 2) AP site is recognized by AP endonuclease which removes the damaged sequence from the DNA 3) DNA polymerase and DNA ligase can then fill in the gap and seal the strand
macrophage
-cell of the innate immune system -a monocyte is renamed a macrophage once it leaves the bloodstream and enters an organ, and can become a resident population within a tissue -when a bacterial invader enters a tissue, the macrophage becomes activated.. 1) phagocytoses the invader through endocytosis 2) digests the invader using endocytosis 3) presents antigenic fragments of the invader to other cells via MHC (which binds the peptide and carries it to the cell surface where it can be recognized by cells of teh adaptive immune system) -also release cytokines
melanocytes (late)
-cell type derived from neural crest cells, found in the stratum basale -produce melanin
Z-DNA
-Another form of DNA -Zigzag appearance -Left-handed helix -Turn every 4.6 nm -12 bases each turn -High GC content or salt content can contribute to this
Medicine core ethical tenets
-Beneficence -Nonmalifecence -Autonomy -Justice
excretory system order of structures
-Bowman's space -proximal convoluted tubule -descending limb of loop of Henle -ascending limb of loop of Henle -distal convoluted tubule -collecting duct -renal pelvis -ureter -bladder -urethra
what happens in the mitochondrial matrix
-CAC produces the high-energy electron carriers used in the ETC
stereotypes
-COGNITIVE -the expectations, impressions, and opinions about the characteristics of members of a group -their content is the attributes that people believe define and characterize a group -occur when attitudes and impressions are based on limited and superficial info about a person or group of individuals
Mismatch repair
-Cells have machinery in the G2 phase of the cell cycle for this -These enzymes are encoded by genes MSH2 and MLH 1, which detect and remove errors introduced in replication that were missed during the S phase -These enzymes are homologues of MutS and MutL in prokaryotes
Carl Rogers
-Client-centered/person-centered/nondirective therapy -Unconditional positive regard
Developing transgenic mice via embryonic stem cells
-Cloned gene is introduced in culture and then we select for cells w the transgene successfully inserted -The altered stem cells are injected into blastocysts and implanted into surrogate moms -Thus the blastocyst is composed of cells with transgene and cells without -Resulting offspring is chimera - it has patches of cells, including germ cells, derived from each of the 2 lineages -Chimeras can then be bred to get mice that are hetero for the transgene or homo for the transgene
tRNA
-Contains a folded strand of RNA that includes an anticodon, which recognizes and pairs with the codon on the mRNA molecule in the ribosome -Charged/activated when attached to an AA at the 3'OH of tRNA -In cytoplasm
DNA sequencing
-Contains template DNA, primers, DNA polymerase, and the dTPs; in addition, a modified base called a dideoxyribonucleotide is added in lower [ ] -ddNTs contain a H at C3' so once one is incorporated the polymerase can no longer add to the chain -Eventually the sample will contain many fragments, each which terminates with one of these -These fragments are then separated by size using gel electrophoresis -The last base for each fragment can be read, and because gel electrophoresis separates strands by size, the bases can easily be read in order
Kohlberg conformity
-Conventional morality stage 3 -I should not steal the drug because stealing is wrong (seeking approval of others)
Kohlberg law and order
-Conventional morality stage 4 -If everyone stole things they couldn't afford, people who produce those items would not be able to continue their business
plasmids
-DNA from external sources may be carried on in bacteria in these smaller circular structures -carry DNA that is not necessary for the survival of the prokaryote (so not part of bacteria's genome) but may confer advantage like antibiotic resistance
gram-negative
-cell walls that are very thin and do contain peptidoglycan but in much smaller amounts -directly abut the cell membrane -in addition to cell wall and cell membrane, gram-negative bacteria also have outer membranes containing phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides (the latter are the part of the gram - bacteria that triggers an immune response in human beings; the inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharides is much stronger than the response to lipoteichoic acid)
gram-positive
-cell walls that consist of a thick layer of peptidoglycan -contains lipoteichoic acid
parietal cells
-cells of the gastric glands of the stomach that secrete hydrogen ions as HCl to cleave pepsinogen to pepsin; a component of the gastric juice -also secrete intrinsic factor (B12 absorption)
cardiac muscle broad info
-characteristics of smooth and skeletal -primarily unnucleated, but may contain 2 nuclei -involuntary and innervated by autonomic NS -striated -intercalated discs -also can do myogenic activity thru SA node activation cascade -also nervous (vagus nerve) and endocrine (norep and ep) regulation
basic model of emotional expression
-Darwin -says that emotional expression involves a number of components: facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes; expression is consistent with theories on evolution and should be similar across cultures -also said that primates and animals exhibit rudimentary muscle actions that are similar to those used by humans for facial expressions -since Darwin many researchers have found that a number of basic human emotions are universally experienced and that their corresponding facial expressions are universally recognized -closely related to appraisal model
control points of the citric acid cycle
-citrate synthase -isocitrate dehydrogenase -alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (also pyruvate dehydrogenase before acetyl-CoA can enter the CAC)
Confounding
-Data analysis error (so NOT bias because it's during analysis, not in the data collection phase) -Association is erroneously drawn between 2 variables because of a shared connection to a third variable
agranulocytes
-class of leukocytes; consists of monocytes and lymphocytes -do not contain granules that are released by exocytosis
Cause left shift in oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
-Decreased partial pressure of CO2 -Increased pH -Decreased [H+] -Decreased temperature -Decreased 2,3-BPG Think: CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3- *This allows for less oxygen to be delivered to tissues* Also HbF has higher affinity than HbA, so HbF shifted left (must pull oxygen off of maternal hemoglobin)
granulocytes
-class of leukocytes; consists of neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils -contain cytoplasmic granules visible by microscopy -granules contain compounds toxic to invading compounds that can be released through exocytosis -inflammatory reactions, allergies, pus formation, destruction of bacteria and parasites
paranoid personality disorder
-cluster A -marked by a pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives -sometimes may actually be in the prodromal phase of schizophrenia and are termed premorbid
schizotypal personality disorder
-cluster A -pattern of odd or eccentric thinking -may have ideas of reference as well as magical thinking
schizoid personality disorder
-cluster A -pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression -show little desire for social interactions, have few friends (if any), have poor social skills
histrionic personality disorder
-cluster B -characterized by constant attention-seeking behavior -often wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted; may use seductive behavior to gain attention
antisocial personality disorder
-cluster B -disregard for and violations of the rights of others -evidenced by repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or lack of remorse for said actions -many serial killers and career criminals who show no guilt for their actions; about 20-40% of prison populations -3x more common in males than females
narcissistic personality disorder
-cluster B -one has a grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, a need for constant admiration and attention, and characteristic disturbances in interpersonal relationships such as feelings of entitlement -have very fragile self-esteem and are constantly concerned with how others view them; there may be feelings of rage, inferiority, shame, humiliation, or emptiness when they are not viewed favorably by others
borderline personality disorder
-cluster B -pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image; interpersonal relationships are often intense and unstable -may be profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values -often intense fear of abandonment -may use splitting as a defense mechanism -suicide attempts and self-mutilation are common -2x more common in females
dependent personality disorder
-cluster C -characterized by continuous need for reassurance -remain dependent on one specific person, like a parent or significant other, to take actions or make decisions
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
-cluster C -individual is perfectionistic and inflexible, tending to like rules and order -may include inability to discard worn-out objects, lack of desire to change, excessive stubbornness, lack of a sense of humor, and maintenance of careful routines
avoidant personality disorder
-cluster C -the affected individual has extreme shyness and fear of rejection -individual will see self as socially inept and socially isolated, despite an intense desire for social affection and acceptance -tend to stay in the same jobs, life situations, and relationships despite wanting to change
enteric nervous system
-collection of 100 million neurons that govern the function of the gastrointestinal system -these neurons are present in the walls of the digestive tract and trigger peristalsis -can function independently of the brain and spinal cord, but heavily regulated by the autonomic NS
ventilation center
-collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata that does most of the breathing regulation -these neurons fire rhythmically to cause regular contraction of respiratory uscles -contain chemoreceptors that are mostly sensitive to [CO2] -as partial pressure of CO2 in blood increases, respiratory rate will increase so more CO2 is exhaled and CO2 levels in blood will fall -also respond to changes in [O2] but usually only significant in periods of hypoxemia
generalized anxiety disorder
-common -disproportionate and persistent worry about many different things for at least 6 months -often physical symptoms like fatigue, muscle tension, and sleep problems accompany the worry
thought broadcasting
-common type of delusion -belief that one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world
thought insertion
-common type of delusion -belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head
bacterial flagella
-composed of a filament, a basal body, and a hook -the *filament* is a hollow, helical structure composed of flagellin -the *basal body* is a complex structure that anchors the flagellum to the cytoplasmic membrane and is also the motor of the flagellum, rotating at rates of up to 300 Hz -the *hook* connects the filament and the basal body so that as the basal body rotates it exerts torque on the filament which can spin and propel the bacterium forward
cell adhesion molecules
-comprise cell-cell junctions -proteins that allow cells to recognize each other and contribtue to proper cell differentiation and development
Posttranslational processing
-Folding is essential (chaperones) -Many proteins modified by cleavage (insulin; also if it has a signal sequence that must be cleaved for protein to enter organelle and accomplish its function) -Quaternary proteins' subunits must come together -Other biomolecules added: phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, prenylation
feces
-consists of indigestible material, water, bacteria (makes up 30% of dry matter of stool; includes E. coli and others), and certain digestive secretions that are not reabsorbed (enzymes and some bile) -formed in the colon and stored in the rectum
muscle types and blood
-contraction of skeletal muscle is able to compress venous structures and help propel blood to the heart -smooth muscle aids in regulation of BP by constricting and relaxing the vasculature
Eukaryotic ribosome structure
-Genes for 28S, 18S, and 5.8S rRNAs are found in the nucleolus (transcribed by RNA pol I); 18S rRNA goes to the 40S subunit and 28S and 5.8S go to the 60S subunit, where 5S rRNA (transcribed by RNA pol III outside of the nucleolus) later joins them -The subunits join during protein synthesis to form the 80S ribosome
How does the human body store spare energy
-Glycogen -Triglycerides
dramaturgical approach
-Goffman described impression management in this way -uses metaphor of theatrical performance to describe how individuals create images of themselves in various situations -one's status is likened to his script -front stage is where the actor is in font of the audience, and performs according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see -back stage is where the actor is not being observed by the audience, and he is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image without having to worry about ruining his performance
Vitamin K
-Group of compounds, including phylloquinone and menaquinones -Vital to posttranslational modifications required to form prothrombin (clotting factor) -Required to introduce calcium-binding sites on several Ca++-dependent proteins
peroxides
-H2O2 is produced a sa byproduct in aerobic metabolism, and can break apart to form hydroxide radicals -free radicals can attack lipids, including those in the phospholipids of the membrane -when oxidized, these lipids lose their function and can weaken the membrane --> cell lysis (esp in RBCs where the high levels of oxygen can be oxidized by other free radicals becoming the superoxide O2.- -free radicals can also damage DNA, potentially causing cancer -glutathione is a reducing agent that can help reverse radical formation before damage is done to the cell; NADPH helps maintain a supply of reduced glutathione
uses of stomach acid
-HCl secreted by parietal cells cleave pepsinogen to pepsin so it can then act; pepsin most active at low pH -kills most harmful bacteria (except Helicobacter pylori, infection with which is usualy asymptomatic but can cause inflammation, ulcers, and gastric cancers) -helps denature proteins and can break down some intramolecular bonds that hold food together
protein catabolism
-body protein is catabolized in muscle and liver (during prolonged fasting or starvation) -AAs released from proteins usually lose their amino group via transamination or deamination -the remaining carbon skeleton is used for energy -glucogenic AAs can be converted to glucose thru gluconeogenesis and ketogenic AAs (leucine and lysine, plus isoleucine, phe, thr, trp, and tyr) can be converted to acetyl-CoA and ketone bodies -the amino groups removed constitute a potential toxin to the body in the form of ammonia and are excreted through the urea cycle -fate of side chain depends on its chemistry - basic feed into urea cycle, while others act as carbon skeleton and produce energy thru gluconeogenesis or ketone production
lipoprotein lipase (LPL)
-HSL is effective within adipose cells, but LPL is necessary for metabolism of chylomicrons and VLDL (can release free fatty acids from triacylglycerols in these lipoproteins)
What stabilizes DNA
-Hydrogen bonds between bases -Hydrophobic interactions between bases
bone composition
-bone = connective tissue derived from embryonic mesoderm -harder than cartilage but lightweight -its strength comes from compact bone; there is also spongy/cancellous bone with bone marrow between trabeculae cavities -bones in appendicular skeleton are typically long bones
appendicular skeleton
-bones of the limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges in upper limb; femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges in lower limb) -pectoral girdle (scalpula and clavicle) -pelvis
Excision endonuclease
-In nucleotide excision repair -Makes nicks in the phosphodiester backbone of a damaged strand of DNA (due to UV light making thymine dimers) and removes the defective oligonucleotide -Also used in Southern blotting and gene therapy
Cause right shift in oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
-Increased partial pressure of CO2 -Decreased pH -Increased [H+] -Increased temperature -Increased 2,3-BPG Think: CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3- *This allows for more oxygen to be delivered to tissues*
Lac operon
-Inducible system (negative) -Operon contains gene for lactase -Bacteria can digest lactase but it's more expensive to do this than to digest glucose -So bacteria only want to use this option if lactose is high and glucose is low -So the lac operon is induced by lactose presence; only when useful Assisted by CAP - falling glucose levels increase cAMP, which binds to CAP; induces conformational change in CAP that allows it to bind to promoter region further increasing lactase transcription (positive control mechanism)
Stages of translation
-Initiation -Elongation -Termination
Elements of posttranscriptional processing
-Intron/exon splicing -5' cap -3' poly-A tail Must occur before they leave the nucleus thru the nuclear pores
PD treatments
-L-DOPA -attempts to regenerate dopaminergic neurons in SN using stem cells placed into the central nervous system
RNA pol I
-Located in the nucleolus -Synthesizes rRNA
RNA polymerase II
-Located in the nucleus -Synthesizes hnRNA (pre-processed mRNA) and some small nuclear RNA (snRNA)
RNA pol III (where 2)
-Located in the nucleus -Synthesizes tRNA and some rRNA
Developing transgenic mice via microinjection of cloned gene
-Microinject cloned gene into nucleus of FERTILIZED OVUM -The ovum is implanted into a surrogate mother and if successful the resulting offspring will contain the transgene in all cells including gametes (so will be passed on) -Transgene coexists in the animals with their own copies of the gene -Useful for studying dominant gene effects but not recessive
Oncogenes
-Mutated genes that cause cancer -Primarily encode cell cycle-related proteins
AAs and glucagon
AAs, especially basic ones, promote the secretion of glucagon (even though glucagon is usually secreted when we haven't recently eaten but that's because it's stimulated by low blood GLUCOSE) -Thus glucagon is secreted in response to the ingestion of a meal rich in proteins
what hormones trigger the sensation of thirst?
ADH and aldosterone
what activates alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase in the CAC
ADP and Ca2+
what types of muscle need calcium ions to contract
ALL!
Order of sites in ribosome during translation
APE
why do we want ATP to be a mid-level carrier and not a higher level one?
ATP can't get back any "change" (leftover free energy) after a reaction, so it's best to use a carrier with smaller free energy
Carboxylation
Addition of carboxylic acid groups post-translationally, usually to serve as calcium-binding sites
Replisome
Aka replication complex -A set of specialized proteins that assist the DNA polymerases in DNA replication
Repressible systems
Allow for constant production of a protein product -Repressor made by regulator gene is inactive until it binds to a corepressor -This complex then binds to the operator site to prevent further transcription -Tend to serve as negative feedback - often the structural product can serve as a corepressor, so as its levels increase, it can bind to the repressor and the complex will attach to the operator region to prevent further transcription of the same gene -Trp operon
DNA directionality
Always read 5' to 3' (makes sense since groups are added to the 3' carbon)
Vitamin
An essential nutrient that cannot be adequately synthesized by the body and therefore must be consumed in the diet -Fat-soluble vitamins are signaling lipids
Elongation factors
Assist during elongation by locating and recruiting aminoacyl-tRNA along with GTP, while helping to remove GDP once the energy has been used
5' cap
At the 5' end of hRNA , a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap is added -It's actually added during transcription and recognized by the ribosome in the binding site -Protects the mRNA from degradation in the cytoplasm
What form is most DNA
B-DNA (right-handed)
how are fatty acids converted to acetyl-CoA
B-oxidation -activation in the intermembrane space causes a thioester bond to form between carboxyl groups of fatty acids and CoA-SH -activated fatty acyl-CoA is then transported into the intermembrane space (but has to be transferred to carnitine via transesterification to cross the inner membrane) -one acyl-carnitine crosses the inner membrane and transfers the fatty acyl goup to a mitochondrial CoA-SH via transesterification -once acyl-CoA is formed in the matrix, B-oxidation can occur, which removes 2-C fragments from the carboxyl end
BMI
BMI = mass / (height^2) -mass in kg, height in m
nephron part main concerns
Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, and distal convoluted tubule - identity; keep what the body needs and lose what it doesn't loop of Henle, collecting duct - volume and concentration of urine; concentrate the urine to conserve water
monoterpenes
C10H16 -terpenes containing 2 isoprene units -abundant in essential oils and turpentine
How do soaps work
Can act as surfactants (lowers the surface tension at the surface of a liquid, serving as a detergent or emulsifier) -If we try to combine aqueous solution and oil they will remain separate -But if we add a soap the 2 appear to combine into a single phase, forming a colloid -This is bc of the formation of micelles, which allow for overall solvation (fat-soluble particles can dissolve inside micelles in the soap-water solution and wash away; water-soluble compounds can freely dissolve in the water)
Vitamin A
Carotene -Unsaturated hydrocarbon important in vision, growth and development, and immune function -Most significant metabolite is the aldehyde form, retinal (think sight) -Retinol, the storage form of vitamin A, is also oxidized to retinoic acid, a hormone that regulates gene expression during epithelial development
CAP
Catabolite activator protein; assists lac operon -Transcriptional activator used by E. coli when glucose levels are low to signal that alternative carbon sources should be used -Falling levels of glucose cause increase in cAMP which binds to CAP -This induces a conformational change in CAP that allows it to bind to the promoter region of the operon --> further transcription of lactase gene (positive control mechanism)
Specificity (statistics)
Change in outcome variable is only produced by an associated change in the independent variable -Hill criteria
Bohr effect
Changes in the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen caused by changes in the environment -When pH is low (increased [H+]), the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve shifts right, indicating a decreased affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen and a more efficient off-loading of oxygen from hemoglobin
Vulnerable persons
Children, pregnant women, prisoners, etc. -Require special protections above and beyond those taken with the general population
vitamin D
Cholecalciferol -Can be consumed or formed in a UV light-driven reaction in the skin -In liver and kidneys, is converted to calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D - increases calcium and phosphate uptake in the intestines, which promotes bone production -Lack --> rickets
ubiquinol
CoQH2
Structural gene
Codes for protein of interest
Exon
Coding sequence
Anti-sense strand
Complementary and antiparallel to mRNA; template strand
Huckel's rule
Compound has 4n+2 (n is any integer) pi electrons -Required for something to be aromatic
Genomic libraries
Contain large fragments of DNA, and include both coding (exon) and noncoding (intron) regions of the genome -Thus uses restriction endonucleases and DNA ligase (cloned into vectors to be utilized for further study) -But genes can be split into multiple vectors, so are not necessarily complete sequences, so only cDNA libraries can be used to reliably sequence specific genes and ID disease-causing mutations, produce recombinant proteins (insulin, vaccines) or produce transgenic animals
initiation of muscle contraction
-contraction starts at the NMJ, where the nervous system communicates with muscles via motor neurons -signal down neuron until it reaches synaptic bouton (motor end plate in muscle), where ACh is released into synapse -ACh binds to receptors in sarcolemma, causing depolarization -each nerve terminal controls a group of myocytes (motor unit) -depolarization --> AP, which spreads down sarcolemma to T-tubules -T-tubules travel into muscle tissues to sarcoplasmic reticulum -when AP reaches SR, Ca2+ is ultimately released from the SR -Ca2+ ions bind to a regulatory unit in troponin, triggering a change in the conformation of tropomyosin (to which troponin is bound) -This change exposes myosin-binding sites on actin filament
self-disclosure (attraction)
-contributes to attraction -sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with non-judgmental empathy -engaging in this deepends attraction and friendship, but must be reciprocal
possible fates of glycolysis
-conversion to acetyl-CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase (then onto CAC if ATP is needed, or fatty acid synthesis if sufficient ATP is present) -conversion to lactate by pyruvate dehydrogenase -conversion to oxaloacetate by pyruvate carboxylase
sweating
-cooling mechanism by the autonomic NS -when body temp rises above set point determined by hypothalamus, thermoregulation processes must occur to rid the body of heat -postganglionic sympathetic neurons that use ACh innervate sweat glands and promote secretion of water w certain ions onto the skin -heat is then absorbed from the body as the molecules within the water undergo a phase change to evaporate -the evaporation of water is what actually does the cooling, as the water from the skin is what absorbs the body heat -at the same time arteriolar vasodilation occurs to maximize heat loss -this brings lots of blood to the skin which accelerates the evaporation of sweat by maximizing the heat energy available for liquid-gas phase change
biological basis of PD
-decreased dopamine production in substantia nigra
terpenoids
-derivatives of terpenes that have undergone oxygenation or rearrangement of the carbon skeleton -further modified by the addition of FGs -aromatic properties, steroid biosynthesis, precursor molecules that feed into various biosynthesis pathways
evolutionary stable strategy (ESS)
-developed by game theorists studying sex ratios in various species -when an ESS is adopted by a given population in a specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising; the strategies are thus inherited traits passed along with the population, with the object of the game being becoming more fit than competitors -like Hawk-Dove game - there exists an equilibrium point where, based on the magnitude of the reward and the cost of fighting, the hawk and dove strategies coexist as evolutionarily stable strategies
inhalation
-diaphragm and external intercostal muscles expand the thoracic cavity -as diaphragm flattens and chest wall expands outward, intrathoracic volume (volume of chest cavity) increases; intrapleural space volume increases first because buts against chest wall -increase in intrapleural volume decreases intrapleural pressure -lungs have higher pressure so they expand into intrapleural space and their pressure drops -air sucked in from higher-P environment, the outside world negative-pressure breathing
markers of Alzheimer's
-diffuse atrophy of brain on CT or MRI -flattened sulci in cerebral cortex -enlarged cerebral ventricles -deficient blood flow in parietal lobes (correlated with cognitive decline) -reduction in ACh levels -reduciton in choline acetyltransferase, the enzyme that produces ACh -reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes -senile plaques of B-amyloid -neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein
temperature effects on membrane transport
-diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis (passive transport) generally increase in rate as temperature increases; the primary thermodynamic motivator in most passive transport is an increase in entropy doe -active transport may or may not be affected by temperature, depending on enthalpy of the process
major functions of the human digestive tract (list)
-digestion -absorption
transforming principle
-discovered by Griffith -he theorized that live, nonvirulent bacteria (which initially had rough capsules) must have acquired the ability to form smooth capsules from the dead virulent bacteria which made them able to kill the mice
DID
-dissociative identity disorder, a type of dissociative disorder -formerly multiple personality disorder -there are 2 or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behavior; the disorder results when the components of identity fail to integrate -in most cases the patients have suffered severe physical or sexual abuse as young children -after much therapy the personalities can sometimes be integrated into one -existence debated within medical community
glycogen storage diseases
-due to different isoforms of glycogen enzymes in the liver and muscle -characterized by accumulation or lack of glycogen in one or more tissues
gas exchange in the lungs
-each alveolus is surrounded by a network of capillaries -capillaries bring deoxygenated blood from the *pulmonary arteries*, which originate from the right ventricle of the heart -the walls of the alveoli are only one cell thick so CO2 can diffuse from the blood into the lungs (and eventually be exhaled) and O2 can diffuse into the blood -oxygenated blood returns to left atrium via *pulmonary veins* -driving force is pressure differential - diffusion, so no energy required
hilum
-each kidney has a renal hilum -deep slit in the center of the medial surface of the kidney -the renal artery, renal vein, and ureter enter and exit through the renal hilum
kidney structure
-each kidney is subdivided into cortex (outermost layer) and medulla (sits within the cortex) -each kidney also has a renal hilum (deep slit in center of medial surface) -the widest part of the ureter, the renal pelvis, spans almost the entire width of the renal hilum -the renal artery, renal vein, and ureter enter and exit through the renal hilum -has one of the few portal systems in the body
cytokinesis
-enabled by microfilaments (actin) -cleavage furrow is fromed from microfilaments, which organize as a ring at the site of division between the 2 daughter cells -as the actin filaments within the ring contract, the ring becomes smaller eventually pinching off the connection between the 2 daughter cells
hormones, blood
-enter circulation near organ where hormone is produced via exocytosis (hormones enter bloodstream) -some are carried by proteins in the blood and released under specific conditions -can activate cell-surface receptors (peptide hormones) or diffuse into cell to activate intracellular or intranuclear receptors (steroid hormones)
pancreatic amylase
-enzyme in the pancreatic juices that breaks down large polysaccharides into small disaccharides and is therefore responsible for carbohydrate digestion
brush-border enzymes
-enzymes present on the luminal surface of cells lining the duodenum -released by the presence of chyme in the duodenum (which comes from the stomach) -break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers -include disaccharidases (maltase, isomaltase, lactase, and sucrase) and peptidases (including dipeptidase)
tissue types
-epithelial -connective -muscle -nervous
acinar cells
-exocrine cells that make up the bulk of the pancreas -produce pancreatic juices -secrete their products into ducts that empty into the duodenum via the major and minor duodenal papillae
identity shift effect
-explains the mechanism of peer pressure -when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group; upon doing so, however, the individual will begin to experience internal conflict because the behavior is outside the normal character of the individual; to eliminate the sense of internal conflict, the individual experiences an identity shift wherein the individual adopts the standards of the group as his own -highlights cognitive dissonance
white fibers
-fast-twitch fibers -type of fiber in skeletal muscle -less myoglobin than red fibers, so less iron, so lighter -muscles that contract rapidly but fatigue quickly are mostly this
F factor
-fertility factor, a sex factor in E. coli -sex factors are plasmids that contain the genes necessary to form a pilus in a donor male -during conjugation between F+ and F- cell, the F+ cell replicates its F factor and donates the copy to the recipient, converting it to an F+ cell; this enables the cell obtaining the new plasmid to then transfer copies to other cells -this is a plasmid but thru processes like transformation it can be integrated into the host genome
what contributes to growing population of US
-fertility rate (it has decreased over time but is still above 2) -decreasing mortality rate -net immigration
demographic statistics list and calc
-fertility rate = children per woman per lifetime -birth rate = children per 1000 people per year -mortality rate = deaths per 1000 people per year -migration rate = immigration rate minus emigration rate
descending and ascending limbs of loop of Henle
-filtrate from PCT comes to descending limb -dives deep into the medulla before turning around and becoming the ascending limb -permeable only to water, and medulla has ever-increasing osmolarity as the descending limb travels deeper into it, so outflow of water is favored --> reabsorbed into vasa recta -change in permeability occurs as it becomes the ascending limb... -only permeable to salts and impermeable to water -at the deeper parts of the medulla salt concentrations are high, but decrease as the ascending limb rises -thus increasing amounts of salt are removed from the filtrate as it travels up the loop of Henle -ends in diluting segment -at the beginning of the loop of Henle, the filtrate is isotonic to the interstitium; htus from the beginning of the loop to the end, there is a slight degree of dilution -the volume of the filtrate has been significantly reduced, demonstrating net reabsorption of a large volume of water
functions of the nephron (list with BRIEF defn)
-filtration: movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at Bowman's capsule -secretion: movement of solutes from blood to filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule -reabsorption: movement of solutes from filtrate to blood
activation of fatty acids for metabolism
-first activated by attachment to CoA, which is catalyzed by fatty-acyl-CoA synthetase -product is fatty acyl-CoA or acyl-CoA
filtration
-first function of the nephron -in the kidneys, apx 20% of the blood that passes thru the glomerulus is filtered as fluid into Bowman's space (moved into there by Starling forces - the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus is higher than in Bowman's so fluid moves into the nephron; osmolarity of blood is higher than that of Bowman's space resulting in pressure opposing movement of fluid into the nephron, but hydrostatic pressure is larger so net flow is from blood into nephron), and the collected fluid is the *filtrate* -in this filtrate, molecules/cells bigger than glomerular pores will remain in the blood -the blood remaining in the glomerulus (not filtered to Bowman's) then travels to the efferent arterioles, which empty to the vasa recta https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9A2dAyWyK6o
anatomical divisions of the stomach and their purposes
-fundus and body - contain mostly gastric glands -antrum and pylorus - contain mostly pyloric glands
types of cell-cell junctions
-gap junctions -tight junctions -desmosomes
list of anxiety disorders
-generalized anxiety disorder -specific phobias -social anxiety disorder -agoraphobia -panic disorder
important substrates for gluconeogenesis and enzymes
-glycerol-3-phosphate (from stored fats, or triacylglycerols, in adipose tissue) -lactate (from anaerobic glycolysis) -glucogenic AAs (from muscle proteins) (also dietary fructose and galactose can be converted to glucose in the liver) each of the 3 important gluconeogenic intermediates have enzymes that convert them into glycolytic intermediates: -lactate --> pyruvate via lactate dehydrogenase -alanine --> pyruvate via alanine aminotransferase -glycerol-3-phosphate --> DHAP via glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
glycogen granule density
-glycogen granules composed entirely of linear chains have the highest density of glucose near the core -if the chains are branched, the glucose density is the highest at the periphery of the granule, allowing more rapid release of glucose on demand
how can acetyl-CoA be formed?
-glycolysis -fatty acids -ketogenic AAs -ketone bodies -alcohol
group polarization vs. groupthink
-group polarization is the tendency toward extreme decisions in a group -groupthink is the tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas, given the pressure to conform and remain loyal to the group -both are social processes that occur when groups make decisions
GALT
-gut-associated lymphoid tissue, immune tissue found in close proximity to the digestive system -include tonsils and adenoids of head, Peyer's patches in small intestine, and lymphoid aggregates in the appendix
how are most of the bones of the body created
-hardening of cartilage into bone - endochondral ossification -bones can also be created by intramembranous ossification (skull)
bimodal distribution
-has multiple peaks, but not necessarily multiple nodes -may be useful to perform data analysis on the 2 groups separately
sphingolipid
-have a sphingosine or sphingoid (sphingosine-like) backbone, as opposed to the glycerol backbone of glycerophospholipids -have NP fatty acids and polar head groups -many are also phospholipids because they contain a phosphodiester linkage, but others contain glycosidic linkages to sugars, making it a glycolipid -ceramides, sphingomyelins, glycosphingolipids, and gangliosides
diastole
-heart is relaxed and semilunar valves are closed -blood from the atrium fills the ventricles -lower pressure than during systole
types of T cells
-helper -suppressor -killer (cytotoxic)
effects of social support
-helps reduce psychological distress like anxiety and depression -less mental disorders, alcohol and drug use, and suicidal ideation -lower mortality rate from many diseases like diabetes, CVD, and cancer -immunological health - less likely to get colds, recover daster
complete blood count measures for RBCs
-hemoglobin (g/dL) - normal around 15 -hematocrit (%) - normal around 40ish%
portal systems list
-hepatic -hypophyseal -renal
HDL
-high-density lipoprotein -synthesized in the liver and intestines and released as dense, protein-rich particles in the blood -picks up cholesterol accumulating in blood vessels for excretion -delivers some cholesterol to liver and steroidogenic tissues -transfers apolipoproteins to other lipoproteins
stomach (divisions 2)
-highly muscular organ -capacity ~2 L -located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, under the diaphragm -uses HCl and enzymes to digest food, creating a fairly harsh environment, and its mucosa is quite thick to prevent autodigestion -four main divisions: fundus and body, antrum and pylorus
outer mitochondrial membrane
-highly permeable due to many large pores that allow for the passage of ions and small proteins -surrounds inner membrane w intermembrane space in between
microtubules
-hollow polymers of tubulin proteins -radiate throughout the cell, providing the primary path along which motor proteins carry vesicles -cilia and flagella are composed of MTs -centrioles are too
why can't mules reproduce
-horses have 64 chromosomes and donkeys have 62 so mules have 63 and can't undergo normal homologous pairing in meiosis and cannot form gametes
layers of skin deepest to outward
-hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) -dermis -epidermis
what are hypothesis tests vs. confidence tests used for
-hypothesis - to validate or invalidate a claim that 2 populations are different, or that one population differs from a given parameter -confidence - to determine a potential range of values for the true mean of a population
how does O2 regulate oxidative phosphorylation
-if O2 is limited, rate of ox phos decreases, and concentrations of NADH and FADH2 increase; accumulation of NADH inhibits CAC -in the presence of adequate O2, the rate of oxidative phosphorylation is dependent on availability of ADP (activates isocitrate dehydrogenase, increasing rate of CAC and production of NADH and FADH2, increasing rate of ETC and ATP synthesis) ^^respiratory control
secretion (excretory system)
-in addition to filtering blood, the nephrons are able to secrete salts, acids, bases, and urea directly into the tubule by active or passive transport; quantity or ID of substances depends on what the body needs at that time -ex: high meat diet --> intake of much protein and thus nitrogen, and ammonia can disturb pH of cells --> liver converts ammonia to urea which travels to kidney and is secreted into nephron for excretion with urine -so kidneys can eliminate ions or other substances when present in relative excess in the blood (like K+ ions or medication metabolites) -secretion also a mechanism for excreting wastes that are too large to pass thru glomerular pores
2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase
-in fatty acid oxidation with polyunsaturated fatty acids -converts 2 conjugated double bonds to just one double bond at the 3,4 position where it will undergo the same rearrangement as monounsaturated fatty acids
enoyl-CoA isomerase
-in fatty acid oxidation with unsaturated fatty acids -rearranges cis double bonds at 3,4 to become trans double bonds at 2,3; in monounsaturated fatty acids then B oxidation can proceed normally
pyruvate dehydrogenase regulation
-in liver is activated by insulin -in the nervous system is not responsive to hormones (makes sense because high insulin levels say to the liver that we're well fed so the liver should not only burn glucose for energy but shift fatty acid equlilibrium toward production and storage rather than oxidation) -inhibited by its product Acetyl-CoA - buildup of acetyl-CoA (during B-oxidation) causes a shift in metabolism: pyruvate is no longer converted to acetyl-CoA (to enter the CAC) but rather to OAA (to enter gluconeogenesis) because the cell is energetically satisfied
glucose entry into cells
-in most cells it is driven by concentration and is independent of sodium, unlike absorption from the digestive tract -glucose transporters GLUT 1 thru GLUT 4 -GLUT 2 and GLUT 4 are the most significant because only in specific cells and highly regulated -glucose can enter cell thru facilitated diffusion or active transport, but either way, the GLUT transporters are specific for glucose (NOT phosphorylated glucose), so the glucose gets trapped in the cell and can't leak out
internal and external anal sphincters
-in the anus -external is under voluntary control, but internal is under involuntary control (this is how the urethral sphincters are too)
ketone bodies and usage
-in the fasting state, the liver converts excess acetyl-CoA from B-oxidation of fatty acids into the ketone bodies acetoacetate and 3-hydroxybutyrate, which can be used for energy in various tissues -cardiac and skeletal muscle and the renal cortex can metabolize these to acetyl-CoA -during fasting muscle will metabolize ketones as fast as the liver releases them, preventing accum. in the bloodstream -after a week of fasting, ketones reach a concentration in the blood that is high enough for the brain to begin metabolizing them *essentially serve as transportable forms of acetyl-CoA
gastric glands
-in the fundus and body of the stomach -respond to signals from the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic NS, which is activated by the brain in response to the sight, taste, and smell of food -3 types: mucous cells, chief cells, and parietal cells
filtrate definition (excretion)
-in the kidneys, apx 20% of the blood that passes thru the glomerulus is filtered as fluid into Bowman's space -the collected fluid in the Bowman's space is the filtrate; the filtrate also collects solutes after this in the secretion process -the filtrate is what is excreted -similar in concentration to blood but does not contain cells or proteins due to filter's ability to select based on size (molecules/cells bigger than glomerular pores will remain in the blood) -isotonic to blood so that neither the capillaries nor the capsule swell
how do we maintain glucose levels in the blood during fasting
-in the liver: through either glycogenolysis or gluconeogenesis -the kidney can also carry out gluconeogenesis, but the contribution is much smaller -these pathways are promoted by glucagon and epinephrine, which act to raise blood sugar levels, and inhibited by insulin, which lowers blood sugar levels
sick role
-in the mid-20th century, patient was expected to carry this out -he or she was not responsible for the illness, but still exempt from normal social roles -patient had the obligation to want to become well and seek out competent help (-still exists, but patients are now expected to take more ownership of their health through diet, exercise, seeking help before it is needed, etc.)
saliva
-in the mouth -contains enzymes produced by three pairs of salivary glands --> chemical digestion -also aids in mechanical digestion by moistening and lubricating food
thin filaments
-in the sarcomere -made of actin (acTHIN), troponin, and tropomyosin -dark blue -troponin and tropomyosin help regulate the interaction between actin and myosin
how is cholesterol synthesis regulated
-increased cholesterol --> decrease in cholesterol synthesis -increased insulin promotes cholesterol synthesis -regulation of HMG-CoA reductase gene expression in the cell
biological basis of bipolar disorders
-increased norepinephrine and serotonin (monoamine theory) -higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder -higher risk for people with multiple sclerosis
adaptation to high altitudes (low pO2) involves...
-increased respiration -increased oxygen affinity for hemoglobin (initial) -increased rate of glycolysis -increased [2,3-BPG] in RBC (over 12-24 hour period) -normalized oxygen affinity for hemoglobin restored by the increased level of 2,3-BPG -increased hemoglobin (over days to weeks)
group conformity
-individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goal -do this in attempt to fit in and be accepted -individuals will often participate in behaviors they normally wouldn't (a group holds power over its members, creating group pressure that ultimately shapes members' behaviors)
group polarization
-individuals in groups will form opinions that are more extreme than they would if making the same decision alone - "polarization" refers to behavior change on individual level -describes the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group -can lead to riskier or more cautious decisions based on the initial tendencies of the group members toward risk or caution
how do relationships affect self-serving bias
-individuals who are close are less likely to attribute failures to one another and will instead make joint attributions -strangers are more likely to self-serve by blaming a failure on the other
viral life cycle
-infection -translation and progeny assembly -progeny release -lytic and lysogenic cycles (for bacteriphages, kind of like lysis or extrusion in progeny release)
swallowing and then
-initiated in the muscles of the oropharynx, which constitute the upper esophageal sphincter -peristalsis squeezes, pushes, and propels bolus toward stomach -as bolus approaches the stomach, the lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter) relaxes and opens to allow passage of food
mate choice and recognized mechanisms
-intersexual selection -selection of a mate based on attraction recognized mechanisms: phenotypic benefits, sensory bias, Fisherian / runaway selection, indicator traits, genetic compatibility
types of digestion list
-intracellular digestion -extracellular digestion also -mechanical digestion -chemical digestion
smooth muscle broad info
-involuntary action, so controlled by autonomic NS -in respiratory tree, digestive tract, bladder, uterus, blood vessel walls, and other locations -one nucleus at center of cell -contain actin and myosin but not as well organized as skeletal so no striation -more sustained contractions than skeletal (tonus) -can have myogenic activity without NS input too
phobia; specific phobia
-irrational fear of something that results in compelling desire to avoid it; one in which anxiety is produced by a specific object or situation -DSM-5 has only specific phobia as a disorder -type of anxiety disorder
articular cavity
-joint cavity -part of movable joint containing synovial fluid
kidney and osmolarity
-kidney is capable of altering osmolarity of interstitium -this creates a gradient that (coupled w selective permeability of nephron) allows max reabsorption and conservation of water -in normal phys state, osmolarity in cortex = blood osmolarity and remains at that level -deeper in medulla, osmolarity of interstitium can be isotonic w blood (when trying to excrete water) to 4x as concentrated (when trying to conserve water; water will move out of tubule, into interstitium, and eventually back into the blood) -if [ ] is same in tubule and interstitium, there is no driving force so the water will be lost in the urine
bacteria and the large intestine
-large intestine is home to many different species of bacteria -bacteria make up 30% of dry matter of stool -most of these are anaerobes, but cecum is home to many aerobic bacteria -symbiotic relationship - they get food and we get byproducts that benefit us, like vitamin K for clotting factor and biotin a coenzyme
ovulation
-late in the follicular phase, developing follicles secrete more and more estrogen; eventually estrogen conc reaches a threshold that actually results in positive feedback --> GnRH, LH, and FSH levels spike -surge in LH induces ovulation, release of ovum from ovary into ab cavity
prolonged fasting
-levels of glucagon and epinephrine are SUPER high -rapid degradatoin of glycogen stores in liver -this runs out then gluconeogenesis continues and plays an important role in maintaining blood glucose levels - after about 24 hours it is the main source of glucose for the body -lipolysis is rapid, resulting in excess acetyl-CoA used in ketone body synthesis -once fatty acids and ketones are high enough in blood, muscle tissues will use fatty acids as major fuel and brain will use ketones for energy (2/3 of its energy after a few weeks of fasting) -shift from glucose to ketone bodies being used decreases the number of AAs that must be degraded to support gluconeogenesis, sparing proteins that are vital for other functions -cells that have few mito like RBCs continue to be dependent on glucose for energy
small intestine physical structure
-lined with villi, which are lined with microvilli -at the middle of each villus is both a capillary bed for the absorption of water-soluble nutrients and a lacteal (lymphatic channel) to take up fats for transport to the lymphatic system
smooth ER purposes
-lipid synthesis -detoxification of certain drugs and poisons -transports proteins from RER to Golgi
liver
-liver is an accessory organ of digestion -in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen -contains 2 structures for communicating with the digestive system: bile ducts and hepatic portal vein (which lets it get things from blood and do things like gluconeogenesis and such) -detoxifies both endogenous (made in the body) and exogenous compounds - like urea cycle modifying toxic ammonia and alcohol and medication detoxification -some drugs actually require activation by the enzymes of the liver (and some drugs can't be taken orally because modification in the liver renders them inactive) -processes bile -synthesizes proteins like albumin and clotting factor
what are the major target tissues for insulin, and the ones that are not sensitive to it
-liver, muscle, adipose tissue - store it when present in high concentrations, and other stuff -NOT nervous tissue or RBCs (or kidney, intestinal mucosa, or pancreatic B cells) - must still be able to absorb glucose even when [glucose] is low
where does fatty acid biosynthesis occur (organ 2)
-liver; its products are then transported to adipose tissue for storage -adipose tissue can also synthesize smaller quantities of fatty acids
gallbladder
-located just beneath the liver -stores and concentrates bile -release of CCK --> gallbladder contracts and pushes bile out into the biliary tree -the bile duct system merges with the pancreatic duct and then empties into the duodenum -common site of cholesterol or bilirubin stone formation --> inflammation of the gallbladder
hypoxemia
-low [O2] in the blood
LDL
-low-density lipoprotein -delivers cholesterol into cells for biosynthesis -also plays a role in cell membranes -in addition, bile acids and salts are made from cholesterol in the liver and many other tissues require cholesterol for steroid hormone synthesis
reticular layer
-lower layer of dermis -dense connective tissue
how does body maintain proper pH
-lungs (by the bicarbonate buffer system) -kidneys (by modulating secretion and reabsorption of acid and base within the nephron --> slower, represents long-term compensation)
immune function of respiratory system
-lungs provide interface with outside world pathogens can cause infections in lung or attempt to gain access to body thru rich vascularity of alveolar membranes -first line of defense = nasal cavity's vibrissae (trap particulate matter and potentially infectious particles) -nasal cavity contains lysozyme -mucociliatory escalator in internal airways -many immune cells - macrophages, IgA antibodies (help protect against pathogens that contact mucous membranes), mast cells
organs of the immune system
-lymph nodes - filter lymph and are a site where immune responses can be mounted (antibody production) -bone marrow - the site of immune cell production and B-cell maturation -thymus - the site of T-cell maturation -spleen - storage area for blood, filters blood and lymph, is a site where immune responses can be mounted (antibody production)
genetic map
-made by analyzing RFs -represents the relative distance between genes on a chromosome -1 map unit = 1 centimorgan = 1% chance of recombination occurring between 2 genes
microfilaments
-made of solid polymerized rods of actin -the actin filaments are organized into bundles and networks and are resistant to compresion and fracture --> protection for cell -also movement w myosin -also cytokinesis
membranes and membrane potential
-maintaining membrane potential requires energy because ions may passively diffuse through the cell membrane using leak channels -therefore an ion transporter or pump like the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ ATPase) regulates the concentration of intracellular and extracellular sodium and potassium ions -chloride ions can also participate in establishing membrane potential -combo of Na+/K+ ATPase activity and leak channels together maintain a stable resting membrane potential
functions of liver metabolism
-maintaining steady-state concentration of glucose in blood -cholesterol and fat metabolism -urea cycle -bile synthesis -detoxification of foreign substances
makeup with respect to depressive episodes, manic episodes, and other mood disturbances: major depressive disorder bipolar I disorder bipolar II disorder cyclothymic disorder
-major depressive: at least 1 major depressive episode with no manic episodes -bipolar I: at least 1 manic episode with or without depressive episodes -bipolar II: at least 1 hypomanic episode with at least 1 major depressive episode -cyclothymic: hypomanic episodes and dysthymia that is not severe enough to be a major depressive episode
intersexual selection and recognized mechanisms
-mate choice -selection of a mate based on attraction recognized mechanisms: phenotypic benefits, sensory bias, Fisherian / runaway selection, indicator traits, genetic compatibility
positive selection
-maturing only T-cells that can respond to the presentation of antigen on MHC (cells that cannot respond to MHC undergo apoptosis because they will not be able to respond in the periphery) -occurs in the thymus
genetic compatibility
-mechanism of intersexual selection aka mate choice -creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics -mechanism for the reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in the population: attraction to others who have STARKLY DIFFERENT genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygous for a disease-carrying allele
sensory bias (mating)
-mechanism of intersexual selection aka mate choice -development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in a population -like Fiddler crabs naturally attracted to structures that break up the level horizon bc they may indicate a food source, so male crabs build pillars around their territory to attract mates
phenotypic benefits (mating)
-mechanism of intersexual selection aka mate choice -observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex -usually indicate increased production and survival of offspring (like males that appear more nurturing)
indicator traits
-mechanism of intersexual selection aka mate choice -traits that signify overall good health and well-being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness to mates -MAY OR MAY NOT BE GENETIC (like dull coat of cat could be due to genetic problem or malnutrition or infection)
Vm
-membrane potential -the difference in electrical potential across cell membranes
steroids
-metabolic derivatives of terpenes -SIGNALING -4 cycloalkane rings fused together: 3 cyclohexane and 1 cyclopentane (common steroid structure shown) -functionality is determined by oxidation status of these rings and the FGs they carry -the large number of carbons and hydrogens make them NONPOLAR -include steroid hormones, cholesterol (membranes), etc.
evolutionary purposes of culture
-method of passing fown info; prehistorically served as conduit for teaching future generations how to hunt and create tools and such -creates sense of loyalty --> altruism -us vs. them --> dispersion of populations across globe in different niches
conjugation
-mode of bacterial genetic recombination -bacterial form of mating (sexual reproduction) -involves 2 cells forming a conjugation bridge between them that allows for the transfer of genetic material -the transfer is unidirectional, from the donor male (+) to the recipient female (-) -bridge is made from appendages called sex pili that are found on the donor male; to form the pilus the bacteria must contain plasmids known as sex factors that contain the necessary genes -allows for rapid acquisition of antibiotic resistance or virulence factors throughout a colony because other plasmids can be passed through the conjugation bridge too -if the plasmid becomes integrated into the host genome, now the entire genome replicates because it now contains the sex factor and can form the pilus, so it will then attempt to transfer an entire copy of its genome to the recipient (but the bridge usually breaks before the full DNA sequence can be moved) -cells that have undergone this change are referred to by the abbreviation Hfr (high frequency of recombination)
transformation
-mode of bacterial genetic recombination -results from the integration of foreign genetic material into the host genome -most frequently comes from other bacteria that, upon lysing, spill their contents in the vicinity of a bacteria capable of transformation -many gram-negative rods can do this
transduction
-mode of bacterial genetic recombination -the only mode that requires a vector -because viruses are obligate intracellular pathogens, bacteriophages can accidentally trap a segment of host DNA during assembly; when the bacteriophage infects another bacteria it can release this trapped DNA into the new host cell - this transferred DNA can then integrate into the genome, giving the new host additional genes
sources of cholesterol
-most cells derive it from LDL or HDL, but some can be synthesized de novo in the liver
monoamine / catecholamine theory of depression
-most common explanation for mood disorders -holds that too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse lead to mania, while too little leads to depression
commonality of hallucination types
-most common is auditory -visual and tactile less common but may be seen w drug use or withdrawal -olfactory/gustatory are less common but may be experienced during aura before seizure
long bones
-most of the bones in the appendicular skeleton -have cylindrical shafts called diaphyses that swell at each end to form metaphyses and terminate in epiphyses (with growth plate at internal edge) -outermost portions are composed of long bone and internal core is made of spongy bone -diaphyses and metaphyses full of bone marrow; epiphyses use their spongy cores for more effective dispersion of force and pressure at the joints -periosteum surrounds the long bone to protect it and serve as a site for muscle attachment
hypochondriasis in DSM-IV-TR -->
-most patients who were hypochondriacs under DSM-IV-TR now have somatic symptom disorder if somatic symptoms are present or illness anxiety disorder if they are not
important enzymes in gluconeogenesis
-most steps are just a reversal of glycolysis -but pyruvate carboxylase, PEPCK, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and glucose-6-phosphatase catalyze the irreversible steps
atrial kick
-most ventricular filling is passive, but atrial systole results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricles -this additional volume of blood is the atrial kick -it accounts for 5-30% of cardiac output
biological basis of schizophrenia
-mostly genetic -trauma at birth (esp. hypoxemia) is a risk factor -exposure to marijuana in adolescence increases risk -excess dopamine in the brain -structural changes in brain
how do ventricles fill
-mostly passive (blood moves from atria to ventricles based solely on ventricular relaxation) -however, atrial systole results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricles (this is the atrial kick) - this accounts for 5-30% of cardiac output
absorption into small intestine
-mostly takes place in jejunum and ileum -absorbs fats, carbs, AAs, vitamins, and water -simple sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose, etc.) and AAs are absorbed by secondary active transport and facilitated diffusion into the epithelial cells lining the small intestine -then these substances move across the epithelial cells into the intestinal capillaries (which are in each villus), carrying the carb and AA molecules away from the epithelial cells -creates a concentration gradient such that the blood always has a lower [ ] of monosaccharides and AAs than inside the epithelial cells; thus simple carbs and AAs diffuse from the epithelial cells into the capillaries -the absorbed molecules then go to the liver via the hepatic portal circulation -small fatty acids will follow this same process by diffusing directly into the intestinal capillaries; do not require transporters because they are nonpolar so they traverse the cell membrane -larger fats, glycerol, and cholesterol move separately into the intestinal cells but then reform into triglycerides (more depth in another card) -vitamins are also absorbed in the small intestine -also absorbs water
how are fatty acids oxidized
-mostly through B-oxidation in mito -peroxisomal B-oxidation also occurs -branched-chain FAs may also undergo alpha-oxidation -w(omega)-oxidation in the ER produces dicarboxylic acids
how do lipids enter the circulation
-mostly through the lymphatic system; transported in the blood as lipoproteins -but short-chain fatty acids can be absorbed by simple diffusion directly into the bloodstream (in association with albumin)
summary of triacylglycerol digestion
-mouth: lipase (hydrolyzes lipids) -pancreas: lipase (hydrolyzes lipids) -gallbladder: bile micelles (emulsifies fat - hydrolyzed by lipase) -end product: 2-monoacylglycerols, fatty acids
summary of carb digestion
-mouth: salivary amylase/ptyalin (hydrolyzes starch to maltose and dextrins) pancreas (but functions in duodenum): pancreatic amylase (same) small intestine (brush border): sucrase, lactase, maltase, isomaltase (hydrolyzes disaccharides to 2 monosaccharides) end product: glucose, galactose, fructose
inner mitochondrial membrane
-much more restricted permeability than outer mitochondrial membrane -contains numerous infoldings (cristae) that increase the available surface area for the integral proteins associated with the membrane -these proteins are involved in ETC and ATP synthesis -contains a high level of cardiolipin and does not contain cholesterol -the IMM also encloses the mitochondrial matrix
mucociliatory escalator
-mucous is in the internal airways of the respiratory system and traps particulate matter and larger invaders -*cilia then propel the mucous up the respiratory tract to the oral cavity where it can be expelled or swallowed*
genetic components of Alzheimer's
-mutations in presenilin genes -mutations in apolipoprotein E gene -B-amyloid precursor gene (on chromosome 21, so much higher risk of Alz in people with Down syndrome) ^all contribute to having disease
pathway of air in respiratory system
-nares -nasal cavity -pharynx -larynx -trachea -one of two bronchi -bronchioles -alveoli
3 parts of the pharynx and location
-nasopharynx (behind nasal cavity) -oropharynx (back of mouth, muscles here initiate swallowing) -laryngopharynx (above the vocal cords)
modern synthesis model
-neo-Darwinism -adds knowledge of genetic inheritance and changes in the gene pool to Darwin's original theory of natural selection -once scientists showed that inheritance occurs through the passing of genes from parent to child, and that genes ultimately change due to mutation or recombination, Darwin's theory was updated to its current form: when mutation or recombination results in a change that is favorable to the organism's reproductive success, that change is more likely to pass on to the next generation, and the opposite is also true - *differential reproduction* -over time, the traits passed on by the more successful organisms will become ubiquitous in the gene pool in other words, takes natural selection and explains that selection is for specific alleles, which are passed to future generations through the formation of gametes, and that these favorable traits arise from mutations
vagus nerve
-nerve of the parasympathetic NS -is activated by the brain in response to the sight, taste, and smell of food -sends signals to the gastric glands
force by muscle cells
-nerves control force by the number of motor units they recruit to respond -when all fibers within a muscle cell are stimulated to contract simultaneously you get the maximal response
NSAIDs
-nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (aspirin) -inhibit cyclooxygenase, which aids in the production of prostaglandins (which elevate body temp associated w fever and pain)
endocrine regulation of cardiac muscle
-norepinephrine from sympathetic neurons or epinephrine from adrenal medulla binds to adrinergic receptors in the heart, causing increased heart rate and greater contractility -epinephrine does this by increasing intracellular calcium levels within cardiac muscle cells
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
-not freestanding DSM diagnosis -major depressive disorder with seasonal onset -may be related to abnormal melatonin metabolism; treated with bright light therapy
what would happen if ureter was obstructed by kidney stone
-obstruction of ureter would cause buildup of urine behind the stone -eventually enough fluid will build up and cause distention of the renal pelvis and the nephrons -then the hydrostatic pressure in Bowman's space would increase to the point that filtration could no longer occur because there would be excessive pressure opposing movement of fluid into the nephron... WOULD NOT BE ABLE TO DO WHAT WE SEE HERE BECAUSE OF THIS HIGH PRESSURE IN BOWMAN'S CAPSULE
primary socialization
-occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity -in children, sets the stage for future socialization and provides the foundation for creating personal opinions
de novo cholesterol synthesis
-occurs in the liver and is driven by acetyl-CoA and ATP -citrate shuttle carries mito acetyl-CoA into the cytoplasm, where synthesis occurs, and NADPH provides reducing equivalents -synthesis of mevalonic acid in the SER is the rate-limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis and is catalyzed by HMG-CoA reductase
vitamin absorption
-occurs in the small intestine -fat-soluble or water-soluble -fat-soluble dissolve directly into chylomicrons to enter the body; failure to digest and absorb fat properly (like due to liver diseases and stuff) --> deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins -water-soluble vitamins are absorbed (along with water, amino acids, and carbs) across the endothelial cells of the small intestine
T-cell maturing
-occurs in the thymus -undergo both positive and negative selectoin -facilitated by thymosin
lymphatic system and fluid distribution
-oncotic pressure of blood draws water back into vessel at venule end, but the net pressure here is less than the net pressure pushing fluid out at the arterial end so some fluid remains in the tissues -lymphatic vessels drain these tissues and return the fluid to the bloodstream
empathy-altruism hypothesis
-one explanation for the relationship between empathy and helping behavior -says that one individual helps another person when he/she feels empathy for the other person, regardless of the cost -debated - more recently people say benefits must outweigh costs for helper
inborn errors of metabolism
-one important class of deleterious mutations -defects in genes required for metabolism -children born with these often require very early intervention to prevent permanent damage from the buildup of metabolites in various pathways
pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase
-one of the enzymes in the PDH complex -also a key regulator of the complex; when levels of ADP rise it dephosphorylates PDH and reactivates acetyl-CoA production
pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase
-one of the enzymes in the PDH complex -also a key regulator of the complex; when levels of ATP rise it phosphorylates PDH and inhibits acetyl-CoA production
aminopeptidase
-one of the peptidases in the duodenum -removes the N-terminal amino acid from a peptide
kidney portal system
-one of the three major ones in the body -the renal artery branches out, passes through the medulla, and enters the cortex as afferent arterioles (the highly convoluted capillary tufts derived from these afferent arterioles are known as glomeruli) -after blood passes through a glomerulus, the efferent arterioles then form a second capillary bed -these capillaries surround the loop of Henle and are known as vasa recta -around the glomerulus we can see Bowman's capsule, which leads to the long tubule with many areas (proximal convoluted tubule, descending and ascending limbs of the Loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct)
thick filaments
-organized bundles of myosin in the sarcomere -light blue
accessory organs of digestion
-organs that release enzymes required for digestion that are not from the cells directly lining the alimentary canal -pancreas, liver, gallbladder -outgrowths of the gut tube, therefore endoderm
osmotic vs oncotic pressure (excretory)
-osmotic = the "sucking" pressure that draws water into the vasculature caused by all dissolved particles -oncotic = the osmotic pressure that is attributable to dissolved proteins specifically
bone remodeling
-osteoblasts build bone; osteoclasts resorb it -this contributes to the constant turnover of bone -during bone formation, essential ingredients like calcium and phosphate are obtained from the blood -during bone resorption, these ions are released back into the bloodstream -bone remodeling occurs in response to stress, and bone remodels to accommodate the repetitive stresses faced by the body
osteocyte, osteoclast, osteoblast
-osteocyte = bone cell -osteoClast = Chew bone -osteoBlast = Build bone
outcrossing
-outbreeding -the introduction of unrelated individuals into a breeding group -theoretically could result in increased variation within a gene pool and increased fitness of the population
outbreeding
-outcrossing -the introduction of unrelated individuals into a breeding group -theoretically could result in increased variation within a gene pool and increased fitness of the population
mitochondrial membranes
-outer membrane (surrounds inner membrane w space in between) -intermembrane space -inner membrane
what gas exchange occurs in the lungs
-oxygen from lungs to bloodstream -CO2 from bloodstream to lungs
pancreas exocrine functions
-pancreas is an accessory organ of digestion -the bulk of the pancreas is made of exocrine cells called acinar cells, which produce pancreatic juices (bicarbonate secretions, digestive enzymes) -also secretes pancreatic lipase, which is capable of breaking down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol
trypsin
-pancreatic protease activated by enteropeptidase in the duodenum
cluster A
-paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid personality disorders -marked by behavior that is labeled as odd or eccentric by others (WEIRD)
front stage self
-part of dramaturgical approach, explaining impression management -where the actor/person is in font of the audience, and performs according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see
back stage self
-part of dramaturgical approach, explaining impression management -where the actor/person is not being observed by the audience, and he is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image without having to worry about ruining his performance
intracellular digestion
-part of metabolism -oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy -however, these substances must be extracted from the foods we eat, hence the need for extracellular digestion
admiration stereotype
-part of stereotype content model - high warmth, high competence -those in which the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings -in-group, close allies
paternalistic stereotype
-part of stereotype content model - high warmth, low competence -those in which the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored -housewives, elderly people, disabled people
envious stereotypes
-part of stereotype content model - low warmth, high competence -those in which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust -Asians, Jews, rich people, feminists
contemptuous stereotypes
-part of stereotype content model - low warmth, low competence -those in which teh group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger -welfare recipients, poor people
inflammatory response
-part of the innate immune system -activated by phagocytes like dendritic cells and macrophages, and eosinophils -secretion of cytokines (like via histamine) that trigger the blood vessels to be leaky and thus an influx of immune cells from the blood, such as more phagocytes (esp monocytes, which become macrophages) and neutrophils) -useful against extracellular pathogens
colon
-part of the large intestine -divided into the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons -main function is to absorb water and salts (like NaCl) from the undigested material left over from the small intestine -but the small intestine absorbs much more water than the colon, so the colon primarily concentrates the remaining material to form feces -too little or too much water absorption can cause diarrhea or constipation, respectively
cecum
-part of the large intestine -outpocketing that accepts fluid exiting the small intestine through the ileocecal valve -site of attachment of the appendix
rectum
-part of the large intestine -serves as a storage site for feces (from the colon)
secretin
-peptide hormone in the duodenum that causes pancreatic enzymes to be released into the duodenum -also regulates the pH of the digestive tract by reducing HCl secretion from parietal cells and increasing bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas -also an *enterogastone* (slows motility through digestive system)
phospholipid composition
-phosphate and alcohol comprise the polar head group -joined to fatty acid tail by phosphodiester linkages -one or more fatty acids attached to a backbone (backbone can further classify the phospholipid, like glycerophospholipid in pic or sphingolipid)
plasma membrane general structure and function
-phospholipid bilayer -contains proteins and distinct signaling areas within lipid rafts -carbs associated with membrane-bound proteins create a glycoprotein coat -the cell wall of plants, bacteria, and fungi contain higher levels of carbs
Poly-A Tail
-polyadenosyl (poly-A) tail is added to the 3' end of the mRNA transcript and protects the message against rapid degradation -as soon as mRNA leaves the nucleus it will start to get degraded from the 3' end, so the longer the tail, the more time the mRNA will be able to survive before being digested in the cytoplasm -also assists with export of mature mRNA from nucleus
peptidoglycan
-polymeric substance made of amino acids and sugars -in both gram-positive and gram-negative cell walls
osteoclasts
-polynucleated resident macrophages of bone -resorb it ("Chew it") -during bone resorption, the essential ingredients like calcium and phopshate that were obtained from the blood during bone building are released back into the bloodstream
large intestine
-primarily involved in water absorption (also formation and storage of feces) -larger diameter but shorter length than small intestine -cecum, colon, and rectum -home to many species of bacteria
F-2,6-BP
-produced by PFK-2 and controls both gluconeogenesis and glycolysis in the liver -activated by insulin and inhibited by glucagon -SEEN AS A MARKER FOR SATISFACTORY ENERGY LEVELS IN LIVER CELLS so of course it activates PFK-1, because this is an enzyme in glycolysis; inhibits fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase which is the rate-limiting step in gluconeogenesis -helps cells override the inhibition on PFK-1 that occurs when high levels of acetyl-CoA are formed; this signals to the liver cell that it should start storing fuel
keratin (late)
-produced by keratinocytes in the epidermis -resistant to damage and provides protection against injury, water, and pathogens -form calluses and fingernails and hair (latter 2 are produced by specialized cells in skin)
major purpose of PPP
-production of NADPH -source of ribose 5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis
complex II
-receives electrons from succinate (CAC intermediate) -FAD is covalently bonded to compex II, and once succinate is oxidized to fumarate in the CAC, FAD is converted to FADH2 -then FADH2 gets reoxidized to FAD as it reduces Fe-S complex -then CoQ is reduced and Fe-S is reoxidized -no proton pumping -net effect: succinate + CoQ --> fumarate + CoQH2 (so at this point both complex I and complex II have reduced CoQH2)
paracellular transport
-refers to the transfer of substances across an epithelium by passing through the intercellular space between the cells -PREVENTED BY TIGHT JUNCTIONS
appraisal model
-related to Darwin's basic model -accepts that there are biologically determined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression
gross structure of myocytes
-sarcomeres attached end to end form myofibrils -myofibrils are surrounded by the SR which contains high [Ca2+] -sarcoplasm is outside the SR -sarcolemma is cell membrane of myocyte and can propagate AP to all sarcomeres using T tubules -each myocyte (muscle cell) can be called muscle fiber and contains many myofibrils arranged in parallel -nuclei found at periphery of cell -many myocytes in parallel form a muscle
bile
-secreted by liver and stored in gallbladder -contains bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol -aids in emulsification of lipids and water in the duodenum
cholecystokinin
-secreted from the duodenum into the bloodstream in response to the entry of chyme (specifically, AAs and fat in the chyme) into the duodenum -stimulates release of bile (from the gallbladder) and pancreatic juices and also acts in the brain to promote satiety -also promotes the secretion of pancreatic juices into the duodenum (pic)
impression management strategy examples
-self-disclosure -managing appearances -ingratiation -aligning actions -alter-casting
fatty acid entry into mitochondria
-short-chain fatty acids (2-4 carbons) and medium-chain fatty acids (6-12 carbons) diffuse freely into mitochondria, where they are oxidized -while long-chain FAs (14-20 carbons) are also oxidized in the mitochondria, they require transport into the mito via carnitine shuttle -very long chain fatty acids (over 20 carbons) are oxidized elsewhere
Solomon Asch conformity experiment
-showed that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by the group; demonstrate normative conformity -which line is the same size as the line on the other card - when the confederates answered incorrectly (they were answering unanimously), the real participants answered incorrectly up to 1/3 of the time
electric conduction of the heart - pathway
-sinoatrial (SA) node -atrioventricular (AV) node -bundle of His (AV bundle) and branches -Purkinje fibers
nuclei per cell in muscle types
-skeletal: many -smooth: 1 -cardiac: 0 or 2
red fibers
-slow-twitch fibers -type of fiber within skeletal muscle -high myoglobin content and derive energy aerobically (so iron thus red) -many mitochondria to carry out ox phos -muscles that contract slowly but can sustain activity (like those that support posture) are mostly this
muscle and myogenic activity
-smooth muscle - can contract without NS input; the muscle cells contract directly in response to stretch or other stimuli -cardiac muscle - can contract without NS input too *though they both CAN respond to nervous input, they don't have to
conflict theory
-sociology theory -Karl Marx -focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order (about *power*, not necessarily social class!!!) -power differentials can lead to the dominance of a group if it successfully outcompetes other groups for economic, political, and social resources like even a coalition forming to oppose building casinos is an example of conflict theory, because this group is fighting for power
feminist theory
-sociology theory -attempts to explain social inequalities that exist on the basis of gender, focusing on the subordination of women through social structures and institutional discrimination
rational choice theory
-sociology theory -focuses on decision-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual -individual carefully constiders all the possible rewards and punishments of each social action and chooses the option with the highest benefit-to-harm ratio -problematized by concepts like altruism
social constructionism
-sociology theory -focuses on how individuals put together their social reality -social constructs arise from humans communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle -can be applied or intangible - how a society defines honor is dependent on interactions and decisions of individuals within that society -because they depend on the society itself, these concepts are subject to change as social norms and opinions develop over time -can be applied to physical objects like money (we imbue paper money with value), and work ethic, acceptable dress, and gender roles
symbolic interactionism
-sociology theory -study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols -symbols are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another -these symbols include everything from how we codify concepts in language to hand gestures and body language to the role of certain behaviors -part of acculturation is learning the appropriate symbols and their use in a given culture
functionalism / functional analysis
-sociology theory -the study of the structure and function of each part in society -early functionalists saw society as an organism so for society to function smoothly all its parts must work together in harmony -today they say function is the beneficial consequences of people's actions, which help keep society in balance, while dysfunctions are harmful consequences of people's actions that undermine a social system's equilibrium -functions can be manifest or latent
somatic symptom and related disorders list
-somatic symptom disorder -illness anxiety disorder -conversion disorder
reabsorption
-some compounds that are filtered or secreted by the neprhon may be taken back up for use -some substances are almost always reabsorbed like glucose, AAs, and vitamins -hormones like ADH and aldosterone can alter quantity of water reabsorbed in kidney to maintain BP
dissociative fugue
-some people with dissociative amnesia experience this -sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily activities -confused about their identity and can even assume a new identity; may actually believe that they are someone else, with a complete backstory
natural killer cells
-some viruses cause downregulation of MHC molecules, making it harder for T cells to recognize the presence of an infection -NK cells are able to detect the downregulation of MHC and induce apoptosis in these virally infected cells
envelope of virus
-sometimes a part of virus but not always -surrounds the capsid -composed of phospholipids and virus-specific proteins -sensitive to heat, detergents and dessication --> enveloped viruses are easier to kill
some functions of lipids
-source of energy -fat-soluble vitamins as coenzymes -prostaglandins and steroid hormones in homeostasis
Langerhans cells
-special macrophages that reside within stratum spinosum of the epidermis -capable of presenting antigens to T-cells to activate the immune system
some of the highest prevalence rates of mental disorders in the US
-specific phobia -social anxiety disorder -major depressive disorder
ganglioside
-sphingolipids that have polar head groups composed of oligosaccharides with one or more NANA (sialic acid) molecules at the terminus, and a negative charge -a group of glycolipids
glycosphingolipids
-sphingolipids with head groups composed of sugars bonded by glycosidic linkages -a group of glycolipids -cerebrosides - single sugar -gangliosides - 2 or more sugars -"neutral glycolipids" because no net charge at physiological pH
modified standard state
-standard state for biochemical reactions; same as standard state (25 degrees C and 1 atm pressure) except for 1 M concentrations - this would be a pH of 0 so far too acidic; instead the modified standard state uses [H+] = 10^-7 M and the pH is 7 -delta G circle is now delta G circle', indicating that it is standardized to the neutral buffers used in biochemistry -note htat if the concentrations of other reactants and products differ from 1 M, though, they must still be adjusted for in the deltaG = deltaGcircle' + RTlnQ equation
stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination relationship
-stereotypes are COGNITIVE - the expectations, impressions, and opinions about the characteristics of members of a group -prejudices are AFFECTIVE - the overall attitude and emotional response to a group -discrimination is BEHAVIORAL - differences in actions toward different groups
cholesterol
-steroid -major component of the phospholipid bilayer -responsible for mediating membrane fluidity: it is amphipathic, and interactions w both hydrophilic and hydrophobic components of phospholipids allows cholesterol to maintain constant fluidity in cell membranes; at low temps it keeps the cell membrane from solidifying and at high temps it holds the membrane intact and prevents it from becoming too permeable -precursor to many molecules like steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D
GI tract and immunity
-stomach secretes acid, resulting in elimination of most pathogens -gut is colonized by non-infecting bacteria which keep out many potential invaders
energy production in CAC
-succinyl-CoA to succinate and CoA-SH by succinyl-CoA synthetase forms GTP because of the energy released by thioester hydrolysis -once GTP is formed, nucleosidediphosphate kinase catalyzes phosphate transfer from GTP to ADP, producing ATP
myoglobin and muscle
-supplemental energy reserve in muscle -binds oxygen with high affinity -as exercising muscles run out of O2, they use myoglobin reserves to keep aerobic metabolism going -white muscle fibers have fewer mitochondria and rely on fermentation to make ATP under most circumstances; when a person exercises heart rate and respiratory rate increase to move more oxygen to rapidly respiring muscles; the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve shifts right in the presence of increased CO2, increased H+, and increased temp... but even then muscle use can quickly overwhelm the body's ability to deliver O2 (even red muscles then switch to anaerobic metabolism and produce lactic acid at which point the muscle begins to fatigue) (note that after strenuous exercise stops, the body must metabolize all the lactic acid it has produced; most is converted back to pyruvate which can enter the CAC but this requires oxygen... the amount of oxygen required to recover from strenuous exercise = oxygen debt)
creatine phosphate
-supplemental energy reserve in muscle -created by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to creatine during times of rest; this reaction is reversible to quickly generate ATP from ADP
sarcoplasmic reticulum
-surrounds myofibrils -modified endoplasmic reticulum that contains a high concentration of Ca2+ ions
fatty acid absorption
-takes place in the jejunum and ileum of the small intestine -small fatty acids will follow the same process as carbs and AAs by diffusing directly into the intestinal capillaries; do not require transporters because they are nonpolar so they traverse the cell membrane -larger fats, glycerol, and cholesterol move separately into the intestinal cells but then reform into triglycerides -the triacylglycerols and esterified cholesterol molecules are packaged into chylomicrons -rather than entering the bloodstream (as carbs and AAs do via the hepatic portal system), chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals -these lacteals converge and enter the venous circulation through the thoracic duct in the base of the neck, which empties into the left subclavian vein
back cross
-test crosses are sometimes called this because used to determine parent genotype based on phenotypes of its offspring
communication
-the ability to convey information by speech, writing, signals, or behavior -the foundation of social interaction -effective when the desired message is received by the recipient
sarcomere
-the basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle -repeating arrangement of actin and myosin that make up skeletal muscle -made of thick and thin filaments; titin acts as spring and anchors actin and myosin filaments together -all the bands and during contraction the H-zone, I-band, distance between Z-lines, and distance between M-lines all become smaller whereas A band size remains constant
bladder structure / action
-the bladder has a muscular lining known as the detrusor muscle; parasympathetic activity causes it to contract -but to leave the body urine must pass through the internal and external urethral sphincters (internal = smooth muscle = involuntary; external = skeletal muscle = voluntary) -when the bladder is full, stretch receptors convey to the NS that the bladder requires emptying; this causes parasympathetic neurons to fire, and the detrusor muscle contracts -this contraction also causes the internal sphincter to relax - the micturition reflex -then the individual can choose to relax external sphincter to urinate or not -urination itself is facilitated by the contraction of the abdominal musculature which increases pressure within the abdominal cavity resulting in compression of the bladder and increased urine flow rate
proximal convoluted tubule
-the first thing the filtrate enters -amino acids, glucose, water-soluble vitamins, and most salts are reabsorbed along with water -almost 70% of filtered sodium is reabsorbed here, but the filtrate remains isotonic to interstitium as other solutes and a large volume of water are also being absorbed -solutes that enter the interstitium are picked up by the vasa recta to be returned to the bloodstream for reuse -also the site of secretion for a number of waste products like hydrogen ions, potassium ions, ammonia, and urea
overall energy of the ETC and ATP formation
-the formation of ATP is endergonic and electron transport is an exergonic pathway -so they are coupled
stones
-the gallbladder is a common site of cholesterol or bilirubin stone formation --> inflammation of the gallbladder -stones may also travel into the bile ducts and get stuck in the biliary tree -in some cases they can get caught just before entering the duodenum, resulting in blockage of both the biliary tree AND the pancreatic duct --> pancreatitis
fluid flow between glomerulus and Bowman's space
-the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus is higher than in Bowman's so fluid moves into the nephron -but osmolarity of blood is higher than that of Bowman's space resulting in pressure opposing movement of fluid into the nephron -but hydrostatic pressure is larger so net flow is from blood into nephron SO under most circumstances fluid will flow from glomerulus into Bowman's space, but pathologies can cause derangements of this flow (like if ureter was obstructed by kidney stone)
Michelangelo phenomenon
-the ideal self can be "sculpted" with help from others -the concept of self is made up of both the intrapersonal self, the ideas an individual has regarding his or her abilities/traits/beliefs; and the interpersonal self, the manner in which others influence creation of the ideal self
metabolic rates and T3/T4
-the increase in metabolic rate produced by a dose of T4 occurs after a latency of several hours but may last for several days -T3 produces a more rapid increase in metabolic rate and has a shorter duration of activity (but thyroid hormone levels are usually kept pretty stable rather than undulating with changes in metabolic rate)
osmoregulation - broad
-the kidney filters the blood to form urine; the quantity and composition of urine is determined by the present state of the body -ex: if blood volume is low and blood osmolarity is high, body wants to retain water --> low-volume, highly concentrated urine -thus the primary job of kidneys is to regulate blood volume and osmolarity -kidney does this through 3 processes: filtration, secretion, and reabsorption
deindividuation
-the loss of self-awareness in large groups, which can lead to drastic changes in behavior -thought to be due to the presence of a large group that provides anonymity and causes a loss of individual identity -can lead to antinormative behavior
bilirubin
-the major pigment in bile -a product of the breakdown of hemoglobin -travels to the liver where it is conjugated (attached to a protein) and secreted into the bile for excretion
reciprocal liking
-the phenomenon whereby people like others better when they believe the other person likes them -contributes to attraction -even if we disagree with someone we will have increased interest in them if we have indications that they like us
metabolism in active muscle
-the primary fuel used to support muscle contraction depends on the magnitude and duration of exercise and the major fibers involved -a very short-lived source of energy (2-7 sec) comes from creatine phosphate, which transfers P to ADP to form ATP -skeletal muscle has stores of glycogen and some triglycerides; blood glucose and free fatty acids may also be used -short bursts of high-intensity exercise are supported by anaerobic glycolysis drawing on stored muscle glycogen -during moderately high-intensity, continuous exercise, oxidation of glucose and fatty acids are both important, but after 1-3 continuous hours muscle glycogen stores become depleted and the intensity of exercise declines to a rate that can be supported by oxidation of fatty acids
extracellular digestion
-the process by which nutrients (glucose and fatty acids) are obtained from food -occurs in the lumen of the alimentary canal -"outside the body," as it is outside cell borders
socialization
-the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs -individuals gain the knowledge, skills, habits, and behaviors that are necessary for inclusion in society -the views of society become the accepted viewpoints and are generally adopted by the individuals within it
secondary socialization
-the process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society -occurs outside of the home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments (school vs. home have different rules, etc.) -typically associated with adolescents and adults and includes smaller changes and refinements to behavior that were established in primary socialization -can also occur when moving to a new region or changing schools or professions
glycogen synthase
-the rate-limiting enzyme of glycogen synthesis -forms the a-1,4 glycosidic bond found in the linear glucose chains of glycogen -stimulated by glucose-6-phosphate and insulin -inhibited by epinephrine and glucagon through the PKA cascade
blood vessel structure
-the same types of cells comprise the different vessels -arteries have much more smooth muscle than veins -capillaries have a single endothelial cell layer
countercurrent multiplier system
-the vasa recta and nephron create this -flow of filtrate through loop of Henle is in the opposite direction of flow of blood thru vasa recta -if the 2 flowed in the same direction they would quickly reach equilibrium and the kidney would be unable to reabsorb as much water -by making the 2 flow in opposite directions, the filtrate is constantly being exposed to hypertonic blood, which allows max reabsorption of water
channel
-think facilitated diffusion -may be in an open or closed conformation -in their open conformation, they are exposed to both sides of the cell membrane and act like a tunnel for the particles to diffuse through, thereby permitting more rapid transport kinetics
carriers (transport)
-think facilitated diffusion -only open to one side of the cell membrane at any given point -like a revolving door: substrate binds to the transport protein (walks in), remains in the transporter during a conformational change (spins), and then finally dissociates from the substrate-binding site of the transporter (walks out) -binding of the substrate molecule to the transporter protein induces a conformational change; for a brief time the carrier is in the occluded state (not open to either side of the phospholipid bilayer)
small intestine
-three segments: duodenum, jejunum, ileum -very long, up to 7 m -duodenum is responsible for majority of chemical digestion and has some minor involvement in absorption -but most absorption of small intestine takes place in the jejunum and ileum
how is ATP used with other reactions
-to fuel energetically unfavorable reactions -to activate or inactivate other molecules
thermoregulation and respiratory system
-to maximize gas exchange, alveoli and capillaries interact over a huge surface area -since the respiratory tract is v vascular it can also be used for thermoregulation -heat regulated through body surfaces by vasoconstriction and vasodilation -as capillaries expand, more blood can pass thru vessels and a larger amount of thermal energy can be dissipated -capillaries in nasal and tracheal capillary beds are most frequently used for these purposes in the respiratory system -respiratory system can also transfer heat to the environment thru the evaporation of water in mucous secretions; dogs do this by panting (cooling mechanism)
that's-not-all technique
-tool often used to gain compliance -individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is better than she expected
door-in-the-face technique
-tool often used to gain compliance -large request is made at first and, if refused, a smaller request is made; often this smaller request is actually the goal and it is often granted
lowball technique
-tool often used to gain compliance -requestor will get an initial commitment from the individual, then raise the cost of the commitment (cost could be money, effort, or time) -you are asked by your boss to head a committee with a time commitment of 5 hr/month of meetings. you agree to head the committee but discover afterwards that your commitment also includes written reports from each meeting and a quarterly presentation
foot-in-the-door technique
-tool often used to gain compliance -small request is made, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made -many people will agree to the larger request because the first request opened the door to continued compliance
how can birth and mortality rates be reported
-total rate for population -crude rate -age-specific rate
lymphatic system and transport of biomolecules
-transports fats from the digestive system to the bloodstream -lacteals (small lymphatic vessels) are located at the center of each villus in the small intestine; fats packaged into chylomicrons by intestinal mucosal cells enter the lacteal for support -lymphatic fluid carrying many chylomicrons takes on a mily white appearance and is called chyle
bright light therapy
-treats patients with SAD -patient exposed to bright light for specific amount of time every day
chylomicrons (2)
-triacylglycerols and esterified cholesterol molecules in the small intestine are packaged into chylomicrons -rather than entering the bloodstream (as carbs and AAs do via the hepatic portal system), chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals
troponin vs. tropomyosin
-troponin binds calcium ion -tropomyosin is bound to troponin and covers up the myosin binding sites on the actin thin filament
pancreatic peptidases
-trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and carboxypeptidases A and B -in pancreatic juices -released in their zymogen form but once activated are responsible for protein digestion -enteropeptidase from the duodenum activates all of these by activating trypsinogen
fatty acid oxidation with unsaturated fatty acids
-two new enzymes involved, each which must have at most one double bond in their active site to function that must be between carbons 2 and 3 -enoyl-CoA isomerase rearranges cis double bonds at 3,4 to become trans double bonds at 2,3; in monounsaturated fatty acids then B oxidation can proceed normally -in polyunsaturated FAs, further reduction is required using 2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase to convert 2 conjugated double bonds to just one double bond at the 3,4 position where it will undergo the same rearrangement as monounsaturated fatty acids
avoidance symptoms
-type of PTSD symptom -deliberate attempts to avoid the memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with the trauma
negative cognitive symptoms
-type of PTSD symptom -include inability to recall key features of the event; negative mood or emotions; feeling distanced from others; persistent negative view of the world
arousal symptoms
-type of PTSD symptom -include increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior, and sleep disturbances
agoraphobia
-type of anxiety disorder -characterized by fear of being in places or situations where it might be difficult to escape -uncomfy leaving their homes for fear of panic attack or exacerbation of another mental illness
panic disorder
-type of anxiety disorder -consists of repeated panic attacks -even after treatment, symptoms are common, so patients are treated for a long period of time -frequently accompanied by agoraphobia because of the pervasive fear of having panic attack in public location
lymphatic system
-type of circulatory system -made up of one-way vessels that become larger as they move toward the center of the body -vessels carry lymph and most join to comprise the *thoracic duct*, which then delivers the fluid into the left subclavian vein near the heart
internalization
-type of conformity -changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group -Stanford Prison Experiment
identification
-type of conformity -outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on those ideas
Alzheimer's disease
-type of dementia characterized by gradual memory loss, disorientation to time and place, problems with abstract thought, and a tendency to misplace things -later stages --> changes in mood or behavior, changes in personality, difficulty with procedural memory, poor judgment, and los of initiative -combo of these symptoms, esp. when inhibit normal daily functions, points to Alz -most common in patients older than 65 -women at greater risk -family history is risk factor -lower risk with higher levels of education -genetic component
dissociative amnesia
-type of dissociative disorder -inability to recall past experiences -some people with this may also experience dissociative fugue
depersonalization/derealization disorder
-type of dissociative disorder -individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonalization) or from their surroundings (derealization) -often presents a feeling of automation, and can have findings like a failure to recognize one's reflection -may experience these 2 feelings simultaneously -these feelings cause significant impairment of regular activities -BUT no psychotic symptoms like delusions or hallucinations
flavoprotein
-type of electron carrier with a modified vitamin B2 (riboflavin) -nucleic acid derivatives, either FAD or FMN -notable for their presence in the mitochondria and chloroplasts as electron carriers -also involved in modification of other B enzymes to active forms -function as coenzymes for enzymes in the oxidation of fatty acids, the decarboxylation of pyruvate, and the reduction of glutathione
chylomicron
-type of lipoprotein -lowest density of all of them, with the highest fat-to-protein ratio -transport dietary triacylglycerols, cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters from intestine to tissues (MAINLY TRIACYLGLYCEROLS) -soluble in lymphatic fluid and blood -assembly occurs in intestinal lining and results in a nascent chylomicron that contains lipids and apolipoproteins
dipeptidases
-type of peptidases in the duodenum -cleave the peptide bonds of dipeptides to release free amino acids
positive sense
-type of single-stranded RNA viral genome -genome may be directly translated to functional proteins by teh ribosomes of the host cell, just like mRNA
negative sense
-type of single-stranded RNA viral genome -require synthesis of RNA strand complementary to the negative-sense RNA strand, which can then be used as a template for protein synthesis -negative-sense RNA viruses must carry an RNA replicase in the virion to ensure that the complementary strand is synthesized
tangible support
-type of social support -aka material support -any type of financial or material contribution to another person -making a meal for a friend who lost a parent or donating $ to someone in need
material support
-type of social support -aka tangible support -any type of financial or material contribution to another person -making a meal for a friend who lost a parent or donating $ to someone in need
network support
-type of social support -gives a person a sense of belonging -group hug, or thru gestures, group activities, or shared experiences
emotional support
-type of social support -listening, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings (condolence card, etc.)
informational support
-type of social support -providing information that will help someone -do a lot of this as a doctor
esteem support
-type of social support -similar to emotional support, but touches more directly on affirming the qualities and skills of a person -ex: friend has missed significant amount of school due to illness, so you tell her she should have no problem making up the work because she is so smart
somatic symptom disorder
-type of somatic symptom and related disorders -at least one somatic symptom, which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition, and that is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it, or elevated levels of anxiety -most patients who were hypochondriacs under DSM-IV-TR now have somatic symptom disorder if somatic symptoms are present or illness anxiety disorder if they are not
illness anxiety disorder
-type of somatic symptom and related disorders -characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition -quick to become alarmed about health, and either excessively check themselves for signs of illness or avoid medical appointments altogether -most patients who were hypochondriacs under DSM-IV-TR now have somatic symptom disorder if somatic symptoms are present or illness anxiety disorder if they are not
conversion disorder
-type of somatic symptom and related disorders -characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions -symptoms generally begin after a person experiences high levels of stress or a traumatic event, but may not develop until some time has passed after the initiating experience -like paralysis or blindness without evidence of neurological damage -the person may be surprisingly unconcerned by the symptom - la belle indifférence -historically called hysteria -symptoms may be connected with the inciting event in a literal or poetic way, like woman going blind after watching her son tragically die
PTSD
-type of trauma- and stressor-related disorder -occurs after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, like war -consists of intrusion symptoms, avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms, and arousal symptoms -a particular number of these symptoms must be present for at least one month
papillary layer
-upper layer of dermis (right below the epidermis) -loose connective tissue
test cross
-used to determine an unknown genotype -organism with unknown genotype is crossed with organism known to be homozygous recessive -sometimes called back crosses because used to determine parent genotype based on phenotypes of its offspring
regulation of breathing by what
-ventilation center in medulla oblongata -some by the cerebrum
systole
-ventricular contraction and closure of the AV valves -blood is pumped out of the ventricles -higher pressure than during diastole
viral life cycle: infection
-virus binds to specific receptor -virus and cell brought into close enough proximity to permit additional interactions -enveloped viruses fuse with cell PM --> entry of virion into host (sometimes host cell will bring whole virus into cytoplasm via endocytosis) -depending on the virus different portions of the virion will be inserted - enveloped viruses like HIV fuse with membrane and enter cell intact, while bacteriophages only insert their genetic material, leaving their capsids outside the host cell
intrathoracic volume
-volume of the chest cavity
skeletal muscle broad info
-voluntary movement (somatic NS innervation) -arrangement of actin and myosin into sarcomeres so appears striated -multinucleated -red, white fibers (can be mixed)
wastes, blood
-wastes like CO2, ammonia, and urea enter the bloodstream by tranveling down their respective concentration gradients from the tissues to the capillaries -blood eventually travels to the kidney where these waste products are filtered or secreted for elimination from the body
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz voltage equation
-way to calculate membrane potential -flows from the Nernst equation, taking into account the relative contribution of each major ion to the membrane potential -P represents the permeability for the relevant ion -Note that chloride is inverted relative to the other ions because it carries a negative charge
breathing control thru cerebrum
-we can choose to breathe more rapidly or slowly -however extended periods of hypoventilation would lead to increased [CO2] and an override by the medulla oblongata to jump-start breathing -hyperventilation would blow off too much CO2 and ultimately inhibit ventilation
how does alcohol form acetyl-CoA
-when alcohol is consumed in moderate amounts, the enzymes *alcohol dehydrogenase* and *acetaldehyde dehydrogenase* convert it to acetyl-CoA -but this is accompanied by NADH buildup, which inhibits the Krebs cycle -so the acetyl-CoA formed through this process is used primarily to synthesize fatty acids
energy of ATP synthesis
-when proton-motive force is dissipated through the F0 portion of ATP syntahse, the free energy change of reaction is -220 kJ/mol -makes sense because phosphorylating ADP to form ATP is endergonic -so couple them
platelet action
-when the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, it exposes the underlying connective tissue, which contains collagen and *tissue factor* -when platelets come into contact with exposed collagen they sense this as evidence of injury -they release their contents and begin to aggregate -simultaneously, *coagulation factors* (mostly from liver) sense tissue factor and initiate a cascade... -prothrombin forms thrombin by thromboplastin -thrombin can then convert fibrinogen into fibrin -fibrin forms small fibers that aggregate and cross link into net that captures RBCs and platelets and forms stable clot
alimentary canal
-where nutrients (glucose and fatty acids) are obtained from food during extracellular digestion -runs from the mouth to the anus and is sectioned off by sphincters
bone matrix
-where the strength of compact bone comes from -has both inorganic (calcium, phosphate, and OH-, which harden to form hydroxyapatite crystals) and organic components (collagen, glycoproteins, other peptides) -minerals like sodium, magnesium, and potassium are also stored in bone -ordered into structural units called osteons/Haversian systems -each osteon contains concentric circles of bony matrix (lamellae) surrounding central microscopic channel -Haversian and Volkmann's canals contain the blood vessels, nerve fibers, and lymph vessels that maintain bone health -between lamellar rings are lacunae, small spaces that house mature bone cells (osteocytes) -lacunae interconnected by tiny channels called canaliculi that allow exchange of nutrients and wastes between osteocytes and canals
what happens if you are lacking a particular disaccharidase
-you are unable to break down the corresponding disaccharide -then bacteria in the intestines are able to hydrolyze that disaccharide, producing methane gas as a byproduct -also undigested disaccharides can have an osmotic effect, pulling water into the stool and causing diarrhea
Eukaryotic DNA polymerases
-α and δ - work together to synthesize leading and lagging strands; δ also fills in the gaps left behind when RNA primers are removed -γ - regulates mitochondrial DNA -β and ε - mostly DNA repair -δ and ε - assisted by the PCNA protein, which assembles into a trimer to form the sliding clamp, which helps to strengthen the interaction between DNA pol δ and ε and the template strand
tightly linked genes have recombination frequency close to __%
0
least likely resting membrane potential
0 mV because this doesn't maintain gradients for later activity
respiratory quotients for carbs and lipids
1 for carbs, 0.7 for lipids (most healthy people around 0.8 because digesting both)
enzymes and reactions of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
1) *pyruvate dehydrogenase*: pyruvate is oxidized, yielding CO2, while the remaining 2-C molecule binds covalently to TPP. Mg2+ is also required. 2) *dihydrolipoyl transacetylase*: the 2-C molecule bounded to TPP (acyl-TPP) is oxidized and transferred to lipoic acid. lipoic acid's disulfide group acts as an oxidizing agent and creates the acetyl group, which is now bonded to lipoic acid via a thioester linkage. then dihydrolipoyl transacetylase catalyzes the CoA-SH interaction with the newly ofrmed thioester, causing transfer of an acetyl group to form acetyl-CoA. lipoic acid is left reduced. 3) *dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase*: FAD reoxidizes lipoic acid, allowing lipoic acid to facilitate acetyl-CoA formation in the future. thus FADH2 forms. 4 and 5) *pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase* and *pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase*: in subsequent reactions this is reoxidized to FAD while NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
Aromatic criteria
1) Cyclic 2) Planar 3) Conjugated 4) Obeys Huckel's rule, 4n+2 pi electrons
what happens if BP is too low
1) baroreceptors in walls of vasculature - detect mechanical forces on walls of vessel -when BP is too low, stimulate sympathetic NS --> vasoconstriction --> increase BP 2) chemoreceptors sense when osmolarity of blood is too high, release ADH --> increases reabsorption of water and thus blood volume and BP 3) not lots of blood to juxtaglomerular cells of kidney --> aldosterone release --> increases reabsorption of sodium and thus water --> increases blood volume and BP
key tenets of US medical ethics
1) beneficence 2) maleficence 3) respect for patient autonomy 4) justice
erythrocyte structure
1) biconcave -helps travel thru tiny capillaries -increases cell's surface area --> greater gas exchange 2) no membrane-bound organelles -space for hemoglobin -no mito means no oxidative phosphorylation, instead rely on glycolysis for ATP and lactic acid arises from fermentation -unable to divide (so live for 120 days in bloodstream before liver and spleen phagocytize senescent blood cells and recycle them for their parts)
irreversible enzymes in glycolysis
1) glucokinase or hexokinase 2) PFK-1 3) Pyruvate kinase
primary metabolic function of: 1) cortisol 2) catecholamines 3) thyroid hormones
1) increases lipolysis and AA mobilization, while decreasing glucose uptake in certain tissues and enhancing the activity of other counterregulatory hormones 2) increase glycogenolysis in muscle and liver and lipolysis in adipose tissue 3) increase basic metabolic rate and potentiate the activity of other hormones (esp epinephrine)
criteria that must be met for HWE
1) population is very large (no genetic drift) 2) no mutations that affect the gene pool 3) mating between individuals in the population is random (no sexual selection) 4) no migration of individuals into or out of the population 5) the genes in the population are all equally successful at reproducing *note: these indicate that evolution is not occurring *allele frequencies will remain stable over time
what happens if BP is too high
1) sympathetic impulses decrease --> relaxation of vasculature, drop in BP 2) ANP released from heart --> loss of salt within nephron --> loss of fluid (but not enough to counter effects of high-salt diet on BP) -few ways to lower it
how would respiratory system adjust if we moved to higher altitudes (less oxygen available)
1- breathe more rapidly to try to avoid hypoxia 2- binding dynamics of hemoglobin would alter to facilitate unloading of O2 to tissues (needs mechanisms to counteract normal process) 3- make more red blood vessels to carry oxygen 4- (long term) develop more blood vessels (vascularization) to facilitate distribution of oxygen to tissues
preferred fuels in well-fed and || fasting states 1. liver 2. resting skeletal muscle 3. cardiac muscle 4. adipose tissue 5. brain 6. red blood cells
1. glucose and AAs || fatty acids 2. glucose || fatty acids 3. fatty acids || fatty acids, ketones 4. glucose || fatty acids 5. glucose || glucose (ketones in prolonged fast) 6. glucose || glucose
Beta oxidation
1. oxidation of fatty acids to form double bond 2. hydration of double bond to form hydroxyl 3. oxidation of hydroxyl to form carbonyl (B-ketoacid) 4. splitting of B-ketoacid into shorter acyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA continues until shortened into 2 C, creating a final acetyl-CoA
golden ration
1.618:1 humans are attracted to individuals with body proportions estimating this
sqroot(3)
1.7
full penetrance
100% of individuals with this allele express the phenotype (like all individuals with over 40 sequence repeats characteristic of huntingtn gene show symptoms of Huntington's)
ATP stores are turned over ____ times per day
1000
nano
10^-9
tera
10^12
giga
10^9
since ___, the US population has ____
1950; doubled
kidneys and after that (brief)
2 bean-shaped structures located behind the digestive organs at the level of the bottom rib -the functional unit of the kidney is the nephron; each kidney has approximately 1 million -all the nephrons eventually empty into the renal pelvis, which narrows to form the ureter -from the bladder, urine is transported through the urethra to exit the body
disruptive selection
2 extreme phenotypes are selected over the norm -beak sizes either large or small -facilitated by the existence of polymorphisms (the middle one)
bronchi
2 of these; air enters from the trachea -contain ciliated epithelial cells to catch material that has made it past the mucous membranes in the nose and mouth (so does trachea)
prostaglandins
20-C molecules, unsaturated carboxylic acids derived from arachidonic acid, contain one 5-C ring -act as paracrine or autocrine signaling molecules -in many tissues regulate synthesis of cAMP --> affect other hormones -powerful effects on smooth muscle function, sleep-wake cycle, elevation of body temperature associated with fever and pain
one-year prevalence rates for any mental disorder in US
26.2
skeleton is created from __ major components:
2; bone and cartilage
stratum spinosum
2nd innermost layer of epidermis -the keratinocytes of the stratum basale below it become connected to each other -the site of Langerhans cells
stratum lucidum
2nd outermost layer of epidermis -only present in thick hairless skin like skin on sole of foot or palms -nearly transparent
Elongation
2nd part of translation, a 3-step cycle repeated for each AA added to the protein after the initiator methionine; ribosome moves 5' to 3' along the mRNA and translates protein from N- to C-terminus The ribosome has 3 important binding sites: -A site holds incoming tRNA complex (determined by codon in A site) -P site holds tRNA that carries the growing PP chain; where the first AA binds because it is starting the PP chain - from here it is passed to the A site ~peptide bond forms as the PP is passed from tRNA in P site to tRNA in A site; requires peptidyl transferase which is part of the large subunit. GTP IS REQUIRED FOR THIS~ -E site - where the now inactivated tRNA pauses before exiting the ribosome; as it enters it quickly unbinds from mRNA and is ready to be recharged
cells entering G2 have ___ as much DNA as in G1
2x
male-female prevalence of borderline personality disorder
2x more common in females
number of ATP produced per glucose
30-32
stratum granulosum
3rd / middle layer of epidermis -keratinocytes (from the layers below them) die and lose their nuclei
male-female prevalence of antisocial personality disorder
3x more common in males than females
weakly linked genes have recombination frequency close to __%
50 (as expected from independent assortment)
composition of blood
55% liquid (plasma), 45% cells
after S phase in germ cells there are... __ chromatids __ chromosomes __ homologous pairs
92; 46; 23
Fucntional autonomy
A behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that initially created the behavior
Operon
A cluster of genes transcribed as a single mRNA (single promoter region) -Like the trp operon in E. coli - 5 genes encode for enzymes that manufacture Trp, and these are arranged in a cluster on the chromosome; by sharing a common promoter region, they are transcribed as a group
Justice (research)
A pillar of research ethics -Applies to selection of research topic and execution of research -Only morally relevant differences can lead to different treatment of individuals -Risk must be fairly distributed to not unduly harm a group - usually seek diverse group for study (but keep in mind population that will be most likely to benefit will prob bear greater proportion of risk - likelihood of benefit is morally relevant difference between individuals) -In some cases may have to test drug in healthy individuals - burden of risk on secondary populaiton - ok as long as risks/benefits have been addressed thru informed consent, respect for persons maintained, etc.
Respect for persons
A pillar of research ethics -Need for honesty between subject and researcher; usually prohibits deception -Informed consent -No coercive influence over subjects -Respect subjects' wishes to continue with or cease participation in study -Subject can withdraw consent -Confidentiality -Consider vulnerable persons
Bias
A result of flaws in the DATA COLLECTION phase of an experimental or observational study
Positive control mechanism
The binding of a molecule increases transcription of the gene (like binding of CAP to promoter region)
Negative control mechanism
The binding of a protein reduces transcriptional activity (like binding of repressor protein to operator)
Calcitriol
The biologically active form of vitamin D - increases calcium and phosphate uptake in the intestines, which promotes bone production
+1 base
The first base in a gene region to be transcribed from DNA to RNA -To the left of it (upstream, toward 5') = negative numbers -To the right of it (downstream, toward 3') = positive -No zero
Replication forks
The generation of new DNA from the origin of replication proceeds in both directions, creating these on both sides of the origin
Hybridization
The joining of complementary base pair sequences -DNA-DNA or RNA-DNA recognition -Uses 2 single-stranded sequences and is a vital part of PCR and Southern blotting
Morally relevant differences
Those differences between individuals that are considered an appropriate reason to treat them differently -Like age in case of transplant -Population size -Likelihood of benefit -Usually NOT race, sexual orientation, etc. -Religion maybe/maybe not depending on rules of religions
Origin of replication
To start replication, this is where DNA unwinds
Gordon Allport
Trait theorist Three basic types of traits/dispositions: -Cardinal traits -Central traits -Secondary tratis Also functional autonomy
N-Ach
Trait theory - the need for achievement -People rated high in N-Ach are concerned w achievement and have pride in accomplishments -Avoid high risks (to avoid failiing) and low risks (bc easy tasks will not generate a sense of achievement) -Set realistic goals and stop strivign toward a goal if success is unlikely
PEN Model
Trait theory of personality -Psychoticism -Extraversion -Neuroticism More recently expanded to Big Five theory
Cardinal traits
Traits around which a person organizes his/her life -Like sacrifice for Mother Teresa -Not everyone has one
Transcription factor
Transcription-activating proteins that search the DNA looking for specific DNA-binding motifs; have 2 domains 1) DNA binding domain 2) Activation domain (Helps RNA polymerase locate and bind to the promoter region of DNA)
How does gene therapy work
Transfer a normal copy of the gene into the affected tissues (for individuals with inherited diseases) -Efficient target vectors must be used to transfer the cloned gene into the target cells' DNA - viruses naturally infect cells to deliver their own genetic material, so most gene delivery vectors are modified viruses -A portion of the viral genome is replaced with the cloned gene so the virus can infect but not complete its replication cycle
Sliding clamp
Trimer assembled by PCNA that helps to strengthen the interaction between DNA pol δ and ε and the template strand
Gene cloning
Type of recombinant DNA -Note that the colony containing the recombinant DNA must be isolated (antibiotic resistance) -After lysing the bacteria they can be processed by restriction enzymes to release the cloned DNA from the vector
Stop codons
UAA, UGA, UAG
classes divisions
Upper class: those who have great wealth, recognized reputations and lifestyles, influence, and power and prestige Middle class: -UPPER-Middle: Successful business and professional people -MIDDLE-Middle: Those unable to achieve the upper middle lifestyle because of educational and economic shortcomings -LOWER-Middle: Those who are skilled and semiskilled workers with fewer luxuries Lower class: Poorer end of the economic spectrum, with a greatly reduced amount of sociopolitical power
Southern blot
Used to detect the presence and quantity of various DNA strands in a sample -DNA is cut by restriction enzymes and then separated by gel electrophoresis -The DNA fragments are then transferred to a membrane, retaining their separation -The membrane is probed with many copies of a ssDNA sequence -The probe will bind to its complementary sequence and form dsDNA -Probes are labeled w radioisotopes or indicator proteins, both of which can be used to indicate the presence of a desired sequence
Start of transcription
Via DNA-dependent RNA polymerase -RNA polymerase II is the main transcriber -Locates genes by searching for promoters on DNA; in eukaryotes the binding site of the promoter is the TATA box -TFs help RNA pol II find and bind to the TATA box, establishing where transcription will start -No primer required to start generating transcript -Transcribes 5' to 3' -RNA polymerase does not proofread (unlike DNA pol) -Transcription ends when RNA polymerase reaches termination sequence or stop signal -DNA double helix then reforms, and primary transcript formed is hnRNA (mRNA is derived from hnRNA via posttranslational modifications)
How are fat-soluble vitamins absorbed
With the help of micelles
humoral immunity : X :: cellular immunity : Y
X = B cells Y = T cells
sarcomere bands/zones/lines
Z lines - define boundary of each sarcomere M line - runs down center of sarcomere I band - contains only thin filaments H band - contains only thick filaments A band - all of the thick filament whether or not overlapping
hypermutation
a B cell does this in its antigen-binding region when trying to find the best match for an antigen
aggression
a behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance (like a threat display in seals) -verbal or nonverbal communication or physical actions
fad
a behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community -pattern of thinking influenced by group
lactase
a brush-border enzyme of the duodenum that hydrolyzes lactose to galactose and glucose
sucrase
a brush-border enzyme of the duodenum that hydrolyzes sucrose to glucose and fructose
social class
a category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society -can be ID'd by looking at the economic opportunities, job positions, lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviors of a slice of society
compliance
a change of behavior based on a direct request -the person/group who makes the request typically has no actual power to command the individual but still asks him to change (this is what separates compliance from obedience) -foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, lowball, that's-not-all often used to gain compliance
terpene
a class of lipids built from isoprene (C5H8) moieties and share a common structural pattern with carbons grouped in multiples of 5 (see pic of isoprene) -SIGNALING -strongly scented -produced by plants and some insects -grouped according to the number of isoprene units present; a single terpene unit contains 2 isoprene units -can be modified by addition of a variety of functional groups
gastric juice
a combination of secretions from chief and parietal cells in the stomach -chief cells secrete pepsinogen -hydrogen ions secreted by parietal cells as HCl cleave pepsinogen to pepsin -pepsin digests proteins --> short peptide fragments
propaganda
a common way by which large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others -often invoke messages of fear, and depictions of the target group are often exaggerated big time
bile
a complex fluid composed of *bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol* synthesized in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, carries out its digestive function in the duodenum (bile salts emulsify fats and cholesterol into micelles in the small intestine; without bile, fats would spontaneously separate out of the aqueous mixture in the duodenum and would not be accessible to pancreatic lipase, which is water-soluble) (major pigment is bilirubin) -proper fat digestion depends on both bile and lipase -bile gets the fats into the solution and increases their SA by placing them in micelles (mechanical digestion) -then lipase can come in to hydrolyze the ester bonds holding the lipids together (chemical digestion)
Bowman's capsule
a cuplike structure surrounding the glomerulus -leads to the long tubule with many areas (proximal convoluted tubule, descending and ascending limbs of the Loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct)
altruism
a form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to himself -can be motivated by selflessness but also ulterior motives
ritual
a formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior -tend to have a prescribed order of events or routine -can be associated with milestones, like baby-naming or graduation; with holidays, like trick-or-treating on Halloween; or with regular activities, like Catholic mass or pregame prep rally or getting ready in the morning
enterogastone
a hormone that slows motility through the digestive tract -secreted from the duodenum into the bloodstream -this allows increased time for digestive enzymes to act on chyme, especially fats -secretin is an example
substantia nigra
a layer of cells in the midbrain that functions to produce dopamine to permit proper functioning of the basal ganglia (decreased DA production in PD) -the basal ganglia are critical for initiating and terminating movements, as well as sustaining repetitive motor tasks and smoothening motions
inclusive fitness
a measure of an organism's success in the population -based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and ability of offspring to then support others
false consciousness
a misperception of one's actual position in society -major barrier to class consciousness -members of the proletariat either could not see just how bad conditions were ,could not recognize the commonalities between their own experiences and others, or otherwise were too clouded to assemble into the revolutionaries Marx envisioned
personality disorder
a pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired functioning in at least 2 of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, impulse control ego-syntonic
gastrin
a peptide hormone secreted by the G-cells in the pyloric glands of the stomach -induces the parietal cells to secrete more HCl -signals the stomach to contract, mixing its contents
major depressive episode
a period of at least 2 weeks with at least 5 of the following symptoms: prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood, anhedonia, appetite disturbances, substantial weight changes, sleep disturbances, decreased energy, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt (sometimes delusional), difficulty concentrating or thinking, psychomotor symptoms (feeling "slowed down"), thoughts of death or attempts at suicide; at least one or more of the symptoms must be depressed mood or anhedonia SIG E CAPS: Sadness + -Sleep -Interest -Guilt -Energy -Concentration -Appetite -Psychomotor symptoms -Suicidal thoughts
homeostasis
a physiological tendency toward a relatively stable state that is maintained and adjusted, often with the expenditure of energy -most compounds in the body are maintained at a homeostatic level that is different from equilibrium, which allows us to store potential energy; for example, keeping sodium concentrations much higher outside a neuron than inside it creates a gradient that stores energy, and in this state reactions can proceed such that equilibrium is put off for a long time -equilibrium is fixed and prevents us from storing any energy for later use or creating an excitable environment - favorable in general chem, but not in biochem!
penetrance
a population measure defined as the proportion of individuals in the population carrying the allele who actually express the phenotype -so the probability that given a genotype the person will express the phenotype -high to low: full, high, reduced, low, non
resocialization
a process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change; can have + or - connotations -like members of armed forces are trained to obey orders; also indoctrinating members into a cult
bureaucracy and characteristics
a rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control has these 6 characteristics: -paid, nonelected officials on a fixed salary -officials who are provided rights and privileges as a result of making their career out of holding office -regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions upon passing exams or milestones -officials who enter the organization by holding an advanced degree or training -responsibilities, obligations, privileges, and work procedures rigidly defined by the organization -responsibility for meeting the demands of one's position thus often slow to change and less efficient than other organizations
cult
a religious sect that takes on extreme or deviant philosophies
HIV is what
a retrovirus -carry reverse transcriptase which synthesizes DNA from ssRNA; the DNA then integrates into the host cell genome, where it is replicated and transcribed as if it were the host cell's own DNA -allows for the cell tobe infected indefinitely; the only way to cure the infection is to kill the cell itself
role
a set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold a particular status -ex: one role of a doctor is to translate info into language their patients can understand
cultural syndrome
a shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme -influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions, and can even influence the way emotions are expressed -example: happiness is considered a positive emotion across cultures, but in countries with individualistic cultural syndromes like the US, happiness is viewed as infinite, attainable, and internally experienced; in countries with a more collectivist cultural syndorme like Japan, happiness is a very rational emotion and applies to more collective experiences
absolute poverty
a socioeconomic condition in which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a a quality of living that includes basic life necessities like food, shelter, clothing, and water -applies everywhere
demographic transition
a specific example of demographic shift referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system four stages: 1) preindustrial society; birth and death rates both high 2) improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and wages cause death rates to drop 3) improvements in contraception, women's rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause birth rates to drop; further, with an industrializing society, children must go to school for many years to be productive in society and may need to be supported by parents for a longer period of time than was formerly the case; families thus have fewer children 4) an industrialized society; birth and death rates are both low *NOTE: mortality rate drops before birth rate, so population grows at first while mortality rate is dropping, then plateaus as the birth rate decreases as well
episomes
a subset of plasmids that are capable of integrating into the genome of the bacterium
social structure
a system of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships
interaction process analysis
a technique for observing, clarifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups -in 1970s, revised into SYMLOG, the system for multiple level observation of groups
vector
a virus that carries genetic information from one bacterium to another -transduction is the only mode of bacterial genetic recombination that requires this
manic episodes
abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting one week with at least 3 of the following: DIG FAST -Distractible -Insomnia (decreased need for sleep) -Grandiosity (or inflated self esteem) -Flight of ideas (racing thoughts) -Agitation -Speech (pressured / increased talkativeness) -Thoughtlessness (risky behavior) generally have more rapid onset and briefer duration than depressive episodes and may include psychosis part of bipolar I disorder
how much energy does ATP hydrolysis provide under physiological conditions
about 30 kJ/mol
postprandial state
absorptive state / well-fed state -shortly after eating, lasts 3-5 hours after eating -nutrients flood in from gut and make their way to the liver via the hepatic portal vein --> stored or distributed to other areas of the body -mostly anabolic and fuel storage, little catabolism -insulin promotes glycogen synthesis in liver and muscle, then after glycogen stores are filled the liver converts excess glucose to fatty acids and triglycerides; protein synthesis in muslce too -after a meal most of the liver's energy needs are met by oxidation of excess AAs
ketolysis
acetoacetate picked up from the blood is activated in the mitochondria by succinyl-CoA acetoacyl-CoA transferase (thiophorase), an enzyme present only in tissues OUTSIDE the liver (so the liver cannot catabolize the ketone bodies it produces) -3-hydroxybutyrate is oxidized to acetoacetate at this time in the brain... -during a fast longer than 1 week the brain begins to derive up to 2/3 of its energy from ketone bodies -in the brain when ketones are metabolized to acetyl-CoA, pyruvate dehydrogenase is inhibited, so glycolysis and glucose uptake in brain decreases -this spares essential protein in the body which would otherwise be catabolized to form glucose by gluconeogenesis in the liver, and allows the brain to indirectly metabolize fatty acids as ketone bodies generates acetyl-CoA
rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid biosynthesis
acetyl-CoA carboxylase
what is the citrate shuttle used for
acetyl-CoA converts to citrate which then goes into the cytoplasm to make fatty acids
major and minor duodenal papillae
acinar cells of the pancreas secrete their products into ducts (as do all exocrine cells); these ducts then empty into the duodenum through these papillae
transcellularly
across the cell membrane
is actin or myosin associated with troponin and tropomyosin
actin!!! has a T in it thin filament
how does ATP affect fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
activates (this is an enzyme in gluconeogenesis)
acetyl-CoA carboxylase
activates acetyl-CoA in the cytoplasm for incorporation into fatty acids; the rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid biosynthesis -requires biotin and ATP -adds CO2 to acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA
how does insulin affect glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
activates it -this is the rate-limiting step of the PPP -activated because the abundance of sugar entering the cell under insulin stimulation will be shunted into both fuel utilization pathways (glycolysis and aerobic respiration) as well as fuel shortage pathways (fatty acid synthesis, glycogenesis, and the PPP)
how does cortisol affect PEPCK
activates it (cortisol acts to raise blood sugar levels)
how does acetyl-CoA affect pyruvate carboxylase
activates it because it says we want to make glucose since we have so much acetyl-CoA
vaccination is an example of (active/passive) immunity
active
(active/passive) transport maintains the membrane potential of neurons in the nervous system; what kind of active or primary transport
active (primary)
primary active transport
active transport that uses ATP or another energy molecule to directly power the transport of molecules across a membrane -usually involves the use of a transmembrane ATPase
directional selection
adaptive pressure can lead to the emergence and dominance of an initially extreme phenotypes; new standard phenotype emerges
frequency summation
addition of multiple simple twitches (which are the muscle's all or nothing responses) before the muscle has the opportunity to fully relax -if so frequent muscle can't relax AT ALL --> tetanus
viral life cycle: translation and progeny assembly
after infection, translation of viral genetic info must occur for the virus to reproduce -requires translocation of genetic material to correct location in cell -DNA viruses must go to nucleus to be transcribed to mRNA; mRNA tehn goes to cytoplasm where it is translated to proteins -genetic material from positive-sense RNA viruses stays in the cytoplasm where it is directly translated to protein by host cell ribosomes; negative-sense use RNA replicase to synthesize complementary strand which can then be translated to form proteins -DNA formed thru reverse transcription in retroviruses also travels to the nucleus where it can be integrated into the host genome -using ribosomes, tRNA, AAs, and enzymes of the host cell, the viral RNA is translated into protein -many of these are structural capsid proteins and allow for creation of new virions in cytoplasm of host cell -once the viral genome has been replicated it can be packaged within the capsid (the viral genome must be returned to its original form before packaging though so like retroviruses must transcribe new copies of their ssRNA from the DNA that entered the host genome) -1 virus can create hundreds to thousands of new virions in a single host cell
relaxation of muscle
after sarcomere contraction!!! -ACh is degraded in the synapse by acetylcholinesterase -this results in termination of signal at NMJ and allows sarcolemma to repolarize -as signal decays, Ca++ release ceases and SR takes up Ca++ from sarcoplasm; the SR tightly controls intracellular Ca++ so that muscles are contracted only when necessary -ATP binds myosin heads (because ATP is produced when you're alive), freeing them from actin -once myosin and actin disconnect, the sarcomere can return to its original width -without calcium, the myosin-binding sites are covered by tropomyosin and contraction is prevented
lipoproteins including types
aggregates of apolipoproteins and lipids; the way triacylglycerol and cholesterol are transported in the blood -named according to their density -chylomicrons are the least dense (highest fat-to-protein ratio), then VLDL, then IDL, then LDL, then HDL -chylomicrons and VLDL primarily carry triacylglycerols, but also contain small quantities of cholesteryl esters; LDL and HDL are primarily cholesterol transport molecules; IDL is a transition state
panic disorder is frequently accompanied by ___
agoraphobia because of the pervasive fear of having panic attack in public location
indirect therapy
aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and frends of the affected individual
pharynx
air goes from nasal cavity to here -resides behind nasal cavity at back of mouth -common pathway for air to the lungs and food to the esophagus
trachea
air passes from larynx to here -cartilagenous -from here to one of hte 2 mainstream bronchi -contains ciliated epithelial cells to catch material that has made it past the mucous membranes in the nose and mouth (so do bronchi)
ECG
aka EKG; records the heart's electrical impulses -depolarization precedes cardiac muscle contraciton, so the electrical spikes of the ECG occur just before a cardiac contractile event -P-wave occurs immediately before atria contract -QRS complex occurs just before ventricles contract -T-wave represents ventricular repolarization
validity
aka accuracy -the ability of an instrument to measure a true value
cultural transmission
aka cultural learning -the manner in which a society socializes its members
cultural learning
aka cultural transmission -the manner in which a society socializes its members
cell-mediated immunity
aka cytotoxic immunity -form of adaptive immunity that uses cytotoxic chemicals released from cells to cause death of cells that have been infected by viruses -mediated by T cells
phosphoglyceride
aka glycerophospholipid -phospholipids that contain a glycerol backbone bonded to 2 fatty acids (via ester linkages) and to a highly polar head group by a phosphodiester linkage -named according to their headgroup (like "phosphatidylcholine")
thrombocytes
aka platelets -cell fragments or shards released from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow -assist in clotting -high concentrations -like RBCs, don't have nuclei
reliability
aka precision -the ability of the instrument to read consistently, or within a narrow range
precision (aka 2)
aka reliability -the ability of the instrument to read consistently, or within a narrow range
sphingomyelin
aka sphingophospholipids; the major class of sphingolipids that are also phospholipids -have either phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine as a head group (thus have a phosphodiester bond) -head groups have no net charge -in PM of cells producing myelin
accuracy
aka validity -the ability of an instrument to measure a true value
what glands of the body are innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system
all glands except sweat glands
constant expressivity
all individuals with a given genotype express the same phenotype
if ___ aren't changing, the gene pool is stable and evolution is not occurring
allele frequencies
postzygotic reproductive isolation
allow for gamete fusion but yields either nonviable or sterile offspring -between 2 different species -hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility, hybrid breakdown
purpose of heart valves
allow the pump to create the pressure within the ventricles necessary to propel the blood forward with circulation, while also preventing backflow of blood
respirometry
allows accurate measurement of the respiratory quotient, which differs depending on the fuels being used by the organism and thus helps us analyze the metabolism that is occurring RQ = (CO2 produced)/(O2 consumed) for the complete combustion of a given fuel source
democracy
allows every citizen a political voice, usually through electing representatives to office (representative democracy)
isocitrate to ____ in CAC
alpha-ketoglutarate -via isocitrate dehydrogenase -oxalosuccinate intermediate -rate-limiting step of CAC
complex III
also called cytochrome reductase -transfers electrons from coQ to cytochrome c in a few steps: CoQH2 + 2 cytochrome c [with Fe3+] --> CoQ + 2 cytochrome c [with Fe2+] + 2 H+ -only one electron is transferred per reaction bc of iron, but coQ must transfer 2 electrons, so 2 cyt c molecules are needed -Q cycle -4 H+ pumped
how do ketones form acetyl-CoA
although acetyl-CoA is typically used to produce ketones when the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is inhibited, the reverse reaction can occur as well
benefit to lysogenic cycle
although bacteriophages can kill a host bacterium, there may be some benefit to the bacterium having them integrated in the lysogenic cycle -infection with one strain of phage generally makes the bacteria less susceptible to superinfection (simultaneous infection) with other phages -because the provirus is relatively harmless, there may be some evol advantage to this
anxious-ambivalent attachment aka
ambivalent attachment
peptidyl transferase
an enzyme that is part of the large ribosomal subunit -forms the peptide bond as the PP is passed from the tRNA in the P site to the tRNA in the A site
second sickness
an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice -professional groups have longer life expectancies than working class people exemplifies this
conformational coupling
an idea for how ATP synthesis works if not by the direct nature of chemiosmotic coupling -suggests that the relationship between the proton gradient and ATP synthesis is indirect -instead ATP is released by synthase as a result of a conformational change caused by the gradient -the F1 portion of ATP synthase is like a turbine, spinning within a stationary compartment to facilitate the harnessing of gradient energy for chemical bonding
obligate anaerobes
anaerobes that cannot survive in an oxygen-containing environment -presence of oxygen leads to production of reactive oxygen-containing radicals and cell death
glycolysis in erythrocytes
anaerobic glycolysis is the ONLY pathway for ATP production because RBCs lack mitochondria -have bisphosphoglycerate mutase, which produces 2,3-BPG from 1,3-BPG in glycolysis -2,3-BPG allosterically binds to the B-chains of hemoglobin A and decreases its affinity for oxygen (rightward shift, hence unloading of oxygen in tissues but still allows 100% saturation in the lungs - if abnormal might shift so far it doesn't have 100% saturation in the lungs) -but 23BPG doesn't bind well to fetal hemoglobin, so hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than maternal HbA --> transplacental passage of oxygen from mom to fetus
asters
anchor the centiroles to the cell membrane; formed by some microtubules during prophase (others extend toward the middle of the cell)
connexon
another name for gap junction
motor end plate
another name for the nerve terminal / synaptic bouton in the neuromuscular junction
defensins
antibacterial enzymes found on the skin (nonspecific immunity)
immunoglobulin aka
antibody
disregard for and violations of the rights of others, evidenced by repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or lack of remorse for said actions
antisocial personality disorder
most common psychiatric disorder in women
anxiety disorders
animal communication
any behavior of one animal that affects the behavior of another -nonhuman animals communicate to convey info like emotions, status, location of resources -communicate thru a variety of *nonverbal* means like body language, visual displays, scents (inter AND intraspecific), facial expressions (though humans have far finer motor control of facial expression muscles), vocalizations, and body language (which is common across many species) also humans use both nonverbal and verbal communication when interacting with domesticated animals; communication from and to both ends
glycolipid
any lipid linked to a sugar
antigen
any specific target (usually a protein) to which the immune system can react
deviance
any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within society
pseudostratified epithelia
appear to have multiple layers due to differences in cell height but are actually only one layer
ghettoes
areas of a city (cities are not homogenous in population makeup) where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities -in the most extreme cases, slums may be formed
secondary oocyte remains ___
arrested at metaphase II; does not complete rest of meiosis II unless fertilization occurs
what vascular structure creates the most resistance to blood flow
arterioles -highly muscular and have the ability to contract and dilate in order to affect blood pressure
mandated reporter
as a physician you are legally required to report suspected cases of elder or child abuse (not domestic abuse though)
menopause
as woman ages her ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH resulting in ovarian atrophy -as estrogen and progesterone levels drop, the endometrium atrophies too and menstruation stops -also since negative feedback on FSH and LH is removed, blood levels of these rise
SES can depend on ____ and/or ____ status; examples
ascribed (like in the case of caste and estate systems); achieved (like in the case of class systems)
menstruation
assuming implantation doesn't occur, the CL loses its stimulation from LH, progesterone levels decline, and the uterine lining is sloughed off -loss of high levels of estrogen and progesterone removes the block on GnRH so the next cycle can begin
lipid mobilization
at night body is in postabsorptive state, using energy stores instead of food for fuel - in this state, fatty acids are released from adipose tissue and used for energy -human adipose tissue doesn't respond directly to glucagon, but a fall in insulin levels (or presence of epinephrine/cortisol) activates *hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)* that hydrolyzes triacylglycerols, yielding fatty acids and glycerol -released glycerol can be transported to liver for glycolysis or gluconeogenesis -HSL is effective within adipose cells, but LPL is necessary for metabolism of chylomicrons and VLDL (can release free fatty acids from triacylglycerols in these lipoproteins)
diluting segment
at the transition from inner to outer medulla in the nephron, the loop of Henle becomes thicker in the diluting segment because cells lining the tube are larger -these cells contain lots of mitochondria, which allow reabsorption of sodium and chloride by active transport -because so much salt is reabsorbed while water is stuck in the nephron, the filtrate actually becomes hypotonic compared to the interstitium -the only portion of the nephron that can produce urine that is more dilute than blood - important during overhydration, provides a mechanism for elimintaiting excess water
mitral valve
atrioventricular valve between left atrium and left ventricle -aka bicuspid valve
bicuspid valve
atrioventricular valve between left atrium and left ventricle -aka mitral valve
tricuspid valve
atrioventricular valve between right atrium and right ventricle
tendons
attach muscle to bone
cross-sectional studies
attempt to categorize patients into different groups at a single point in time -type of observational study
stereotype content model
attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using 2 dimensions: warmth and competence -warm groups are those that are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources -competent groups are those that have a high status in society -the four possible combinations of these (paternalistic, admiration, contemptuous, and envious) lead to distinct emotions
game theory
attempts to explain decision-making behavior; defined by its players, the information and actions available to each player at decision points, and the payoffs associated with each outcome
strain theory
attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure -focuses on how anomic conditions (excessive individualism, social inequality, isolation, etc.) can lead to deviance (they all erode social solidarity) -ex: American dream - considered a desirable social goal, but structure of society is unable to guarantee that education and opportunity needed to achieve this goal to all citizens, so deviant behavior like theft arises to achieve the social goal outside of the limiting social structure
individual will see self as socially inept and socially isolated, despite an intense desire for social affection and acceptance
avoidant personality disorder
virulent
bacteria in the lytic phase
facultative anaerobes
bacteria that can toggle between metabolic processes, using oxygen for aerobic metabolism if it is present and switching to anaerobic if not
meritocracy
based on individual talent or achievement, a means for person to advance up the social ladder
why is skeletal muscle cell multinucleated
bc it is formed as individual muscle cells fuse in long rods during development
heart rate
beats per minute
why does a high-fructose drink supply quick energy
because DHAP and glyceraldehyde (which becomes G3P), the products of fructose metabolism, are downstream of the rate-limiting step of glycolysis
why does a water coat sometimes form around a cell
because carbs are generally hydrophilic and carbs are generally on the extracellular surface of membranes so they interact with water
why is the efficiency of aerobic respiration varied between cells
because the NADH produced through glycolysis can't directly cross into the matrix, so it has to use shuttles to transfer NADH electrons to a carrier that can cross the inner mitochondrial membrane -depending on which of the 2 shuttle mechanisms it participates in, either 1.5 ATP (glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle) or 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle) will end up being produced
where does digestion occur
begins in the oral cavity and continues in the stomach and the duodenum
proximity
being physically close to someone -contributes to attraction -partly explained by convenience, partly by mere exposure effect / familiarity effect
objectified
being viewed as a sexual object rather than as a person -more common to happen to women
delusion of persecution
belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened
delusions of grandeur
belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way, like being an inventor, historical figure, or religious icon -common in bipolar I disorder too
larynx
below the pharynx; pathway for air only (not food) -to keep food out, the opening (glottis) is coverd by the epiglottis during swallowing -contains 2 vocal cords -from here to trachea
desmosomes (where are they primarily found 2)
bind adjacent cells by anchoring their cytoskeletons -formed by interactions between transmembrane proteins associated with intermediate filaments inside adjacent cells -primarily found at the interface between 2 layers of epithelial tissue (hemidesmosomes have a similar function but their main function is to attach epithelial cells to underlying structures, especially the basement membrane)
influences on foraging
biological: -hunger is driven by a complex pathway involving NTs and hormones -sensation of hunger is controlled by the hypothalamus - lateral promotes hunger while ventromedial responds to cues that we are full and promotes satiety -also impacted by genetics - certain genes play a role in the onset of foraging behavior and the division of tasks between members of the same group; some species forage together while others engage in solitary foraging other: -cognitive skills play a role in solitary and group foraging. these skills include spatial awareness, memory, and decisionmaking -in species that forage as a group, foraging is primarily a learned behavior (via observation); animals also learn how to hunt by watching others (some animals have strict rules regarding order in which individuals are allowed to eat after a successful hunt - like a wolf pack)
alkalemia
blood is too basic (pH > 7.45)
hypophyseal portal system
blood leaving capillary beds in the hypothalamus travels to a capillary bed in the AP to allow for paracrine signaling of releasing hormones
hepatic portal system
blood leaving capillary beds in the walls of the gut passes through the hepatic portal vein before reaching capillary beds in the liver
renal portal system
blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta
trabeculae
bony spicules (points) in the lattice of spongy bone -cavities between them are filled with bone marrow
pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image; interpersonal relationships are often intense and unstable
borderline personality disorder
expressed emotions
both verbal and nonverbal behaviors that communicate internal states; can express emotions with or without conscious awareness
peptidases
break down proteins (or peptides)
plasmin
breaks down a blood clot via plasminogen
temporal isolation
breeding at different times
venae cavae
bring deoxygenated blood to the right atrium
pulmonary veins
bring oxygenated blood to the left atrium
bronchioles
bronchi divide into these, which divide further until they end in alveoli
osteoblasts
build bone -during bone formation, essential ingredients like calcium and phosphate are obtained from the blood
how is insulin secretion controlled
by plasma glucose -above 5.6 mM, insulin secretion is directly prop. to plasma glucose -for glucose to promote insulin secretion it must enter the B-cell and be metabolized, increasing intracellular ATP --> calcium release in cell --> exocytosis of insulin also by other hormones like glucagon and somatostatin
hydroxyapatite crystals
calcium, phosphate, and OH- (the organic components of compact bone) harden together to form these
social exclusion
can arise from the sense of powerlessness that many poor people have when they are segregated and isolated from society -the problem is this attitude can create further obstacles to achieving self-help, independence, and self-respect -disadvantaged groups can experience magnified feelings of alienation and powerlessness when living in affluent communities (similar to anomic conditions, which accelerate social inequality)
ketogenic amino acids
can be converted into ketone bodies, which can be used as an alternative fuel, particularly during periods of prolonged starvation
is exhalation active or passive
can be passive -during active tasks we can speed it up by using the internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles to actively decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity
internal intercostal muscles
can be used during active tasks to speed up the process of exhalation -these and the abdominal muscles oppose the external intercostals (which are relaxing to exhale) and pull the ribcage down -this actively decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity
calorimeter (think body)
can measure basal metabolic rate, based on heat exchange with the environment -have to use large insulated chambers and stuff so other measures are preferred and BMR can be estimated based on age, weight, height, and gender
what do cyclin-CDK complexes do
can phosphorylate TFs which then promote the transcription of genes required for the next stage of teh cell cycle
carbohydrates, AAs, and blood
carbs and AAs are absorbed into the capillaries of the small intestine and enter systemic circulation via hepatic portal system (fats bypass this) -probably conc gradients
glycoprotein coat
carbs associated with membrane-bound proteins creat this
only cell type that prefers fatty acids for fuel even in well-fed state
cardiac muscle
how do cardiac myocytes communicate
cardiac muscle cells are connected by intercalated disks, which contain many gap junctions - allow for ion flow directly between cells and for rapid and coordinated muscle cell depolarization and efficient contraction of cardiac mucsle
myogenic
cardiac muscle has this, as it can contract without any neurological input
rate-limiting step of fatty acid oxidation
carnitine acyltransferase I -transfers fatty acyl-CoA to carnitine for transport into mitochondria
study in which 100 patients with lung cancer and 100 patients without lung cancer are assessed for their smoking history -- what type of study?
case-control study
what happens when an antigen binds to a B cell (cell-surface antibodies)
causes activation of that cell, resulting in its proliferation and formation of plasma and memory cells
parts of large intestine list
cecum colon rectum
G1/S checkpoint
cell determines if DNa is in good enough condition for synthesis -aka restriction point
G2/M checkpoint
cell is concerned with ensuring that the cell has achieved adequate size and the organelles have been properly replicated to support 2 daughter cells
membrane dynamics
cell membrane as a whole is stable, but... -phospholipids move rapidly within the plane of the membrane thru simple diffusion -lipid rafts and proteins also travel within plane of membrane, but more slowly -lipids can also move between membrane layers, but energetically unfavorable because polar head group of phospholipid must be forced through the nonpolar tail region inside the membrane, so flippases assist
semipermeable
cell membrane chooses which particles can enter and leave the cell at any point in time, mediated by the various channels and carriers in the membrane and by the membrane itself -small, nonpolar, lipid-soluble particles (and water) can cross freely, while large, polar, or charged particles cannot
cholesterol plays a major role in synthesis of
cell membranes, steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D
G2
cell passes thru another quality control checkpoint; DNA has already been duplicated and cell checks to ensure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm to divide between 2 daughter cells -cell checks to make sure DNA replication proceeded correctly
S
cell replicates genetic material so each daughter cell has identical copies -after replication each chromosome has 2 identical chromatids bound together at the centromere -number of chromatids doubles but ploidy and number of crhomosomes is same
envelope
cell wall and cell membrane together in prokaryotes
isotype switching
cells can change which isotype (IgM, IgD, etc.) of antibody they produce when stimulated by specific cytokines in this process
G1
cells create organelles for energy and protein production (mito, ribosomes, ER) while also growing
endocrine cells of pancreas; exocrine cells of pancreas
cells in the islets of Langerhans (a, B, gamma); acinar cells
G-cells
cells in the pyloric glands that secrete gastrin
mucous cells
cells of the gastric glands of the stomach that produce the bicarbonate-rich mucus that protects the muscular wall from the harshly acidic (pH=2) and proteolytic environment of the stomach
chief cells
cells of the gastric glands of the stomach that secrete pepsinogen, a component of the gastric juice -pepsinogen is the inactive, zymogen form of pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme; pepsin is formed via cleavage by the parietal cells next
phagocytes
cells that ingest and destroy pathogens -include dendritic cells and macorphages -activate an inflammatory response
chondrocytes
cells that secrete chondrin
cytotoxic immunity aka
cellular immunity
MTOCs
centrosome and basal body of flagellum/cilium -microtubule organizing centers
horizontal mobility
change in occupation or lifestyle that remains within the same social class
intragenerational mobility
changes in social status that happen within a person's lifetime
genetic drift
changes in the composition of a gene pool due to chance -more pronounced in small populations -founder effect, bottlenecks, inbreeding -ultimately leads to reduction in genetic diversity
demographic shifts, and US
changes in the makeup of a population over time in US: -average age has increased -population is becoming more racially and ethnically diverse
obedience
changing one's behavior in response to a direct order FROM AN AUTHORITY FIGURE (this is what separates compliance from obedience) -Milgram shock experiment
thoracic duct
channel where most lymphatic vessels are joined, which returns most of the lymph to the central circulatory system via the subclavian vein -in the posterior chest -some interstitial fluid is taken up by the lymphatic system; blockage of lymph nodes by infection or surgery can result in edema
social anxiety disorder
characterized by anxiety due to social situations -have persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situations that may result in embarassment (delivering speech, using public bathroom)
Parkinson's disease
characterized by bradykinesia, resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor, masklike facies, cogwheel rigidity, and shuffling gait with stooped posture -common symptom is depression, dementia also common
disorganized thought
characterized by loosening of associations -speech where ideas shift from subject to subject and listener can't follow train of thought; or speech so disorganized that it seems to have no structure (word salad); or inventing new words (neologisms)
OCD
characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses), which produce tension, and compulsions (repetitive tasks) that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life -obsessions raise individual's stress level, compulsions relieve this stress
cytokines
chemical substances that stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells to the area -released by macrophages etc.
lymphokines
chemicals secreted by helper T cells to coordinate the immune response
mastication
chewing -breaking up of large food particles into smaller particles by using teeth, tongue, and lips -helps to increase the surface-area-to-volume ratio of the food, allowing for more surface area for enzymatic digestion as it passes through the gut tube -also moderates the size of food particles entering the lumen of the alimentary canal; food particles that are to large create an obstructive risk in the tract
birth rate
children per 1000 people per year
what membrane component is responsible for mediating membrane fluidity
cholesterol
CETP
cholesteryl ester transfer protein -a specialized enzyme involved in the transport of cholesterol -facilitates the distribution of HDL cholesteryl esters to other lipoproteins like IDL, which becomes LDL by acquiring these cholesterol esters
prophase
chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate to opposite poles and begin forming spindle apparatus, kinetochores appear
telophase and cytokinesis
chromosomes decondense, nuclear membrane forms, nucleoli reappear, spindle apparatus breaks down, cell divides into 2 identical daughter cells
metaphase
chromosomes gather along the metaphase plate in the center of the cell under the guidance of the spindle apparatus
the digestion of solid food in the stomach results in an acidic, semifluid mixture known as
chyme
sphincters
circular smooth muscles around the alimentary canal that can contract to allow compartmentalization of function
double bonds in natural fatty acids are generally in the (cis/trans) configuration
cis
urban renewal
city land is reclaimed and renovated for public or private use -often fueled by gentrificaiton
deep vein thrombosis
clot in the deep veins of the legs -often result of blood pooling from sitting motionless, muscles not contracting to force blood up against gravity
prothrombin
clot process: -*prothrombin* forms thrombin by thromboplastin -thrombin can then convert fibrinogen into fibrin -fibrin forms small fibers that aggregate and cross link into net that captures RBCs and platelets and forms stable clot
thrombin
clot process: -prothrombin forms *thrombin* by thromboplastin -thrombin can then convert fibrinogen into fibrin -fibrin forms small fibers that aggregate and cross link into net that captures RBCs and platelets and forms stable clot
thromboplastin
clot process: -prothrombin forms thrombin by *thromboplastin* -thrombin can then convert fibrinogen into fibrin -fibrin forms small fibers that aggregate and cross link into net that captures RBCs and platelets and forms stable clot
fibrinogen
clot process: -prothrombin forms thrombin by thromboplastin -thrombin can then convert *fibrinogen* into fibrin -fibrin forms small fibers that aggregate and cross link into net that captures RBCs and platelets and forms stable clot
fibrin
clot process: -prothrombin forms thrombin by thromboplastin -thrombin can then convert fibrinogen into *fibrin* -*fibrin* forms small fibers that aggregate and cross link into net that captures RBCs and platelets and forms stable clot
codon vs. anticodon
codon - mRNA anticodon - tRNA
ubiquinone aka
coenzyme Q
halo effect
cognitive bias in which judgments about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one's overall impression of the individual -I like Judy --> Judy is a good mother -why people are often inaccurate when evaluating people they either believe to be genrally good or those they believe to be generally bad -Individual's attractiveness can also produce this
100 smokers and 100 non-smokers followed for 20 years while counting # of those who develop lung cancer -- what type of study?
cohort
what part of neprhon is responsive to ADH
collecting duct
what part of nephron is responsive to ADH? aldosterone?
collecting duct DCT and collecting duct
germinal centers
collections in the lymph nodes where B-cells proliferate and mature
lipid rafts
collections of similar lipids with or without associated proteins that serve as attachment points for other biomolecules; often serve roles in signaling
multiculturalism
communities or societies containing multiple cultures -encourages, respects, and celebrates cultural differences -can enhance cultural diversity and acceptance within society, thus contrasting assimilation
Gemeinshaft
community -a group unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography -families and neighborhoods, for example
pancreatic juices
complex mixture of several enzymes in a bicarbonate-rich alkaline solution -this bicarbonate helps neutralize acidic chyme, as well as provide an ideal working environment for each of the digestive enzymes, which are most active around pH 8.5 -contain enzymes that digest all 3 types of nutrients
yellow marrow
composed primarily of fat and is relatively inactive
hypotonic
concentration of solutes inside the cell is higher than the surrounding solution -water will rush in, the cell will swell sometimes to the point of lysing mnemonic: swelling to a big O for hypOtonic
in calculating change in free energy, what unit is UBER important??
concentration!! MOLAR!
lamellae
concentric circles throughout the bony matrix that surround a central microscopic channel -between lamellar rings are lacunae, small spaces that house mature bone cells (osteocytes)
cyclothymic disorder
consists of combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive episodes -related to bipolar disorder
tonus
constant state of low-level contraction, as can be seen in blood vessels -done by the smooth muscle bc capable of more sustained contractions than skeletal muscle
how does the cardiovascular system and kidneys maintain BP
constriction of the afferent arteriole --> lower BP reaching the glomeruli, which are adjacent to the jusxtaglomerular cells --> secondarily leads to renin release --> raises BP
diterpenes
contain 4 isoprene units -include Vitamin A (retinal is derived from this)
triterpenes
contain 6 isoprene units -can be converted to cholesterols and steroids
tetraterpenes
contain 8 isoprene units -include carotenoids (like B-carotene and lutein)
how are most AAs gluconeogenic
converted by individual pathways to CAC intermediates, then to malate, following the same path from there to glucose as all gluconeogenesis
states of coupling
courtship cohabitation engagement marriage
Medicare
covers patients over 65, those with end-stage renal disease, and those with ALS
epithelial tissue
covers the body and lines its cavities -means for protection against pathogen invasion and desiccation -in some organs involved in absorption, secretion, and sensation -tightly joined to each other and to an underlying layer of conncetive tissue - basement membrane -diverse and serve many functions -constitute the parenchyma in most organs (ex: nephrons in kidney, hepatocytes in liver, acid-producing cells in stomach are all epithelial) -often polarized (one sid facing lumen or outside world, other side interacting w blood vessels or other structural cells) -classified based on # of layers: simple, stratified, pseudostratified -classified by shape: cuboidal, columnar, squamous
epiglottis
covers the glottis during swallowing (respiratory tract)
monohybrid cross
cross in which only one trait is being studied
study to determine prevalence of lung cancer in smokers and nonsmokers at a given point in time -- what type of study?
cross-sectional study
display rules
cultural expectations of emotions -govern what emotions can be expressed and to what degree -cultural (and gender and family) differences can lead to very different social consequences when emotions are expressed
cyanide and ETC
cyanide inhibits cytochrome subunits a and a3 (think complex IV) - it attaches to the iron group and prevents transfer of electrons -tusses that rely heavily on aerobic respiration like the heart and the CNS can be greatly impacted
diaphysis
cylindrical shaft of long bone -full of bone marrow
where does the PPP take place
cytoplasm of all cells
CD8+ T cells aka
cytotoxic T cells
pus
dead neutrophils
mortality
deaths caused by a given disease
relative deprivation
decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society -often motivate social movements
avolition
decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions -schizo negative symptom
flexor muscle
decreases the angle across a joint (like biceps)
splitting
defense mechainsm often used by people with borderline personality disorder -they view others as either all good or all bad (angel vs. devil mentality)
Z-lines
define the boundaries of each sarcomere (Z is the end of the alphabet and the sarcomere)
medicalized
defined and treated as medical conditions -has happened to some things like hoarding disorder is now in DSM-5 (but other things have been demedicalized like homosexuality)
what explains why there is violent behavior in crowds and riots
deindividuation and antinormative behavior - in group settings, the individual loses his sense of individuality and becomes an anonymous part of a group -with anonymity, he is more likely to act in a manner that is inconsistent with his normal self -further enhanced when group is in uniform or masked, which increases anonymity
pressure differential across circulation equation
deltaP = CO x TPR -CO is cardiac output -TPR is total peripheral (vascular) resistance
positive symptoms of schizophrenia - list
delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized or catatonic behavior
urbanization
dense areas of population creating a pull for migration -in other words, cities are formed as individuals move into and establish residency in these new urban centers -not a new phenomenon -economic opportunities offered in cities and creation of a large number of "world cities" has fueled an increase in urbanization during the past few decades
dysthymia
depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode -criteria for persistent depressive disorder (also part of criteria for cyclothymic disorder)
Hill's criteria
describe the components of an OBSERVED relationship that increase the likelihood of causality (but do not prove causality!!! observation --> correlation) -Temporality (exposure must occur before outcome) - this is the only one required for causality but not sufficient -Strength (variability in outcome variable explained by variability in study variable) -Dose-response relationship -Consistency (similar settings - similar relationship observed) -Plausibility -Consideration of alternative explanations -Experiment - if experiment can be performed, causal relationship can be determined conclusively -Specificity -Coherence (with current state of scientific knowledge)
medial rotation
describes a type of motion that occurs in limbs (the other type is lateral) -a medial rotator rotates the axis of the limb toward the midline (liek the subscapularis)
lateral rotation
describes a type of motion that occurs in limbs (the other type is medial) -lateral rotator rotates the axis of a limb away from the midline (like the infraspinatus)
mating system
describes the organization of a group's sexual behavior -monogamy, polygamy, promiscuity -in most animals there is 1 dominant mating system, but humans not so much (influenced by bio and social factors, also humans have formal relationships like dating that may or may not be associated with mating)
adaptive radiation
describes the rapid rise of a number of different species of a common ancestor -allows the various species to occupy different niches, decreasing competition for limited resources
Jacob-Monod model
describes the structure and function of operons (prok) -The *structural gene* codes for the protein of interest -Upstream of that is the *operator site*, a nontranscribable region of DNA that is capable of binding a repressor protein -Further upstram is the *promoter site*, which provides a place for RNA polymerase to bind -Further upstream still is the *regulator gene*, which codes for a protein called the *repressor* There are inducible and repressible operons
formal organizations
different from groups in many ways: -continue despite the departure of an individual member -have expressed goals (generally written, guide members in activities) -have enforcement procedures that seek to control the activities of their members -characterized by the hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members
role conflict
difficulty satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles -like single parent who also works a full-time job - these roles both have many expectations which are often at odds with each other
(pro)carboxypeptidases A and B
digestive enzyme produced by the acinar cells of the pancreas that functions in the duodenum to hydrolyze the terminal peptide bond at the carboxy end; activated by enteropeptidase (procarboxypeptidases to carboxypeptidases)
what part of the kidney can produce urine that is more dilute than blood
diluting segment; important during overhydration
which attachment style may be a red flag for abuse
disorganized attachment
negative symptoms of schizophrenia - list
disturbance of affect, avolition
what holds heavy and light chains of an antibody together
disulfide linkages and noncovalent interactions
intermediate filaments
diverse group of filamentous proteins -keratin, desmin, vimentin, lamins -many are involved in cell-cell adhesion or maintenance in overall integrity of cytoskeleton -can withstand a ton of tension, making the cell structure more rigid -help anchor the organelles, including the nucleus
exhalation
doesn't have to be active; simple relaxation of the external intercostal muscles will reverse the inhalation process -as the diaphragm and external intercostals relax, the chest cavity decreases in volume --> increased pressure in intrapleural space -now pressure is lower in the lungs so air is pushed out --> exhalation -during active tasks we can speed this process up by using the internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles -surfactant prevents the complete collaspe of the alveoli during exhalation
why are rates of schizo are much higher among homeless and indigents?
downward drift hypothesis -states that schizo causes a decline in SES, leading to a worsening symptoms, which sets up a negative spiral for the patient toward poverty and psychosis
why do we feel sleepy and lethargic after eating a big meal
due in part to parasympathetic activity which is aiding in digestion
disaccharidases are in the ____; amylase is in the ____; significance
duodenum; pancreas -duodenum breaks down disaccharides -pancreas breaks down large carbs
Beta oxidation products
each 4-step cycle releases 1 acetyl-CoA (in muscle and tissue enters CAC, in liver stimulates gluconeogenesis - in a fasting state the liver produces more acetyl-CoA from B-oxidation than is used in CAC so ketone bodies are synthesized) and reduces NAD+ and FAD, producing NADH and FADH2 (produce ATP in ETC)
motor unit
each group of myocytes is controlled by one nerve terminal; the motor unit includes the nerve terminal and its myocytes
proton-motive force
electrochemical proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane generated by the complexes of the ETC
transposons
elements that can insert and remove themselves from the genome -if it inserts in the middle of a coding sequence, the mutation will disrupt the gene -can happen in bacteria too
attachment
emotional bond between a caregiver and a child -development of attachment begins during infancy -Ainsworth said infants needed a secure base in the form of a consistent, available, comforting, and responsive caregiver during the first six months to two years of life from which to explore the world and develop appropriately -four types of attachment styles: secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized
negative controls (statistics)
ensure no change in the dependent variable when no change is expected -like administering a test to a group of blood samples known to NOT contain HIV when devloping a new assay for HIV detection
organization
entity that is set up to achieve specific goals and is characterized by having a structure and a culture
retrovirus
enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus -usually the virion contains 2 identical RNA molecules -carry reverse transcriptase which synthesizes DNA from ssRNA; the DNA then integrates into the host cell genome, where it is replicated and transcribed as if it were the host cell's own DNA -allows for the cell tobe infected indefinitely; the only way to cure the infection is to kill the cell itself (HIV)
chemical digestion
enzymatic cleavage of chemical bonds, such as the peptide bonds of proteins or the glycosidic bonds of starches
lysozyme
enzyme in tears, saliva, and the nasal cavity that can attack the peptidoglycan walls of gram-positive bacteria
epimerase
enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of one sugar epimer to another
hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)
enzyme that hydrolyzes triacylglycerols in adipose tissue, yielding fatty acids and glycerols -human adipose tissue doesn't respond directly to glucagon, but a fall in insulin levels activates HSL -can also be activated by epinephrine and cortisol -effective within adipose cells, but LPL is necessary for metabolism of chylomicrons and VLDL (can release free fatty acids from triacylglycerols in these lipoproteins)
bisphosphoglycerate mutase
enzyme that produces 2,3-BPG from 1,3-BPG in glycolysis in RBCs
cellular portion of blood
erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets -all formed from hematopoietic stem cells, which originate in the bone marrow
waxes
esters of long-chain fatty acids with long-chain alcohols -type of lipid
similariteis between archaea and eukaryotes/bacteria
eukaryotes: -start translation with Met -contain similar RNA polymerases -associate their DNA with histones bacteria: -single circular chromosome -divide by binary fission or budding -overall similar structure to bacteria resistant to many antibiotics
directional alternative hypothesis
ex, the mean of population A > the mean of population B
monogamy
exclusive mating relationship
when does diaphragm relax
exhalation
social interaction
explores the ways in which 2 or more individuals can both shape each other's behavior -include group processes and establishment of culture
attitude and components
expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario -develop from experiences with others who affect our opinions and behaviors -three components: affective, behavioral, and cognitive (ABC)
dihybrid cross
extend a Punnett square to account for the inheritance of 2 different genes
greater curvature
external curvature of the stomach
vulva
external female anatomy
nares
external parts of the nose through which air enters the respiratory tract; from here to nasal cavity
founder effect
extreme case of genetic drift in which a small population of a species finds itself in reproductive isolation from other populations as a result of natural barriers, catastrophic events, or other bottlenecks that drastically and suddenly reduce the size of the population available for breeding -because the breeding group is small, inbreeding may occur in later generations --> increasing homozygosity --> increasing prevalence of both homozygous dominant and recessive genotypes -ultimately leads to reduction in genetic diversity
productive cycle
extrusion is where virus leaves cell by fusing with its plasma membrane; allows for survival of host cell and continued use of host cell by the virus; a virus in this state is said to be in a productive cycle
(facial expressions/body language) is more highly conserved between animal species
facial epxpressions -like baring teeth - almost universal sign of aggression or readiness to attack
delusions
false beliefs discordant with reality and not shared by others in the individual's culture that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary -delusions of reference/persecution/grandeur; thought broadcasting/insertion -positive symptoms in schizophrenia, may be in other disorders
illusion of unanymity
false sense of agreement within the group -feature of groupthink
hypersensitivity reactions
family of immune reactions including allergies and autoimmunity
postabsorptive state
fasting state -counterregulatory hormones -liver --> glycogen degradation, release of glucose into the blood, gluconeogenesis (though this last one is slower then glycogenolysis) -skeletal muscle --> release AAs (bc epinephrine) -adipose tissue --> release fatty acids (bc epinephrine) -once in liver AAs and FAs --> gluconeogenesis
polyandry
female having exclusive relationships with multiple males
(females/males) have better health profiles
females -life expectancy higher almost universally -but for certain diseases women do show higher morbidity rates - infections, arthritis, IBS, etc.; suffer more from illnesses and disabilities than men but less often life-threatening
when does male sexual differentiation occur
fetal period (9 weeks after fertilization to birth)
F generation
filial generation; the offspring
red marrow
filled with hematopoietic stem cells, responsible for generation of all the cells in our blood
menarche
first menstrual cycle -one primary oocyte per month will now complete meiosis I, producing a 2ndary oocyte and a polar body
mechanism of cortisol and glucose
first, cortisol inhibits glucose uptake in muscle, lymphoid, and fat tissues and increases hepatic output of glucose via gluconeogenesis, especially from AAs second, cortisol has a permissive function that enhances the activity of glucagon, epinephrine, and other catecholamines long-term exposure causes hyperglycemia, which stimulates insulin --> actually promotes fat storage in adipose tissue rather than lipolysis!
pill-rolling tremor
flexing and extending the fingers while moving the thumb back and forth, as if rolling something in the fingers (PD)
specialized enzymes that assist in a lipid's transition between layers
flippases
leakage
flow of genes between species -in some cases individuals from different (but closely related) species can mate to produce hybrid offspring -many (like mules) are not able to produce because they have odd numbers of chromosomes -but in some cases like beefalo a hybrid can reproduce with members of one species or another -the hybrid carries genes from both parent species so this can result in net flow of genes from one species to another
ileocecal valve
fluid exits small intestine and enters cecum through this
Malthusian theory
focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder
microsociology
focuses on small groups and the individual
social stratification
focuses on social inequalities and studies the basic question of who gets what and why -related to SES
correspondent inference theory
focuses on the intentionality of others' behavior -when an individual unexpectedly performs a behavior that helps or hurts us, we tend to explain the behavior by dispositional attribution; thus we may correlate these unexpected actions with the person's personality -aspect of attribution theory
attribution theory
focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior
rugae
folds into which the lining of the stomach is thrown
humoral immunity
form of adaptive immunity driven by B-cells and antibodies
hybrid inviability
formation of a zygote that cannot develop to term
hybrid breakdown
forming first-generation hybrid offspring that are viable and fertile, but second-generation hybrid offspring that are inviable or infertile
hybrid sterility
forming hybrid offspring that cannot reproduce
callus
forms from excessive keratin deposition in areas of repeated strain due to friction (of skin); provide protection to avoid damage in the future
apoprotein / apolipoprotein
forms the protein component of the lipoproteins; receptor molecules that are involved in signaling -apoA-I activates LCAT, an enzyme that catalyzes cholesterol esterification -apoB-48 mediates chylomicron secretion -apoB-100 permits uptake of LDL by liver -apoC-II activates lipoprotein lipase -apoE permits uptake of chylomicron remnants and VLDL by liver
heart
four-chambered structure composed predominantly of cardiac muscle -2 pumps supporting the pulmonary and systemic circulations in series
how does nervous tissue get energy
from oxidizing glucose to CO2 and water in well-fed and normal fasting states; only in prolonged fasting does this change (think ketone bodies)
rate-limiting enzyme for gluconeogenesis
fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
which step of the CAC doesn't take place in the mitochondrial matrix?
fumarate formation because succinate dehydrogenase is a flavoprotein covalently bonded to FAD and is an integral protein on the inner mito membrane -FAD is the electron acceptor in this reaction and forms FADH2
lipoteichoic acid
function of this acid for the bacteria is unknown, but the human immune system may be activated by exposure to these chemicals -in gram-positive cell walls only
is it easier to gain or lose weight
gain -threshold is lower for uncompensated weight gain than it is for uncompensated weight loss
the mucosa of the stomach contain ____ glands
gastric and pyloric
personality disorders list
general personality disorder also the 10 in the clusters -cluster A - paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid -cluster B - antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic -cluster C - avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive *WEIRD, WILD, WORRIED*
gametocytes
germ cells
what hormones control hunger and satiety (list)?
ghrelin, orexin, and leptin
10^9
giga
persistent depressive disorder
given to individuals who suffer from *dysthymia*, a depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode, most of the time for at least 2 years -individuals with major depressive disorder that lasts at least 2 years can also be given this diagnosis -individuals w this disorder may also suffer from a combo of dysthymia and occasional major depressive episodes
self-disclosure (impression management)
giving info about oneself to establish an identity -like disclosing that you're a pre-med student -method of impression management / self-presentation
what hormones stimulate feelings of hunger?
glucagon (pancreas) and ghrelin (stomach and pancreas)
glucagon and lipolysis
glucagon increases lipolysis in the liver -activates hormone-sensitive lipase in the liver -but glucagon not considered fat-mobilizing because the action is on the liver and not the adipocyte
how to treat autoimmune diseases
glucocorticoids, which have potent immunosuppressive qualities
GLUT 4
glucose transporter in adipose tissue and muscle -responds to the glucose concentration in peripheral blood -rate of glucose transport in these 2 tissues is increased by insulin, which stimulates the movement of additional GLUT 4 transporters to the membrane by a mechanism involving exocytosis -Km of GLUT 4 is close to the normal glucose levels in blood (~5 mM), so the transporter is saturated when blood glucose levels are just a bit higher than normal -When a person has high [blood sugar], these transporters will still permite only a constant rate of glucose influx bc they will be saturated (0-order kinetics) -So they can only increase their intake of glucose by increasing the number of GLUT 4 trnasporters on their surface -transport rate increases in adipose tissue and muscle when insulin levels rise; muscles store excess glucose as glycogen, and adipose tissue requires glucose to form DHAP which is converted to glycerol phosphate to store incoming fatty acids as triacylglycerols
rate-limiting enzyme for pentose phosphate pathway
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
NADH-producing step in glycolysis
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate via glcyeraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
what happens initially during fasting
glycogen reserves drop dramatically in the first 12 hours, during which time gluconeogenesis increases; after 24 hours it represents the sole source of glucose (later ketone bodies will be used and stuff)
intrinsic factor
glycoprotein secreted by parietal cells of the stomach that is involved in proper absorption of vitamin B12
mean blood pressure at different locations in the cardiovascular system
gradually drops from arterial to venous circulation -largest drop across arterioles (bc capillaries are thin-walled and can't handle pressure of arterial side)
grandparent, parent, me letters
grandparents = P generation parents = F1 me = F2
Bobo doll experiment
groundbreaking study on aggression led by psychologist Albert Bandura that demonstrated that children are able to learn through the observation of adult behaviour. The experiment was executed via a team of researchers who physically and verbally abused an inflatable doll in front of preschool-age children, which led the children to later mimic the behaviour of the adults by attacking the doll in the same fashion
triad
group of 3 members
subculture
group of people within a culture that distinguishes themselves from the primary culture to which they belong -symbolic attachment to things like clothing or music can differentiate the group from the majority -can be formed based on race, sexuality, gender, and more
Phylloquinone is
group of vitamin K
reference groups
groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves -to determine how strong of a medical school applicant you are, you may consider yourself in relation to the reference group of all medical school applicants
in-groups
groups to which an individual belongs
out-groups
groups with which an individual competes or is in opposition
piloerection
hairs on the skin standing up; in the cold... -arrector pili muscles contract, causing piloerection -this traps a layer of heated air near the skin -the arterioles that feed the capillaries of the skin contract, limiting the quantity of blood reaching the skin -skeletal muscle may also begin to contract rapidly --> shivering
fermentation
happens in the absence of oxygen via lactate dehydrogenase -replenishes NAD+ -doesn't happen much in aerobic tissues, but when oxygenation is poor (like during strenuous exercise in skeletal muscle), most cellular ATP is generated by anaerobic glycolysis and lactate production increases -in yeast cells, fermentation is the conversion of pyruvate to ethanol (2 carbons) and CO2; also replenishes NAD+
dysfunction (functionalism)
harmful consequences of people's actions that undermine a social system's equilibrium
bipolar II disorder
has hypomania with at least one major depressive episode
bipolar I disorder
has manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes
peroxisomes
have hydrogen peroxide -breakdown of very long chain FAs thru B-oxidation -synthesis of phospholipids -contain some of the enzymes of the PPP
characterized by constant attention-seeking behavior
histrionic personality disorder
ligaments
hold bones together at joints
crossing over occurs between
homologous chromosomes
meiosis I
homologous chromosomes are separated, generating haploid daughter cells (reductional division)
synapsis
homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine -each synaptic pair = tetrad -synaptonemal complex = proteins that hold the homologous chromosomes together -chiasma is breaking point
disjunction
homologous pairs separate during anaphase I and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell -accounts for Mendel's first law (segregation)
orexin
hormone produced by hypothalamus that further increases appetite and is involved in alertness and sleep-wake cycle -ghrelin and hypoglycemia trigger orexin release -suppressed by leptin
leptin
hormone secreted by fat cells that decreases appetite by suppressing orexin production
ghrelin
hormone secreted by the stomach in response to signals of an impending meal -sight, sound, taste, and especially smell are signals for its release -increases appetite and also stimulates secretion of orexin
enzyme that hydrolyzes triacylglycerols in adipose tissue, yielding fatty acids and glycerols
hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)
mate bias
how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate -evolutionary mechanism aimed at increasing the fitness of the species -may carry direct benefits and indirect benefits
Q cycle
how complex III contributes to the proton-motive force -2 e- are shuttled from CoQH2 (ubiquinol) near the intermembrane space to a molecule of CoQ (ubiquinone) near mito matrix -another 2 e- are attached to heme moieties, reducing 2 molecules of cytochrome c -a carrier containing iron and sulfur assists -4 H+ are displaced into the intermembrane space https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rTrLWGQDB0Q
allele frequency
how often an allele appears in a population p and q
nonverbal communication
how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words -facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, touches, etc. -often dictated by culture (in Thailand not making eye contact is respectful; here it is a sign of lying)
religiosity
how religious one considers himself to be -includes strength of beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itself
what maintains balance of fluid volume and solute concentration between blood and interstitium
hydrostatic pressure and osmotic (oncotic) pressure *Starling forces
for anxiety disorders, clinicians must rule out ___
hyperthyroidism -excess T3 and T4 will increase the whole body's metabolic rate and create anxiety-like symptoms
case-control study
identify # of subjects with or without a particular outcome, and then look BACKWARDS to assess how many subjects in each group had exposure to a particular risk factor -type of observational study
summation and tetanus
if a muscle fiber is exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulation, it will have insufficient time to relax; the contractions will combine and become stronger and more prolonged -this is frequency summation -if the contractions become so frequent that the muscle can't relax at all --> tetanus
erythroblastosis fetalis
if a woman is Rh- and fetus is Rh+, the mom will start making antibodies against + once the fetus is born --> can be problem for next fetus if Rh+ because anti-Rh antibodies can cross placenta and attack fetal blood cells --> hemolysis, can be fatal
tetanus
if contractions of a muscle become so frequent that the muscle is unable to relax at all -prolonged tetanus --> muscle fatigue
pregnancy
if fertilizaton HAS occurred, the zygote will develop into a blastocyst that will implant into uterine lining and secrete hCG -hCG is an analog of LH so it can stimulate LH receptors --> maintains the corpus luteum (the estrogen and progesterone secreted by the CL are what keep the uterine lining in place udring the first trimester) -by 2nd trimester hCG levels decline bc placenta has grown to a sufficient size to secrete progesterone and estrogen by itself - high progesterone and estrogen levels continue to serve as negative feedback, preventing further GnRH secretion
schizophrenia genetic risk
if one person has it, risk of his first-degree rleative having it is 10x that of unrelated person (this controls for environmental effects)
contributing factor to schizo prognosis
if schizo development (think prodromal phase) is slow, prognosis is especially poor; if onset of symptoms is intense and sudden, prognosis is better
lysogenic cycle
if virus does not lyse the bacterium, it may integrate into the genome as a provirus or prophage, beginning this cycle -virus will be replicated as the bacterium reproduces bc now part of the host cell's genome -virus may remain integrated into host cell genome indefinitely but environmental factors will cause the provirus to leave the genome and revert to a lytic cycle at some point -trapping of segments of the bacterial genome can occur when the provirus leaves the genome, allowing transducito nof genes from one bacterium to another
characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition
illness anxiety disorder
echopraxia
imitating another's actions (positive schizophrenia symptom, type of disorganized thought)
migration rate
immigration rate minus emigration rate
mast cells
immune cells that have preformed antibodies on their surfaces -when the right substance attaches, the mast cell releases inflammatory chemicals into the surrounding area to promote immune response -these antibodies are often reactive to substances like pollen and molds so also provide teh inflammatory chemicals that mediate allergic reactions
secondary response (immunity)
immune response once the memory B cells have already been created; they just jump into action and produce the specific antibodies when exposed to the right pathogen -quicker and more robust
active imunity
immune system is stimulated to produce antibodies against a specific pathogen
alter-casting
imposing an identity onto another person -saying "As a good MCAT student you should" in which Kaplan is assigning me the role of good MCAT student -method of impression management / self-presentation
punctuated equilibrium
in contrast to Darwin's theory, suggests that changes in some species occur in rapid bursts rather than evenly over time
hypomania
in contrast to mania, typically does not significantly impair functioning, nor are there psychotic features, although the individual may be more energetic and optimistic -part of bpII disorder or cyclothymic disorder
debranching enzyme
in glycogenolysis; a two-enzyme complex that deconstructs the branches in glycogen that have been exposed by glycogen phosphorylase the first enzyme... -hydrolyzes the a-1,4 bond nearest the branch point and transfers the oligoglucose unit to the end of another chain the second enzyme... -then hydrolyzes the a-1,6 bond, releasing the single glucose from the former branch (this is the only free glucose formed directly in glycogenolysis)
symport
in secondary active transport when both particles flow the same direction across the membrane
antiport
in secondary active transport when particles flow in opposite directions across the membrane
poverty line
in the US, derived from the governmen'ts calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life -fails to take into accoutn the geographical variables that impact the value of money in different locations (like cost of living and stuff)
how is glycogen stored in the cell
in the cytoplasm as granules -each granule has a central protein core with polyglucose chains radiating outward to form a sphere
pancreatic enzymes are active where and at what pH
in the duodenum at pH 8.5
disaccharidases
in the duodenum; digest disaccharides -maltase, isomaltase, lactase, and sucrase
vocal cords
in the larynx; maneuvered using skeletal muscle and cartilage
where is the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
in the mitochondria
where are vitamins absorbed
in the small intestine
pepsin is active where and at what pH
in the stomach at pH 2
monarchies
include a royal ruler, although the king or queen's powers may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution and parliamentary system
antigen-presenting cells
include macrophages, dendritic cells of the skin, B-cells, and certain activated epithelial cells
sexual inequality
includes differential expectations of behavior between men and women -man rewarded for promiscuity whereas women stigmatized for carrying out same behavior
material culture
includes the physical items one associates with a given group, such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools -like American flag
reproductive isolation
incompatibility of reproductive anatomy
global inequalities have (increased/decreased) due to globalization
increased -restructuring of industry and trade patterns, produciton of cheap goods at low rates for global market, etc.
how does insulin affect AAs?
increases AA uptake by muscle cells, increasing levels of protein synthesis and decreasing breakdown of essential proteins
how does insulin affect carbs?
increases uptake of glucose and increases carb metabolism in muscle in fat -increased glucose in muscle can be used as additional fuel to burn during exercise or can be stored as glycogen -also increases glycogen synthesis in liver
divergent evolution
independent development of dissimilar characteristics in 2 or more lineages sharing a common ancestor -seals and cats are both in the order Carnivora, but they differ markedly in general appearance; they live in different environments and adapted to different selection pressures while evolving
convergent evolution
independent development of similar characteristics in 2 or more lineages NOT sharing a recent common ancestor -fish and dolphins have come to resemble each other physcially even thoguh they belong to differnt classes of vertebrates; they evolved certain similar features in adapting to the conditions of aquatic life
depersonalization
individual feels detached from own mind and body -an out of body experience is an example of depersonalization
derealization
individual feels detached from their surroundings -gives the world a dreamlike / insubstantial quality
virions
individual virus particles -produced when a virus hijacks a cell's machinery -these can be released to infect additional cells
cultural attribution
individualist cultures are more likely to make more fundamental attribution errors and to attribute behavior to dispositional factors than are collectivists
bystander effect and contributing factors
individuals don't intervene to help victims when others are present -likelihood and timeliness of response are inversely related to number of bystanders -more emergency/danger --> more likely intervention by bystanders -affected by degree of responsibility felt by bystander (competency, relationship to victim, if perceives victim to be worthy of aid) -less cohesive group (more strangers) --> slower response -people in groups less likely to notice danger or anything out of the ordinary - in part due to social etiquette bc rude to watch others and surroundings -also humans take cues from others so if you're not responding I am less likely to perceive situation as a threat
peers
individuals who are equals within a social group -in adolescence, play a super important role in determining lifestyle/appearance/social activities; become very important as teenagers become independent from parental figures
variable expressivity
individuals with the same genotype may have different phenotypes
privilege
inequality in opportunity
prion
infectious proteins -cause disease by triggering misfolding of other proteins, usually a helix to B sheet --> reduces solubility of protein and the ability of the cell to degrade the misfolded protein --> aggregates
phagocytosis
ingestion of large solids like bacteria
when does diaphragm contract
inhalation
negative-pressure preathing
inhalation, because the driving force is the lower (relatively negative) pressure in the intrapleural space compared with the lungs
what do uncouplers do
inhibit ATP synthesis without affecting the ETC -body must burn more fuel to maintain the proton motive force, so glycogen stores will be mobilized and more O2 will be consumed and more NADH will be oxidized -energy produced from e- transport released as heat
how do alcohol and caffeine affect ADH
inhibit its release and lead to frequent excretion of dilute urine
how does F-2,6-BP affect fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
inhibits (so inhibits glucose production)
how does NADPH affect glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
inhibits it -this enzyme catalyzes the rate-limiting step of the PPP
how does acetyl-CoA affect pyruvate dehydrogenase
inhibits it because high level of acetyl-CoA says cell is energetically satisfied and need not run the cell cycle in the forward direction; the cell should stop burning glucose
primary response (immunity
initial activation of B-cells -naive B cells (have not yet been exposed to antigen) wait in lymph nodes for their antigen to come along -upon exposure to the antigen, a B cell will proliferate and produce plasma and memory cells -the plasma cells produce large amounts of antibodies (B-cells stay in lymph node) -this initial response takes 7-10 days
basophils
innate -allergic responses -least populous in bloodstream under normal conditions -related to mast cells; both release histamine in response to allergens --> inflammation
dendritic cell
innate in the skin presents antigens to adaptive immune cells, inducing the cells to attack bearers of displayed antigens
mast cell
innate releases histamine and other chemicals that promote inflammation
what membrane notably does not contain cholesterol?
inner mitochondrial membrane (has lots of cardiolipin)
stratum basale
innermost layer of epidermis -contains stem cells and is responsible for proliferation of keratinocytes (the cells of the skin that produce keratin) -also has melanocytes
PFK-2
insulin stimulates and glucagon inhibits PFK-1 (which is responsible for F6P to F16BP conversion) in hepatocytes by an indirect mechanism involving PFK-2 and F-2,6-BP -insulin activates PFK-2, which converts a tiny amount of F6P to F26BP; F26BP activates PFK-1 -glucose inhibits PFK-2, lowering F26BP and thereby inhibiting PFK1 -PFK-2 is found mostly in the liver -by activating PFK-1, it allows these cells to override the inhibition caused by ATP so that glycolysis can continue even when the cell is energetically satisfied -thus the metabolites of glycolysis can be fed into the production of glycogen, fatty acids, and other storage molecules rather than just being burned to produce ATP
intersectionality
interplay between multiple demographic factors -especially when it leads to discrimination or oppression -like how biases against an ethnic minority might be compounded by an individual's immigrant status
delusions of reference
involve the belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individaul -characters in a TV show are talking to me directly
polygamy
involves a male having an exclusive relationship with multiple females (polygyny) or a female having exclusive relationships with multiple males (polyandry)
what happens when an antigen binds to antibodies on the surface of a mast cell
it causes degranulation (exocytosis of granule contents), allowing the release of histamine and causing an inflammatory allergic reaction
what happens if the liver can't process or excrete bilirubin
jaundice or yellowing of the skin can occur -from liver damage, excessive red blood cell distruction (as bilirubin is a product of hemoglobin breakdown), or blockage of the bile ducts
stabilizing selection
keeps phenotypes within a specific range by selecting against extremes -human birth weight
how do amino acids form acetyl-CoA
ketogenic ones that is! they lose their amino group via transamination and their carbon skeletons can then form ketone bodies; then ketones are converted to acetyl-CoA
transportable form of acetyl-CoA that is primarily utilized in bodies during periods of extended starvation
ketone bodies
behavioral isolation
lack of attraction between members of the 2 species due to differences in pheromones, courtship displays, etc
anomie
lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society -accelerates inequality -examples of anomic conditions include excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation - these all erode social solidarity --> fewer opportunities to acquire social capital
why are viruses obligate intracellular
lack ribosomes to carry out protein synthesis
rate-limiting enzyme for fermentation
lactate dehydrogenase
fatty acid synthase
large multienzyme complex in the cytosol that is rapidly induced in the liver following a high-carb meal because of elevated insulin levels -contains ACP -NADPH also required to reduce the acetyl groups added to the fatty acid -8 acetyl-CoA groups produce palmitate -involves attachment to acyl carrier protein, bond formation between activated malonyl-CoA (malonyl-ACP) and the growing chain, reduction of carboxyl group, dehydration, reduction of double bond -occurs over and over until palmitate is produced (16C) activation then... condensation, reduction, dehydration, reduction
denominations
large umbrella religions can be broken up into these that may share certain beliefs and practices but not others
church
large, universal religious group that can be divided into multiple coexisting denominations
chromosomal mutations
large-scale mutations in which large segments of DNA are affected -deletion, duplication, inversion, insertion, and translocation
Mendel's second law
law of independent assortment -inheritance of one gene does not affect the inheritance of another gene -made possible by crossing over (does not apply to linked genes)
Mendel's first law
law of segregation has 4 tenets: 1) genes exist in alternative forms (alleles) 2) an organism has 2 alleles for each gene, one inherited from each parent 3) the 2 alleles segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes that carry only 1 allele for any inherited trait 4) if 2 alleles of an organism are different, only one will be fully expressed (dominant) and the other will be silent (recessive) (codominance and incomplete dominance are exceptions)
basement membrane
layer of connective tissue underlying epithelial tissue
white fat
layer of fat just below the skin in humans that helps insulate the body
synovium
layer of soft tissue in the movable joint that secretes synovial fluid
endothelial cells
line all blood vessels -help maintain vessel by releasing chemicals that aid in vasodilation and vasoconstriction -allow white blood cells to pass thru vessel wall and into tissues during inflammatory response -release chemicals when damaged that are essential to formation of blood clots to repair vessel and stop bleeding
thyroid hormones have their primary effects in ____ metabolism
lipid and carbohydrate -they accelerate cholesterol clearance from the plasma and increase the rate of glucose absorption from the small intestine (-remember, they increase the basal metabolic rate)
where does glycogen synthesis and degradation take place (organs)
liver and skeletal muscle, although other tissues store similar quantities
ecological isolation
living in different niches within the same territory
spleen
location of blood storage and activation of B-cells -filters blood and lymph -can mount immune responses
ethnic enclaves
locations (usually neighborhoods) with a high concentration of one specific identity; slows cultural assimilation -most common in urban areas
log and ln
logx = lnx / 2.303
Haversian canals
longitudinal channels (axis parallel to the bone) in the bony matrix -these and Volkmann's canals contain the blood vessels, nerve fibers, and lymph vessels that maintain the health of the bone
cause of HIV
loss of helper T cells
anhedonia
loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities -think depressive disorders
poverty
low SES and a lack of possessions or financial resources -can be handed down (social reproduction) -can be defined on its own terms or in comparison to the rest of the population -some define it as a form of powerlessness or a sociological and psychological condition of hopelessness, indifference, and distrust (inability to control events that shape one's life, thus leading to dependency on others)
where does gas exchange occur
lungs
thoracic cavity
lungs and heart are located here -chest wall forms the outside of it
chyle
lymphatic fluid carrying many chylomicrons -milky white
abundance of RNAs
mRNA > tRNA > rRNA
pattern recognition receptors
macrophages and dendritic cells have these -include toll-like receptors -special receptors that are able to recognize the category of the invader (bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) -allows for the production of appropriate cytokines to recruit the right immune cells
osteoclasts
macrophages in bone
Langerhans cells
macrophages in the skin
sig figs in addition and subtraction
maintain decimal points, smallest number of decimal digits = sig
muscle (skeletal)
many myocytes in parallel
opsonization
marking of bacteria with an antibody from a B-cell -cells like neutrophils, NK cells, macrophages, monocytes, and eosinophils contain receptors for them
conformity
matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to social norms -aka majority influence -includes internalization and identification
artifacts
material items that people make, possess, and value -related to material culture
inbreeding
mating between two genetically related individuals -increases homozygosity, which increases the prevalence of both homozygous dominant and recessive genotypes -ultimately leads to reduction in genetic diversity
osteocytes
mature bone cells
"dissociative"
means disorder is not due to a neurological disorder
blood pressure
measure of force per unit area exerted on the wall of the blood vessels -expressed as systolic:diastolic
sphygmomanometer
measures blood pressure -measures gauge pressure in systemic circulation, which is the pressure above and beyond atmospheric pressure
spirometer
measures lung capacities and volumes -CANNOT MEASURE RESIDUAL COLUME AND THUS CANNOT MEASURE TLC
social control
mechanisms for regulating the behavior of individuals and groups -norms and sanctions are good examples
pleurae
membranes that surround each lung; each one forms a closed sac against which the lung expands -adjacent to lung = visceral pleura -outer part = parietal pleura
Heterochromatin is highly
methylated
micelle vs. liposome
micelle is small monolayer vesicle, liposome is bilayered vesicle
components of cytoskeleton
microfilaments (actin) microtubules (tubulin) intermediate dilaments (keratin, desmin, vimentin, lamins)
dermis and layers
middle skin layer; sweat glands, blood vessels, and hair follicles originate here, as are most sensory receptors -papillary layer (upper) -reticular layer (below)
where does sperm energy come from
midpiece has lots of mitochondria and generates ATP from fructose
where does B-oxidation occur in the cell; what about fatty acid synthesis
mitochondria; cytosol
M
mitosis and cytokinesis
sarcoplasm
modified cytoplasm located just outside the SR
major depressive disorder
mood disorder characterized by at least one major depressive episode -at least one or more of the symptoms of the major depressive episode must be depressed mood or anhedonia -these symptoms must cause significant distress or impairment in functioning
recent findings in sexuality
more fluid than previously believed (Kinsey scale)
___ of the world's populations live in what are considered predominantly urban areas
more than half
widely observed social norms
mores
high penetrance
most but not all of those with the allele express the phenotype
epidermis
most outer layer of skin -subdivided into strata
self-enhancement
motivational process that focuses on the need to maintain self-worth; can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures (like with self-serving bias)
oral cavity
mouth -roles in both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food (carbs and fats, not protein) -mechanical: mastication (also via saliva by moistening and lubricating food) -chemical: uses enzymes from saliva; the amount of chemical digestion in the mouth is minimal though because the food doesn't stay in the mouth for long -our muscular tongue forms the food into a bolus, which is forced back to the pharynx and swallowed
emigration
movement away from a geographic space
immigration
movement into a new geographic space
abductor
moves a part of the body away from the midline (like a deltoid)
muscle fiber aka
muscle cell / myocyte
sarcolemma
muscle cell membrane; must maintain a membrane potential for muscle contraction to occur
myocyte
muscle cell, aka muscle fiber -contains many myofibrils arranged in parallel -nuclei at periphery of cell
cogwheel rigidity
muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipulate a limb (PD)
arrector pili
muscles that contract in cold conditions to cause piloerection
synergistic pairs
muscles work together to accomplish the same function (not antagonistic)
esophagus
muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach -top third composed of skeletal muscle, bottom third composed of smooth muscle, middle third is a mix of both -so the top is under somatic (voluntary) motor control while the bottom and the rest of the GI tract is under autonomic control -swallowing is initiated in the muscles of the oropharynx (upper esophageal sphincter) -peristalsis squeezes, pushes, and propels bolus toward stomach -as bolus approaches the stomach, the lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter) relaxes and opens to allow passage of food
vibrissae
nasal hairs in the nasal cavity that (with the help of mucous membranes) filter the air that enters the respiratory tract
polymorphisms
naturally occurring differences in form between members of the same population, such as light and dark coloration in the same species of butterfly -facilitates disruptive selection
protein digestion and absorption
needed to provide a reservoir of amino acids for protein building by cells -begins in the stomach with *pepsin* and continues with the pancreatic proteases *trypsin*, *chymotrypsin*, and *carboxypeptidases A* and *B*, all of which are secreted as zymogens -protein digestion is completed by the small intestinal brush-border enzymes *dipeptidase* and *aminopeptidase* -the main end products are AAs, dipeptides, and tripeptides -absorption of AAs and small peptides through the luminal membrane (lumen of small intestine to cell) is accomplished by 2ndary active transport linked to sodium -at the basal membrane (cell to blood), simple and facilitated diffusion transports AAs into the bloodstream
push factors
negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave
neologisms
new words (person w schizo may invent new words)
are viruses living things
no because they are acellular -they contain genetic material but can't reproduce on their own -also they may contain RNA as their genetic info
what kind of digestion takes place in the esophagus?
no mechanical or chemical digestion, except for the continued enzymatic activity initiated in the mouth by salivary enzymes
is ATP a long-term energy storage molecule?
no, more intermediate -not energetically dense, inefficient to pack into small space, not as stable as long-term storage molecules like lipids
is social mobility directly correlated with education
no, though education can of course help; some of the best examples of social mobility are athletes and musicians though
what is the pH gradient between the cytoplasm and the intermembrane space of the mitochondria?
none; the OMM has such high permeability to biomolecules
active transport
nonspontaneous transport processes that do require energy (source of energy can vary) -results in net movement of a solute against its concentration gradient
where do negative feelings toward an out-group come from
not dislike toward the outgroup, but rather favoritism for the in-group and absence of favoritism for the out-group
family group
not self-selected but determined by birth, adoption, and marriage
mortality rate
number of deaths per 1000 people per year
are people more likely to comply or obey
obey (authority figures are the ones requesting)
virus
obligate intracellular pathogen -composed of genetic material, protein coat (capsid), and sometimes an envelope containing lipids that surrounds the capsid -genetic info can be circular or linear, single or double stranded, DNA or RNA
ketogenesis
occurs in the mitochondria of liver cells when excess acetyl-CoA accumulates in the fasting state -HMG-CoA synthase forms HMG-CoA -HMG-CoA lyase breaks own HMG-CoA into acetoacetate (this can be reduced to 3-hydroxybutyrate) -acetone is a minor side product that is formed but is not used as energy for tissues
ambivalent attachment
occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully -the child is unable to form a secure base because cannot rely on caregiver's response -child will be very distressed on separation from the caregiver but has a mixed response when the caregiverreturns, often displaying ambivalence -aka anxious-ambivalent attachment becasue child is always anxious about the reliability of the caregiver
attribute substitution
occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic -when making automatic or intuitive judgments on difficult questions or scenarios, and individual may address a different questionor scenario without even realizing a substitution has been made -"A pencil and eraser cost $1.10. If the pencil costs $1 more than the erasesr, how much does the eraser cost?" Most people instinctively say 10 cents; we integrate the info in the question stem ($1.10 and one dollar) incorrectly
G0
offshoot of G1, cells that do not divide spend all their time there -the cell is living and serving its function w/o prep for division
myosin-binding site
on the actin thin filament; covered by tropomyosin until troponin binds Ca2+
hydrostatic and oncotic pressure levels in arterioles and venules
oncotic is equal in arteriole and venule ends -at arterial end, hydrostatic is higher than oncotic --> net efflux of water out of circulation -at venule end, hydrostatic is lower than oncotic --> net influx of water back into circulation
relative poverty
one is poor in comparison to the larger population in which they live
antagonistic pairs
one muscle relaxes while the other contracts
isomaltase
one of the disaccharidases in the duodenum; digests isomaltose
lactase
one of the disaccharidases in the duodenum; digests lactose
maltase
one of the disaccharidases in the duodenum; digests maltose
sucrase
one of the disaccharidases in the duodenum; digests sucrose
external intercostal muscles
one of the layers of muscles between the ribs -used with the diaphragm to expand the thoracic cavity during inhalation
glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle
one of two shuttles that get NADH into the mitochondrial matrix (the cytosol contains an isoform of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, which oxidizes cytosolic NADH to NAD+ while forming glycerol-3-phosphate from DHAP) -on the outer face of the inner mito membrane, there is another isoform of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase that is FAD-dependent; this mitochondrial FAD is the oxidizing agent and ends up being reduced to FADH2 -once reduced, FADH2 transfers its electrons to the ETC via complex II, thus generating *1.5 ATP* for every molecule of cytosolic NADH that participates in this pathway
malate-aspartate shuttle
one of two shuttles that get NADH into the mitochondrial matrix -cytosolic OAA can't pass through the IMM, so it is reduced to malate, which can, via malate dehydrogenase -accompanying this reaction is the oxidation of cytosolic NADH to NAD+ -once malate crosses into the matrix, mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase reverses the reaction to form mitochondrial NADH -now that NADH is in the matrix, it can pass along its electrons to the ETC via complex I and generate *2.5 ATP* per molecule of NADH -recycling the malate requires oxidation to oxaloacetate, which can be transaminated to form aspartate -aspartate crosses into the cytosol and can be reconverted to OAA to restart the cycle
individual discrimination
one person discriminating against a particular person or group -conscious and obvious -can be eliminated by removing the person who is displaying the behavior
dictatorship
one person holds power, has mechanisms to quell threats to this power
peer group
one that is defined by association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses -provide opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging
achieved status
one that is gained as a result of one's direct, individual efforts or choices, like being a doctor
ascribed status
one that is given involuntarily and is clearly identifiable, due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender, and family background
intramembranous ossification
one way bones can be formed; undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue (mesenchymal tissue) is transformed into, and replaced by, bone -occurs in the skull
where is glucose-6-phosphatase found
only in the ER lumen in liver cells -absence in skeletal muscle means that muscle glycogen cannot serve as a source of blood glucose and is rather only for use in muscle
hemizygous genotype
only one allele is present for a given gene, like for parts of the X chromosome in males
when are proteins used for energy
only under extreme energy deprivation
biological systems are ____ systems
open
glottis
opening of the larynx; covered by the epiglottis during swallowing
social movements
organized either to promote (proactive) or resist (reactive) social change -often motivated by relative deprivation -members work to correct what they perceive as societal injustices
centriole
organizing centers for microtubules -9 triplets of MTs with a hollow center -during mitosis the centrioles migrate to opposite poles of dividing cell and organize the mitotic spindle -the MTs emanating from the centrioles attach to the chromosomes via kinetochores and pull the sister chromatids apart
bolus
our muscular tongue forms the food into this, which is forced back into the pharynx and swallowed
parietal pleura
outer of the 2 membranes; closed sac against which lung expands -associated with chest wall
stratum corneum
outermost layer of epidermis -contains up to several dozen layers of flattened keratinocytes, forming a barrier that prevents the invasion by pathogens and that helps to prevent loss of fluids and salt -hair projects above the skin and there are openings for sweat and sebaceous glands
obese BMI
over 30
myoglobin
oxygen carrier that uses iron in a heme group to bind oxygen
why does the CAC require oxygen?
oxygen is NOT directly required!! but the pathway will not occur anaerobically because NADH and FADH2 will accumulate if oxygen is not available for the ETC and this will inhibit the cycle
most arteries contain (oxygenated/deoxygenated) blood
oxygenated! -the pulmonary arteries and umbilical arteries contain deoxygenated blood
frequency of dominant genotype
p^2
frequency of dominant phenotype
p^2 + 2pq
primary end product of fatty acid synthesis
palmitate / palmitic acid -this is the only fatty acid humans can synthesize de novo
pancreatic juices <--> duodenum connection
pancreatic juices are transferred to the duodenum via a duct system that runs along the middle of the pancreas -like all exocrine cells, acinar cells secrete their products into these ducts -these ducts then empty into the duodenum through the major and minor duodenal papillae
marked by a pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives; sometimes may actually be in the prodromal phase of schizophrenia and are termed premorbid
paranoid personality disorder
P generation
parent generation; the individuals being crossed
T-cells
part of adaptive immunity -made in bone marrow, mature in the thymus -the agents of cell-mediated immunity -coordinate immune system and directly kill infected cells
complement system
part of innate immune response -consists of a # of proteins in the blood that act as a nonspecific defense against bacteria -can be activated through a classical pathway (antibody bind to pathogen) or alternative pathway (no antibodies) -punch holes in the cell wall of bacteria, making them osmotically unstable -can't target a specific organism
MHC class I
part of innate immune response -displayed by all nucleated cells in the body -any protein produced in a cell can be loaded onto MHC-I and presented on the surface of the cell -allows the immune system to monitor health of cells and make sure the cells are presenting self proteins -called the *endogenous pathway* because binds antigens from inside the cell -cells that have been invaded by intracellular pathogens can be killed by cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
MHC class II
part of innate immune response -displayed by professional antigen-presenting cells like macrophages -phagocytic cells pick up pathogens, process them, and then present them on MHC-II -aka exogenous pathway because antigens originated outside the cell (bc pathogen was endocytosed) -this may result in the activation of both the innate and the adaptive immune systems
interferons
part of innate immune response -proteins that prevent viral replication and dispersion; present in cells that have been infected with viruses -cause nearby cells to decrease production of both viral and cellular proteins -decrease permeability of these cells so virus can't infect -upregulate MHC I and II --> increased antigen presentation and better detection of infected cells by immune system
synovial capsule
part of movable joint -encloses the joint cavity (articular cavity)
bile ducts
part of the liver that connects it with both the gallbladder and the small intestine -bile is produced in liver and travels down these bile ducts where it may be stored in the gallbladder or secreted into the duodenum
restriction point
passage from S into G1
simple diffusion
passive transport where substrates move down their concentration gradient directly across the membrane -must be freely permeable to the membrane -PE from the chemical gradient is dissipated as the gradient is utilized
osmosis
passive transport, a specific type of simple diffusion that involves water -water will move from a region of lower solute concentration to one of higher solute concentration -important especially when the solute itself is impermeable to the membrane; water will try to bring the solute concentrations to equimolarity
strong ties
peer group and kinship contacts, which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful -these and weak ties join communities together
sanctions
penalties for misconduct -used to maintain social control -often include fines or incarceration - or corporal (infliction of pain or bodily injury)/capital punishment
hexose monophosphate shunt aka
pentose phosphate pathway
present-orientation
people don't plan for the future -common in poverty
reliance on central traits
people organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver
social facilitation
people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others -suggests that performance sparks a perceived evaluation in the individual performing -Yerkes-Dodson law says being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (simple tasks) and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks)
hematocrit
percent of sample that consists of red blood cells
hallucinations
perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality
capillaries
perfuse the tissues -arterioles on one side, venules on other -one endothelial cell layer; very small -thin wall provides easy diffusion of gases, nutrients (glucose), and wastes --> interface for communication of circulatory system w tissues -also allow endocrine signals to arrive at targets -delicate
prodromal phase
period characterized by poor judgment that schizo patients often go thru before schizo is diagnosed -clear evidence of deterioration, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, unusual experiences -followed by the active phase of symptomatic behavior -if schizo development is slow, prognosis is especially poor; if onset of symptoms is intense and sudden, prognosis is better
dissociative disorders and list
person avoids stress by escaping from his identity; the person otherwise has an intact sense of reality -dissociative amnesia -dissociative identity disorder -depersonalization/derealization disorder
la belle indifférence
person with conversion disorder surprisingly unconcerned by the symptom (unexplained sypmtom affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions)
interpersonal attraction and factors affecting it
phenomenon of individuals liking each other -similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, proximity, outward appearance, etc.
PEPCK
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase -a key enzyme in gluconeogenesis that converts OAA to PEP; requires GTP -induced by glucagon and cortisol, which generally act to raise blood sugar levels
what is phosphatidylcholine
phosphoglyceride/glycerophospholipid
net results and ATP yield per glucose
picture shows per pyruvate glycolysis in addition yields 2 ATP and 2 NADH, providing another 7 molecules of ATP, so the net yield of ATP for one glucose molecule is *30-32 ATP*
lymph nodes
place for immune cells to communicate and mount an attack (exposed to possible pathogens) -B-cells can be activated here -filter lymph -contain a lymphatic channel, an artery, and a vein
sex factors
plasmids that contain the genes necessary to form a pilus in a donor male
Breakdown of clot
plasminogen generates plasmin, which breaks down the clot
a-linolenic acid and linolenic acid
polyunsaturated fatty acids that are important in maintaining cell membrane fluidity
environmental justice
poor living conditions and dangerous environmental conditions can result in an increase in illness and disease, and many poor and minority groups tend to reside closer to sites of environmental pollution bc cheaper -environmental risks tend to be located in low-income areas with high conc of racial and ethnic minorities -inadequate housing, heating, etc. combined with this can --> medicla problems -lots of illnesses more common in people in poor-quality conditions -low-income areas may lack the social and political power to prevent environmental risks from encroaching on their communities
statuses and types
positions in society that are used to classify individuals -most exist in relation to other statuses: premed student doesn't mean much without comparing to medical student or resident -ascribed, achieved, master
pull factors
positive attributes of a new location that attract the immigrant
learning theory (attitude)
posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning -direct contact with the object can influence attitudes (kids form + attitude about sweets right when they taste them) -direct instruction from others can influence attitude (parents say don't say curse words, kid develops - attitude about curse words) -others' attitudes can influence ours (I have positive attitude toward smoking bc all my friends smoke) -attitudes can be formed thru classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning as well
labeling theory
posits that the labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self-image; this can lead to channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity (girl labeled as promiscuous --> she becomes further promiscuous or changes behavior to be more in line with accepted) -related to deviance, stigmatization, and reputation
fundamental attribution error
posits that we are generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions, especially in negative contexts -example: working on a team project and another team member couldn't complete his assignment --> we assume he's lazy
social cognitive theory
postulates that people learn how to behave and shape their attitudes by observing the behaviors of others -behavior is not learned by trial-and-error, but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others, and in tandem with the influence of personal factors (like thoughts about the behavior) and the environment in which we observe the behavior -behavior, personal factors, and environment influence each other (Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation) -for example, work ethic of company's employees (behavior) is affected by how hard their colleagues work, their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal), and the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment) --> reciprocally, this may create a change in the employee's attitude toward work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment)
mules are an example of what
postzygotic hybrid sterility
major social factors that influence prejudice
power, prestige, and class
metabolism in cardiac muscle
preferred fuels: well fed = fatty acids || fasting = fatty acids, ketones -only cell type that prefers fatty acids for fuel even in well-fed state -when ketones are present during prolonged fasting they can also be used -thus cardiac myocytes most closely parallel skeletal muscle during extended periods of exercise! (in skeletal muscle, during moderately high-intensity, continuous exercise, oxidation of glucose and fatty acids are both important, but after 1-3 continuous hours muscle glycogen stores become depleted and the intensity of exercise declines to a rate that can be supported by oxidation of fatty acids) -in patients with cardiac hypertrophy (thickening of heart muscle), this reverses to some extent -in a failing heart, glucose oxidation increases and B-oxidation fails
metabolism in the liver
preferred fuels: well fed = glucose and AAs || fasting = FAs -roles of liver are to maintain constant blood glucose and to synthesize ketones when excess fatty acids are being oxidized -after a meal, glucose conc in portal blood is elevated -the liver extracts excess glucose and uses it to replenish its glycogen stores -any glucose remaining in liver is then converted to acetyl-CoA and used for fatty acid synthesis -the increased insulin after a meal stimulates both glycogen synthesis and fatty acid synthesis in the liver -the fatty acids are converted to triacylglycerols and released into the blood as VLDLs -in the well-fed state the liver derives most of its energy from hte oxidation of excess AAs -between meals and during prolonged fasts the liver releases glucose into the blood -increased glucagon promotes glycogen degradation nad gluconogenesis -lactate from anaerobic metabolism, glycerol from triacylglycerols, and AAs provide carbon skeletons for glucose synthesis
metabolism in adipose tissue
preferred fuels: well fed = glucose || fasting = fatty acids -after a meal, elevated insulin stimulates glucose uptake -insulin also triggers fatty acid release from VLDL and chylomicrons -lipoprotein lipase (in adipose tissue) also induced by insulin -fatty acids that are released from lipoproteins are taken up by adipose tissue and re-esterified to triacylglycerols for storage -glycerol phosphate required for triacylglycerol synthesis comes from glucose that is metabolized in adipocytes as an alternative product of glycolysis -insulin can also effectively suppress the release of FAs from adipose tissue -during fasting decreased insulin and increased epinephrine activate hormone-sensitive lipase in fat cells, allowing fatty acids to be released into circulation
metabolism in brain
preferred fuels: well fed = glucose || fasting = glucose (ketones in prolonged fast) -consumes a ton of O2 and glucose and uses a ton of cardiac output -blood glucose tightly regulated to maintain sufficient glucose supply for brain -normal function depends on continuous glucose supply from bloodstream -hypoglycemia --> hypothalamic centers in brain sense fall in blood glucose and release of glucagon and epinephrine is triggered -fatty acids can't cross blood-brain barrier and therefore are never used as energy source -between meals brain relies on blood glucose supplied by either hepatic glycogenolysis or gluconeogenesis -only during prolonged fasting does the brain gain the capacity to use ketone bodies for energy, and even then the ketone bodies are 2/3 of the fuel with the other 1/3 beign glucose
metabolism in resting muscle
preferred fuels: well fed = glucose|| fasting = fatty acids, ketones -the major fuels of the skeletal muscle are glucose and fatty acids -because of its huge bulk, skeletal muscle is the body's major consumer of fuel -after a meal insulin promotes glucose uptake in skeletal muscle, replenishing glycogen stores and AAs used for protein synthesis -excess glucose and AAs can also be oxidized for energy -in fasting state, resting muscle uses FAs derived from free fatty acids circulating in the bloodstream -ketone bodies may also be used if the fasting state is prolonged
ageism
prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person's age; can be seen at all ages
what drives air into the lungs
pressure differentials between the intrapleural space and the lungs
what drives cardiac output through a given vascular resistance
pressure gradient across the circulatory system deltaP = CO x TPR -arterioles and capillaries act like resistors in a circuit (longer = more resistance, larger area = less resistance); arteries can expand and contract to change TPR and maintain blood pressure; arterioles can contract to limit amount of blood entering capillary bed; also capillary beds are in parallel so opening one will decrease vascular resistance and thus increase cardiac output
clots
prevent/minimize blood loss -composed of both coagulation factors (proteins) and platelets
prezygotic reproductive isolation
prevents formation of the zygote completely -between 2 different species -temporal, ecological, behavioral, reproductive, and gametic isolation
tight junction
prevents solutes from leaking into the space between cells via a paracellular route -found in epithelial cells -function as a physical link between cells as they form a single layer of tissue -can limit permeability enough to form a transepithelial voltage difference based on differing concentrations of ions on either side of the epithelium -to be effective, must form a continuous band around the cell otherwise fluid could leak through spaces between tight junctions
urban decay
previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time -influenced by suburbanization
functions of NADPH
primarily acts as an electron donor in a number of biochemical reactions; many functions including: -biosynthesis, mainly of fatty acids and cholesterol -assisting in cellular bleach production in WBCs, thus contributing to bactericidal activity -maintenance of a supply of reduced glutathione to protect against reactive oxygen species (acting as the body's natural antioxidant) - protects cells from free radical oxidative damage caused by peroxides
stage of eggs at birth
primary oocytes (all the oogonia have already undergone DNA replication)
nontemplate synthesis
processes that do not rely directly on the coding of a nucleic acid -lipid and carb synthesis, UNLIKE protein and nucleic acid synthesis
plasma cells
produce antibodies as a part of adaptive immunity; type of B cells
megakaryocytes
produce platelets
seminal fluid
produced by seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral gland -seminal vesicles --> fructose to nourish sperm -seminal vesicles and prostate gland --> mildly alkaline properties so sperm will survive in acidity of female reproductive tract -bulbourethral glands --> clear viscous fluid to clean out remnants of urine and lubricates urethra during sexual arousal
2,3-BPG
produced in RBCs from 1,3-BPG via bisphosphoglycerate mutase -allosterically binds to the B-chains of hemoglobin A and decreases its affinity for oxygen (rightward shift, hence unloading of oxygen in tissues but still allows 100% saturation in the lungs - if abnormal might shift so far it doesn't have 100% saturation in the lungs) -but doesn't bind well to fetal hemoglobin, so hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than maternal HbA --> transplacental passage of oxygen from mom to fetus
bone marrow
produces all the leukocytes (WBCs) that participate in the immune system through hematopoiesis, produces B cells and T cells too (pretty much all blood cells)
hematopoiesis
production of blood cells and platelets, all of which originate in the bone marrow
isolation (genetics)
progeny of populations initially from same species can no longer freely interbreed (like after separating them for a long time) -now considered 2 separate species
apoptosis
programmed cell death -mitochondria are capable of killing the cell by release of enzymes from the ETC
cilia
projections from cell primarily involved in movement of materials along cell surface -composed of MTs -9+2 structure (9 pairs of MTs forming an outer ring with 2 MTs in the center), only seen in eukaryotic organelles of motility
prokaryote eukaryote broad differences
prokaryote: -DNA in 1 singluar circular chromosome -can have plasmids -no histones -cell membrane used for ETC and ATP generation -have primitive cytoskeleton but much less complex -different size ribosomes -produce asexually via binary fission
what has a cell wall
prokaryotes -structure, barrier, may protect against host's immune system
size of prok and euk
prokaryotes = 1-10 micrometers eukaryotes = 10x larger
how does insulin affect cholesterol synthesis
promotes
proactive social movement
promotes social change
Marxist theory
proposes that the have-nots (the proletariat) could overthrow the haves (the bourgeoisie), as well as the entire capitalist economy, by developing class consciousness --> socialist state
leak channels
protein channels in the cell membrane that allow Na+ or K+ to leak down their concentration gradients -this is why maintaining membrane potential requires energy -cell membranes are more permeable to K+ ions than Na+ ions at rest because there are more K+ leak channels than Na+ leak channels
capsid
protein coat of virus
tissue factor
protein in connective tissue that is sensed by coagulation factors to initiate the clot making process
titin
protein in the sarcomere that acts as a spring and anchors the actin and myosin filaments together, preventing excessive stretching of the muscle
MHC
protein that mediates interactions of leukocytes with other leukocytes -like macrophages present antigenic fragments of invader to other cells using MHC-II - MHC binds the antigen and carries it to the surface where it can be recognized by cells of the adaptive immune system
embedded proteins
proteins that are associated only with the interior (cytoplasmic) or exterior (extracellular) surface of the cell membrane -tend to have catalytic activity linked to nearby enzymes -a type of integral protein
synaptonemal complex
proteins that hold the homologous chromosomes together
transmembrane proteins
proteins that pass completely through the lipid bilayer -tend to act as channels or receptors, tend to have enzymatic activity (to initiate second messenger cascade, etc.) -a type of integral protein
cytochromes
proteins with heme groups in which iron is reduced to Fe2+ and reoxidized to Fe3+
pepsin
proteolytic enzyme of the stomach that digests proteins by cleaving peptide bonds near aromatic AAs, resulting in short peptide fragments -activated by the acidic environment (activated from pepsinogen when parietal cells secrete HCl), so it is most active at a low pH -this is unique bc most human enzymes are most active at physiological pH
population pyramids
provide a histogram of the population size of various age cohorts
vagus nerve and heart
provide parasympathetic signals to slow down the heart rate
creatine phosphate
provides a short-lived (2-7 seconds) source of energy in active muscle -transfers phosphate group to ADP to form ATP
schizophrenia
psychotic disorder -suffer from two or more for at least 6 months: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, negative symptoms -one of these must be delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech
pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
pyruvate, NAD+, and CoA converted to NADH, CO2, and acetyl-CoA -irreversible reaction that converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA for entry into CAC if ATP is needed or fatty acid synthesis if ATP is sufficient -a complex of enzymes carrying out multiple reactions in succession -requires TPP, lipoic acid, CoA, FAD, and NAD+ -the enzymes are pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), dihidrolipoyl transacetylase, dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, and pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase; the first three produce acetyl CoA from pyruvate and the last two regulate the process
crude rate
rate (like birth or mortality) adjusted to a certain population size over a specific period of time and multiplied by a constant to give a whole number -total number of cases divided by total number of persons
glycogen phosphorylase
rate-limiting enzyme in glycogenolysis -releases G1P from the periphery of the glycogen granule until it encounters the first branch point (cannot break a-1,6 bonds)
carnitine acyltransferase I
rate-limiting step of fatty acid oxidation; transfers fatty acyl-CoA to carnitine for transport into mitochondria
substrate-level phosphorylation
reaction in which ADP is directly phosphorylated to ATP using a high-energy intermediate; common in glycolysis -not dependent on oxygen -the only means of ATP generation in aerobic tissue
purpose of surfactant in respiration
reduces tension at the air-liquid interface in the alveoli, preventing their collapse during exhalation
what determines the direction of electron flow in the ETC?
reduction potential -NADH is a good electron donor, and oxygen has a high reduction potential so it is a great final acceptor in the ETC -reduction potential INCREASES along the ETC
consistency cues
refer to the consistent pattern of behavior over time -the more regular the behavior, the more we associate that behavior with the motives of the person -aspect of attribution theory
distinctiveness cues
refer to the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios -if a person's behavior varies in different scenarios, we are more likely to form a situational attribution to explain it -aspect of attribution theory
sterotype threat
refers to the concept of people being *concerned or anxious* about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group -can cause reduced performance (which may actually create a self-fulfilling prophecy), encourage self-handicapping strategies, and lower one's personal investment in an activity -white male in sports --> aware of stereotype --> perform worse or avoid performance altogether -vulnerability to stereotype threat depends on how highly he identifies with stereotyped group; however it can occur based simply on the presence of others (women taking math exam score higher when only women present than with only men)
choice shift
refers to the same idea as polarization, but polarization is on the individual level while choice shift describes the behavior change of the group as a whole -describes the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group -can lead to riskier or more cautious decisions based on the initial tendencies of the group members toward risk or caution -used to be called risky shift but shift can be to caution so now called choice shift
I-band
region of sarcomere containing only thin filaments (I is a thin letter)
A-band
region of sarcomere containing the thick filaments in their entirety, including any overlap with thin filaments (A is for All of the thick filament, whether or not it's overlapping)
consensus cues
relate to the extent to which a person's behavior differs from others (in other words, how well does the person's behavior match that of others?) -if a person deviates from socially expected behavior, we are likely to form a dispositional (internal) attribution about the person's behavior -aspect of attribution theory
bicarbonate buffer system links respiratory and ___ systems
renal ex: if someone hyperventilates, excess CO2 will be blown off, shifting bicarbonate buffer system to the left and decreasing [H+]; this leads to increase in pH aka respiratory alkalosis; the kidney can compensate by increasing excretion of bicarbonate which brings pH back to normal... reverse can happen too with respiratory system helping kidneys
order of vessels in renal vascular pathway
renal artery --> afferent arteriole --> glomerulus --> efferent arteriole --> vasa recta --> renal vein
echolalia
repeating another's words (positive schizophrenia symptom, type of disorganized thought)
what can spirometer NOT measure
residual volume, and thus total lung capacity (because TLC = RV + VC)
reactive social movement
resists social change
distal convoluted tubule
responds to aldosterone, which promotes sodium reabsorption -because sodium ions are osmotically active, water will follow the sodium, concentrating the urine and decreasing its volume -also the site of waste product secretion, like the PCT
avoidant attachment
results when the caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child -given the choice, these children will show no preference between a stranger and the caregiver -show little or no distress when the caregiver leaves and little or no relief when the caregiver returns
peristalsis
rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle that propels food toward the stomach -under normal conditions proceeds down digestive tract -under certain conditions it can lead to reversal of peristalsis in emesis
bacilli
rod-shaped bacteria
divorce rates in US
rose significantly in 2nd half of 20th century; have started to drop over the last 2 decades
plutocracy
rule by the upper classes
M-line
runs down the center of the sarcomere, through the middle of the myosin filaments (M is the Middle of the Myosin)
____ amylase and ____ amylase have the same function; where are they active
salivary (in the mouth); pancreatic (in the small intestine) -both do chemical digestion of carbohydrates
fatty acid oxidation with odd # of carbons
same B-oxidation as even numbered, except during final cycle -even numbered yield 2 acetyl-CoA -odd yield one acetyl-CoA and one proprionyl-CoA -proprionyl-CoA converted to methylmalonyl-CoA by priprionyl-CoA carboxylase, then this is converted into succinyl-CoA by methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, then this enters the CAC --> gluconeogenic pathway in cytosol (via OAA)
differential association theory
says that deviance can be learned through interactions with others -the intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior himself; however, this same person will come into contact with norm-abiding individuals too... so differential association is the degree (number and intensity) to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. ideals that go against them
racial formation theory
says that racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors
implicit personality theory
says that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related -making assumptions about people based on the category in which they are placed is stereotyping
word salad
schizo patient's speech so disorganized that it seems to have no structure -can also be seen w Wernicke's aphasia
pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression
schizoid personality disorder (cluster A)
people w pattern of odd or eccentric thinking; may have ideas of reference or magical thinking
schizotypal personality disorder
coupled transport aka
secondary active transport
erythropoietin
secreted by kidney; stimulates red blood cell development
thrombopoietin
secreted by liver and kidney; stimulates platelet development
coagulation factors
secreted by the liver; sense tissue factor to initiate the clot making process
foraging
seeking out and eating food -driven by biological, psychological, and social influences
DNA replication is considered ___
semiconservative -One parental strand is retained in each of hte 2 resulting identical double-stranded DNA molecules
aortic valve
semilunar valve that separates the left ventricle from the aorta
pulmonary valve
semilunar valve that separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary circulation
cell membrane
semipermeable phospholipid bilayer
atrioventricular valves
separate atria from ventricles -tricuspid valve - between right atrium and right ventricle -bicuspid/mitral valve - between left atrium and left ventricle
semilunar valves
separate ventricles from vasculature; both have 3 leaflets -pulmonary valve - separates right ventricle from pulmonary circulation -aortic valve - separates left ventricle from aorta
elaboration likelihood model
separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information -central route processing on one extreme, peripheral route processing on other -most individuals fall in the middle, and degree of elaboration varies by situation
bacterial growth
series of phases; in a new environment... 1) *lag phase* - bacteria first adapt to new local conditions 2) *exponential phase* or *log phase* - as the bacteria adapt, growth increases, causing an exponential increase in the number of bacteria in the colony 3) *stationary phase* - the reduction of resources due to the bacteria slows reproduction and the population doesn't grow 4) *death phase* - after the bacteria have exceeded the ability of the environment to support the number of bacteria, this occurs as resources in the environment have been depleted
excretory system
serves many functions including the regulation of blood pressure, blood osmolarity, acid-base balance, and removal of nitrogenous wastes; kidneys play a major role
SRY
sex-determining region Y on Y chromosome -codes for a TF that initiates testis differentiation and thus the formation of male gonads
Kinsey scale
sexuality on a 0 to 6 scale, with 0 representing exclusive heterosexuality and 6 representing exclusive homosexuality -few people actually fell in 0 or 6, with a significant proportion somewhere between the two
mass hysteria
shared, intense concern about the threats to society -many features of groupthink (illusion of morality, collective rationalization, etc.) lead to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, and fear mongering -Salem witch trials
McDonaldization
shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies
interkinesis
short rest period between meiosis I an dII during which chromosomes partially uncoil
disorganized attachment
show no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence, btu instead can show a mix of different behaviors -can include avoidance or resistance; seeming dazed, frozen, or confused; or repetitive behaviors like rocking -often associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver -may also be a red flag for abuse
bundle of His
signal goes from AV node to here (and the branches within) -embedded in interventricular septum (wall) -goes from here to Purkinje fibers
AV node
signal goes from SA node to here -sits at junction between atria and ventricles -signal is delayed here to allow ventricles to fill completely before they contract -then to bundle of His
Purkinje fibers
signal goes from bundles of His to here -distribute the electrical signal through the ventricular muscle
ideas of reference
similar to delusions of reference, but not as extreme in intensity -characterize schizotypal personality disorder
hemidesmosomes
similar to desmosomes, but their main function is to attach epithelial cells to underlying structures, especially the basement membrane (rather than to other cells)
meiosis II
similar to mitosis; sister chromatids are separated (equational division)
superinfection
simultaneous infection with multiple phages/viruses
why are unsaturated fats considered healthier
since they have one or more double bonds and are in liquid form at room temp, they impart fluidity to the membrane
RNA is ____-stranded
single
nucleoid region
single circular molecule of DNA is concentrated here in prokaryotes (they don't have membrane-bound organelles)
archaea
single-celled, similar to bacteria but have genes and several metabolic pathways more similar to eukarya -historically extremophiles -some photosynthetic and some chemosynthetic (generate energy from inorganic compounds)
anaphase
sister chromatids separate, and a copy of each chromosome migrates to opposite poles by shortening of kinetochore fibers
cultural barriers
situations when a cultural differnce impedes interactions with others
connexin
six molecules of this form the pore that make up gap junctions/connexons
which muscle types are striated
skeletal and cardiac (smooth have actin and myosin too but not organized enough)
what organ consumes the greatest amount of glucose? what about relative to its total percentage of body mass?
skeletal muscle; brain
largest body organ
skin
skin and osmolarity
skin helps regulate osmolarity of body bc it is relatively impermeable to water -this prevents entrance of water thru skin but also loss of water from tissues -important in cases like burns or large skin losses --> dehydration of the tissues = real threat to survival
axial skeleton
skull, vertebral column, ribcage (and thus sternum bc attached to ribcage), and hyoid bone (bone in anterior neck used for swallowing) -provides body's central framework
isoforms
slightly different versions of the same protein; in the case of glycogen enzymes, there are often different isoforms of the enzymes in the liver and muscle leading to glycogen storage diseases
massive volumes of watery diarrhea are more likely to arise in the (small/large) intestine
small because it absorbs way more water than the large intestine (even though absorption of water is the main function of the large intestine)
thymus
small gland just in front of the pericardium (sac that protects the heart); produces T cells
the bulk of protein digestion occurs in the
small intestine
lacteals
small lymphatic vessels at the center of each villus in the small intestine -fats packaged into chylomicrons by intestinal mucosal cells enter the lacteal for support -lymphatic fluid carrying many chylomicrons takes on a mily white appearance and is called chyle
virioids
small pathogens of very short circular ssRNA that infects plants -can bind to large number of RNA sequences and will silence genes in the plant genome --> prevents synthesis of necessary proteins and can cause metabolic and structural derangements in the plant cell -some human ones do exist
lacunae
small spaces between the lamellar rings that house osteocytes -interconnected by tiny channels called canaliculi
lacteals (2)
small vessels that form the beginning of the lymphatic system; how chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation from the small intestine -these lacteals converge and enter the venous circulation through the thoracic duct in the base of the neck, which empties into the left subclavian vein
villi
small, fingerlike projections from the epithelial lining of the small intestine; each has many microvilli, drastically increasing the surface area available for absorption -at the middle of each villus is both a capillary bed for the absorption of water-soluble nutrients and a lacteal (lymphatic channel) to take up fats for transport to the lymphatic system
(smaller/larger) groups allow individuals to present more of themselves to the group
smaller
arterioles
smaller, muscular arteries (branches from arteries) -lead to capillaries that perfuse the tissues
weak ties
social connections that are personally superficial, like associates, but large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals -people without many of these (which can be acquired via facebook, for example) may find it extremely difficult to contribute to and access social capital -these and strong ties join communities together
ethnicity
social construct (like race) that sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors -one can choose not to display ethnic identity, but race is always on display
race
social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people; these differences may be either real or perceived -not strictly defined by genetics! rather classifies people based on arbitrary traits like skin color
gender
social construct that corresponds to the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex
social reproduction
social inequality, especially poverty, can be passed on from one generation to hte next - some call this a "culture of poverty" explanation for social inequality; in other words, the lifestyle of poverty, powerlessness, isolation, and even apathy is handed down -but there are many other contirbuting factors like where one lives too
religion
social institution -pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence -persists over time and has a structure into which members are resocialized
family
social institution influenced by a number of different factors including culture, beliefs, age, etc; does not have a fixed definition -different patterns of kinship may be reflected by different use of words like cousin (in Hawaii all family members are cousins), and influence responsibility for child-rearing, familial loyalty, and what is incest, etc. -lots of components
government and economy
social institutions -systematic arrangements of political and capital relationships, activities, and social structures that affect rule-making, representation of the individual in society, rights and privileges, division of labor, and production of goods and services -impact all other institutions to some extent, as well as individuals through these institutions (can be bidirectional, like if bad economy vote for a different candidate)
social networks and inequality
social networks can create 2 types of social inequality: situational (socioeconomic advantage) and positional (based on how connected one is within the network, and one's centrality within that network) -inequality in networks creates and reinforces privilege -low social capital leads to greater social inequality
groupthink
social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision -alternate ideas aren't assessed (minimizes conflict); loss of independent critical thinking -group also begins to isolate and ignore external viewpoints, seeing their own ideas as correct without question -influenced by cohesiveness, group structure, leadership, situational conflict, etc. (think Janis factors)
spatial inequality and types and etc
social stratification across territories and their populations -types: residential, environmental, and global -geography influences social processes, difeferent social categories like ethnicity and class are distributed across spaces differently, etc. -also these groups use spaces differently (for example, some cultures consider the home the center of family life while others spend most of their time outside of the home) -and space can channel inequalities and amplify their effects (like poverty via slums) -also the built environment, like chemical manufacturers in poorer areas
norms
societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior -exist for behavior, dress, home life, speech, more and can differ between groups in a society and between cultures (Americans extroverted, Japanese this is a sign of weakness) -not laws, but provide a mechanism for regulating the behavior of individuals and groups and thereby serve as a means of social control
Gesellschaft
society -a group unified by mutual self-interests in achieving a goal -companies and countries, for example
cartilage
softer and more flexible than bone -consists of firm elastic matrix chondrin -fetal skeletons are mostly cartilage, adults have cartilage only in body parts that need extra flexibility/cushioning (external ear, nose, walls of larynx and trachea, intervertebral discs, joints) -avascular unlike bone and not innervated unlike bone
hypertonic
solution is more concentrated outside of the cell -water will move out of the cell
isotonic
solutions inside and outside are equimolar -does not prevent movement, just prevents NET movement; water molecules continue to move but cell will neither gain nor lose water overall
at least one physical symptom, which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition, and that is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it, or elevated levels of anxiety
somatic symptom disorder
functionalism and illness
some theorists have identified illness as a social phenomenon rather than a purely physical condition -the sick person is unable to be a productive member of society and is therefore deviant from society -the individual is not only physically sick, but now adheres to the specifically patterned social role of being sick that disrupts the normal order of society
belief
something that an individual accepts to be truth
interpleural space
space between the 2 pleura -contians a thin layer of fluid, which helps lubricate the 2 pleural surfaces
flippases
specialized enzymes that assist in a lipid's transition or "flip" between layers -this flip is typically energetically unfavorable because polar head group of phospholipid must be forced through the nonpolar tail region inside the membrane; the flippases make it happen
division of labor
specific components of a larger task (developing, manufacturing, quality testing, and marketing goods) are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals; promotes specialization and efficiency -encouraged by capitalist societies
symbolic ethnicity
specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life -many Irish-Americans celebrate their "Irishness" only on St. Patrick's Day
niches
specific ways of life, including habitat localizatoin and utilization of resources
cocci
spherical bacteria
pyloric sphincter
sphincter through which food leaves the stomach
spirilli
spiral-shaped bacteria
language
spoken, written, or signed symbols, which are regulated according to certain rules of grammar and syntax
passive transport and types
spontaneous transport processes that do not require energy but rather use the concentration gradient to supply the energy for particles to move -diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis
domestic violence
spousal abuse -#1 cause of injury to US women -most common in families w drug abuse, especially alcoholism
paracellularly
squeezing between cells
functional attitudes theory
states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense -knowledge: attitudes can provides consistency and stability - they can help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others helps predict their behavior (we'd predict that a person who cares about political action would vote in an upcoming election) -ego expression: attitudes can also allow us to communicate and solidify our self-identity (wear hat that supports my fav sports team) -adaptation: the idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed -ego defense: attitudes are ego-defensive if they protect our self esteem or justify actions we know are wrong (kid who has difficulty doing math develops negative attitude toward math)
iron law of oligarchy
states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group -due to many factors (necessity of a core body of people to carry out the day-to-day activities of the org, increased need for specialization, and leadership characteristics of some members) -thus even a group established w democratic principles and complete egalitarianism will ultimately centralize, placing power in the hands of a few key leaders
downward drift hypothesis
states that schizo causes a decline in SES, leading to a worsening symptoms, which sets up a negative spiral for the patient toward poverty and psychosis -why rates of schizo are much higher among homeless and indigents
cognitive neoassociation model
states that we are more likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, like being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain -also on a large scale - riots more likely on hot days
random error
statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data due to the precision limitations of the measurement device. Random errors usually result from the experimenter's inability to take the same measurement in exactly the same way to get exact the same number. Examples of causes of random errors are: -electronic noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument -irregular changes in the heat loss rate from a solar collector due to changes in the wind LIMITS PRECISION Overcome by using large sample
self-fulfilling prophecy
stereotypes can lead to expectations of a certain group of individuals, which can create conditions that lead to confirmation of those expectations -medical students stereotyped as being bad at throwing knots during first year --> first year med student knows this and is nervous and struggles w knot throwing --> validates stereotype and completes self-fulfilling prophecy
summary of protein digestion
stomach: pepsin (hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds) pancreas (but functions in duodenum): trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases A and B (hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds) small intestine: dipeptidases, aminopeptidase (hydrolyzes pairs of AAs / hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond) end product: amino acids, di and tripeptides
extensor muscle
straightens or increases the angle across a joint (like the triceps)
strata and deepest to outward (and v brief expl)
subdivisions of the epidermis -stratum basale (keratinocyte proliferation) -stratum spinosum (keratinocytes become connected; langerhans) -stratum granulosum (keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei) -stratum lucidum (in thick hairless skin) -stratum corneum (layers of flattened keratinocytes) Come, Let's Get Sun Burned (superficial to deep)
most common psychiatric disorder in men
substance use disorder
mutagens
substances that can cause mutations
psychotic disorder
suffer from one or more: -delusions -hallucinations -disorganized thought -disorganized behavior -catatonia -negative symptoms
stroma
support structure (mainly connective tissue) of an organ
connective tissue
supports the body and provides a framework for the epithelial cells to carry out their function (basement membrane is connective) -main contributors to the stroma -bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue, blood -most produce and secrete materials like collagen and elastin to form the ECM
regulatory T cells aka
suppressor T cells
Rh factor
surface protein expressed on red blood cells; Rh+ or Rh- refers to presence or absence of D allele (can also be seen as subscript like AB+) -autosomal dominant -maternal-fetal medicine - if a woman is - and fetus is + the mom will start making antibodies against + once the fetus is born --> can be problem for next fetus because anti-Rh antibodies can cross placenta and attack fetal blood cells --> hemolysis (*erythroblastosis fetalis*), can be fatal
periosteum
surrounds the long bone to protect it and serve as a site for muscle attachment -some periosteum cells can differentiate into bone-forming cells; healthy periosteum necessary for bone growth and repair
thermoregulation is achieved by
sweating piloerection vasodilation vasoconstriction shivering also fat below the skin (white fat) also brown fat
types of culture
symbolic and material
culture lag
symbolic pressure is usually slower to change than material culture -ex: expansion of devices and tech (which is influencing a symbolic culture change as teens are less concerned about privacy)
panic attack
symptoms: fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, and sense of unreality -sense of impending doom, may be convinced they're losing their mind
the MAJORITY of triacylglycerols stored in adipocytes originate from
synthesis in the liver (then transported as CLDL to adipose tissue for storage)
glycogenesis (whole)
synthesis of glycogen granules -begins with a core protein called *glycogenin* -glucose addition to a granule begins with G6P, which is converted to G1P; this is then activated by coupling it to a molecule of UDP which permits its integration into the glycogen chain by glycogen synthase (this activation occurs when G1P interacts with UTP, forming UDP-glucose and pyrophosphate) -*glycogen synthase* is the rate-limiting step of glycogen synthesis and forms the a-1,4 glycosidic bond found in the linear glucose chains of glycogen -*branching enzyme* introduces the a-1,6-linked branches into the granule as it grows
mevalonic acid
synthesized by HMG-CoA reductase in the rate-limiting step of de novo cholesterol synthesis
SYMLOG
system for multiple level observation of groups -based on the belief that there are 3 fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive
Bias is a ____ error
systematic
social loafing
tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually
attach muscle to bone
tendons
10^12
tera
osmotic pressure
the "sucking" pressure generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water into the bloodstream -aka oncotic pressure
oncotic pressure
the "sucking" pressure generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water into the bloodstream -aka osmotic pressure
power
the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles, and their ability to control resources; the ability to affect people's actions through perceived rewards and punishments; influence over other people -based on unequal distribution of resources -defines the relationship between individuals, groups, and social institutions -creates worldwide social inequalities -one of the major social factors that influences prejudice and discrimination
empathy
the ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another; influences helping behavior
chyme (2)
the acidic, semifluid mixture resulting from the digestion of solid food in the stomach -the combined mechanical and chemical digestive activities of the stomach result in an increase in the S.A. of the now unrecognizable food particles, so when the chyme reaches the small intestine, the absorption of nutrients from it can be maximized
ventricles
the atria contract to push blood into here -after these fill, they contract to send blood to the lungs and systemic circulation
fertility rate
the average number of children per woman per lifetime in a population
lytic cycle
the bacteriophage makes maximal use of the cell's machinery with little regard for survival of host cell -once host is swollen w new virions, cell lyses and other bacteria can be infected -bacteria in lytic phase = virulent
gender roles
the behaviors expected of a given gender
culture
the beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people -learned as well as passed down -encompasses a given group's entire lifestyle
function (functionalism)
the beneficial consequences of people's actions, which help keep society in balance
cultural capital
the benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills
specific immune response
the body's targeted response against particular pathogens like viruses and bacteria
digestion
the breakdown of food into its constituent organic molecules: starches and other carbohydrates into monosaccharides, lipids (fats) into free fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids
morbidity
the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease
role performance
the carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role -individuals can vary in how successful they are in this (some doctors are better than others at translating info into language their patients can understand, which is a part of a doctor's role) -can change depending on social situation and context of interaction (doctor-doctor interaction has different pertinent parts of role than doctor-patient interaction)
pharynx and parts list
the cavity that leads from the mouth and posterior nasal cavity to the esophagus -also connects to the larynx (respiratory tract) - food is prevented from entering here by the epiglottis -3 parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
what will happen if the osmotic pressure created by the solutes within a cell exceeds the pressure that the cell membrane can withstand?
the cell will lyse
keratinocytes
the cells of the skin that produce keratin -in the stratum basale of the epidermis
interstitium
the cells surrounding the blood vessels
fimbrae
the cilia of bacteria
interstitium (excretory)
the connective tissue surrounding the nephron (all the orangeish stuff) -anything that enters the interstitium is picked up by the vasa recta to be returned to the bloodstream for reuse in the body
respiratory control
the coordinated regulation of the ETC/oxidative phosphorylation and the CAC -if O2 is limited, rate of ox phos decreases, and concentrations of NADH and FADH2 increase; accumulation of NADH inhibits CAC -in the presence of adequate O2, the rate of oxidative phosphorylation is dependent on availability of ADP (activates isocitrate dehydrogenase, increasing rate of CAC and production of NADH and FADH2, increasing rate of ETC and ATP synthesis)
glycogenin
the core protein that begins glycogenolysis
racialization
the definition or establishment of a group as a particular race -ex: Judaism historically just a religion, but concept of a Jewish race has become prevalent
normative conformity
the desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection
vital capacity
the difference between minimum and maximum volume of air in the lungs (TLC-RV)
oxygen debt
the difference between the amount of oxygen needed by the muscles and the actual amount present (note that after strenuous exercise stops, the body must metabolize all the lactic acid it has produced; most is converted back to pyruvate which can enter the CAC but this requires oxygen... the amount of oxygen required to recover from strenuous exercise = oxygen debt)
sexual orientation
the direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes -heterosexual, bisexual, homosexual
institutional discrimination
the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution -built into the structure of society -covert and harder to extricate -perpetuated by simply maintaining the status quo
what is responsible for the powerstroke in sarcomere shortening?
the dissociation of ADP and Pi from myosin (NOT the hydrolysis of ATP)
role exit
the dropping of one identity for another
branching enzyme
the enzyme in glycogenesis that introduces the a-1,6-linked branches into the granule as it grows -hydrolyzes one of the a-1,4 bonds to release a block of oligoglucose, which is then moved and added in a slightly different location -forms an a-1,6 bond to create a branch
carbonic anhydrase
the enzyme that catalyzes the combining of CO2 and water in the bicarbonate buffer system
social stigma
the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society -can include different belief or obesity or other stuff
collecting duct
the final collection of urine depends on permeability of collecting duct, which is responsive to both aldosterone and ADH -permeability of collecting duct increases --> water reabsorption increases --> further concentration of urine -reabsorbed water enters interstitium and makes its way to the vasa recta, where it enters the bloodstream to once again become part of the plasma -collecting duct almost ALWAYS reabsorbs water, but the amount is variable -when body is well hydrated the collecting duct will be fairly impermeable to salt and water -in conservation mode, ADH and aldosterone will each act to increase reabsorption of water in the collecting duct, allowing for greater water retention and more concentrated urine output -after this point there are no more opportunities for reabsorption; anything in the tubule will be excreted
hydrostatic pressure (blood)
the force per unit area that the blood exerts against the vessel walls -generated by contraction of heart and elasticity of arteries -measured upstream in large arteries as BP -pushes fluid out of bloodstream and into interstitium thru capillary walls
parenchyma
the functional parts of the organ -the epithelial tissue in most organs
glomeruli
the highly convoluted capillary tufts derived from the afferent arterioles in the adrenal cortex; after blood passes through a glomerulus, the efferent arteries then form the second capillary bed of the kidney portal system
primacy effect
the idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions supported by the idea that... -when a perceiver comes into contact w unfamiliar target, they take in all cues from target and environment, unfiltered -as perceiver becomes more familiar w target, they use these cues to categorize the target (friend vs. enemy, caring vs. standoffish, etc.) -additional time spent with target will cause perceiver to confirm this categorization; at this point the perception of additional cues is selective in order to paint a pic of the target that is conssitent with the perceptions the perceiver has already made
recency effect
the idea that it is actually the most recent information that we have about an indicidual that is most important to forming our impressions (this is sometimes true too!)
pepsinogen
the inactive, zymogen form of pepsin
ego-syntonic
the individual perceives his behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with his goals -personality disorders, but not most others
ego-dystonic
the individual sees the illness as something thrust upon him that is intrusive and bothersome -most disorders, other than personality disorders
gender inequality
the intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other
primary group
the interactions are direct, with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members -often last a long time and may include a core circle of friends, a tightly knit family, or members of a team
secondary group
the interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds -typically last for a short period of time, and they form and dissolve without any special significance, like students working together on a group project
lesser curvature
the internal curvature of the stomach
lipoproteins are synthesized mainly by
the intestine and the liver
social capital
the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards; the greater the investment, the higher the level of social integration and inclusion (and thus less anomie) -in other words, the benefits one receives from group association -one of the main forms of social capital is the social network
species
the largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring
sig figs in measurements
the last digit is usually an estimation, not significant - like 55.2 mm when the ruler measures mm but no markings between, 55 are sig figs *ANYTHING MEASURED!!!! pay attention like "measured as 7.45 m" - that means 7.4 are the sig figs
systemic circulation
the left side of the heart; receives oxygenated blood from the lungs by way of the pulmonary veins and forces it out of the body through the aorta
fitness
the level of reproductive success an organism experiences; measured in increased number and survival of offspring
prestige
the level of respect and positive regard shown to a person or idea by society -one of the major social factors that influences prejudice and discrimination
recombination frequency (theta)
the likelihood that 2 alleles are separated from each other during crossing over; roughly proportional to the distance between the genes on the chromosome
type I error
the likelihood that we report a difference between 2 populations when one does not actually exist
type II error
the likelihood that we report no difference between 2 populations when one actually exists (when we incorrectly fail to reject the null hypothesis)
plasma
the liquid portion of blood, about 55% of blood volume -aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, and blood proteins
p53
the main protein in control of the restriction point -if there has been damage to DNA, cell cycle goes into arrest until DNA has been repaired -also playse a role in the G2/M checkpoint
total lung capacity
the maximum volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely; usually around 6-7 L -SPIROMETER CANNOT MEASURE RESIDUAL VOLUME AND THUS CANNOT MEASURE TLC (because TLC = RV + VC)
suburbanization
the migration pattern of the middle classes to suburban communities -explained by greater concentration of poor people in urban centers -suburbs have become more attractive as they are cleaner and less crowded, have less crime rates, and have better school systems -lower classes can't relocate as well, so remain in urban centers under poor living conditions -also leads to urban decay -but this process can spontaneously reverse in urban renewal
residual volume
the minimum volume of air in the lungs when one exhales completely -CANNOT BE MEASURED BY A SPIROMETER
emulsification
the mixing of 2 normally immiscible liquids -in lipids this happens in the duodenum - fat and water
diaphragm
the most important muscle that generates the negative pressure for lung expansion -thin,muscular structure that divides thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity -under somatic control even though breathing is under autonomic control
how is ventricular contraction coordinated
the muscle cells are connected by intercalated discs with many gap junctions
upper esophageal sphincter
the muscles of the oropharynx; where swallowing is initiated
detrusor muscle
the muscular lining of the bladder; parasympathetic activity causes it to contract
prevalence
the number of cases of an illness overall per population in a given amount of time -number of people with new or chronic lung cancer per 1000 people per year
incidence
the number of new cases of an illness per population *at risk* in a given amount of time (so if you already have it you're no longer at risk) -like 50 new cases of lung cancer per 1000 at risk people per year
network
the observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups; usually represented graphically -patterns can be determined by mapping the individual interactions between individual units, the nature of which can be highly variable (between friends or between societal institutions, for example) -individuals in networks face the demands and expectations of other members, constraining what they are able to do, and they may have resources through the network too
anus
the opening through which wastes are eliminated -consists of 2 sphincters: the internal and external anal sphincters -external is under voluntary control, but internal is under involuntary control
class consciousness
the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action -barrier is false consciounsness though
F1 portion of ATP synthase
the part in the cytosol -utilizes the energy released from the electrochemical gradient to phosphorylate ADP to ATP
F0 portion of ATP synthase
the part in the membrane -functions as an ion channel, so protons travel through it along their gradient back to the matrix -chemiosmotic coupling
lipopolysaccharides
the part of the gram negative bacteria that triggers an immune response in human beings; the inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharides is much stronger than the response to lipoteichoic acid
duodenum
the part of the small intestine responsible for the majority of chemical digestion (and has some minor involvement in absorption) -food leaves stomach through pyloric sphincter and enters the duodenum -presence of chyme in duodenum (which comes from the stomach) causes the release of brush-border enzymes like disaccharidases and peptidases -also secretes enteropeptidase, which is involved in the activation of other digestive enzymes from the accessory organs of digestion -also secretes hormones like secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) into the bloodstream
oxygen saturation
the percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen -easily measured with finger probe -above 97% if healthy
cultural relativism
the perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with the recognition that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself -one group's rules are different than mine, but that doesn't mean mine are superior
social support and types
the perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network -emotional, esteem, material, informational, network
role partner
the person with whom one is interacting -behaviors and expectations change as a result of the role partner
mechanical digestion
the physical breakdown - like by chewing - of large food particles into smaller food particles, but does not involve the breaking of mechanical bonds
nondirectional alternative hypothesis (a value 2)
the populations are not equal -compare to a/2 (like 0.05/2) rathet than 0.05
ethnocentrism
the practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture, especially when it comes to language, customs, and religion
Malthusian catastrophe
the prediction that as third-world nations industrialize and undergo demographic transition, the pace at which the world population will grow is much faster than the ability to generate food and mass starvation will occur
confidence
the probability of correctly failing to reject a true null hypothesis (reporting no difference between 2 populations when there is indeed no difference)
power (statistics)
the probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis (reporting a difference between 2 populations when one actually exists) More power --> more likely to get statistically significant results 1 - Beta Where Beta is the probability of a type II error
anticipatory socialization
the process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships -like a couple living together in preparation for married life
cultural assimilation
the process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group; can also mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one -typically not an even blend
endochondral ossification
the process by which most of the bones of the body are created - hardening of cartilage into bone
glycogenolysis
the process of breaking down glycogen -*glycogen phosphorylase* is the rate-limiting enzyme; releases G1P from the periphery of the glycogen granule until it encounters the first branch point (cannot break a-1,6 bonds) -this G1P that is released is converted to G6P -debranching enzyme hydrolyzes the a-1,4 bond nearest the branch point and transfers the oligoglucose unit to the end of another chain -then it hydrolyzes the a-1,6 bond, releasing the single glucose from the former branch (this is the only free glucose formed directly in glycogenolysis)
globalization
the process of integrating the global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets -relatively recent, spurred by improved global communication tech and economic interdependence
parallel evolution
the process whereby *related* species evolve in similar ways for a long period of time in response to analogous environmental selection pressures
feed-forward activation with example
the product of an earlier reaction of glycolysis (F-16-BP) stimulates, or prepares a later reaction in glycolysis (by activating pyruvate kinase)
PFK-1
the rate-limiting enzyme and main control point in glycolysis -F6P --> F16BP using ATP -inhibited by ATP and citrate, and activated by AMP -insulin stimulates and glucagon inhibits PFK-1 in hepatocytes by an indirect mechanism involving PFK-2 and F-2,6-BP
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
the rate-limiting enzyme in the PPP -glucose-6-phosphate to 6-phosphogluconate, forms NADPH -induced by insulin; inhibited by NADPH (its product); activated by NAD+
cultural sensitivity
the recognition and respect of differences between cultures
simple twitch
the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above threshold (all-or-nothing) -consists of the latent period, contraction period, and relaxation period -latent period = time between reaching threshold and onset of contraction; AP spreads along the muscle and allows for calcium to be released from the SR -muscle then contracts and (assuming Ca++ is released from the sarcoplasm) relaxes
social mobility
the result of an economic and occupational structure that allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities given proper credentials and experience requirements -we have this ability in a class-based system, not people in a caste-based or estate-based system
pulmonary circulation
the right side of the heart; accepts deoxygenated blood returning from the body and moves it to the lungs by way of the pulmonary arteries
gender segregation
the separation of individuals based on perceived geders -separating male and female sports teams, etc.
cognitive dissonance
the simultaneous presence of 2 opposing thoughts or opinions -generally leads to internal state of discomfort, which may manifest as anxiety, fear, anger, or confusion -individuals will try to reduce this discomfort by changing, adding to, or minimizing one of these dissonant thoughts
peer pressure
the social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual -can cause changes in behavior, attitudes, or beliefs to conform to the norms of the group -many forms, and can be + or - -explained by the identity shift effect
glycogen stored in liver - purpose
the source of glucose that is mobilized between meals to prevent low blood sugar / maintain constant levels of glucose in the blood
cultural diffusion
the spread of norms, customs, and beliefs (especially new ones) throughout a culture
biometric techniques
the statistical analysis of biological data -a lot of tools for this have been developed in genetics (Punnett square, mapping of chromosomes with recombinant frequencies, HWE)
demographics
the statistics of populations -the mathematical applications of sociology
master status
the status by which a person is most identified -affects all aspects of a person's life -generally how people view themselves and often holds a symbolic value -can cause pigeonholing: we may view an individual only through the lens of his/her master status without regard to other personal characteristics (like with a president)
retinol
the storage form of vitamin A, oxidized to retinoic acid
biliary tree
the structure through which the gallbladder pushes out bile -the bile duct system merges with the pancreatic duct and then empties into the duodenum
counterculture
the subculture group gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores
natural selection
the theory that certain characteristics or traits possessed by individuals within a species may help those individuals to have greater reproductive success, thus passing on those traits to offspring tenets: -organisms produce offspring, few of which survive to reproductive maturity -chance variations within individuals in a population may be heritable; if they give an organism a slight survival advantage, the variation is termed favorable -individuals with a greater preponderance of these favorable variations are more likely to survive to reproductive age and produce offspring (now about favorable mutation/recombination passing on); the overall result will be an increase in these traits in future generations (fitness) (now more of a focus on inclusive fitness) (also now we know about punctuated equilibrium and not nec gradual)
fluid mosaic model
the theory that underlies the structure and function of the cell membrane -accounts for the presence of lipids, proteins (3 types), and carbohydrates in a dynamic, semisolid plasma membrane that surrounds cells
epithelium
the thin tissue forming the outer layer of a body's surface and lining the body's canals and hollow structures
alveoli
the tiny balloon-like structures in which gas exchange occurs -coated with a surfactant, a detergent that lowers the surface tension and prevents alveolus from collapsing on itself -network of capillaries surrounds each alveolus to carry O2 and CO2 -branching and minute size allow for large surface area for gas exchange
is the GI tract under autonomic or somatic control?
the top of the esophagus is under somatic control (because it is skeletal muscle) and the bottom is smooth muscle - starting there it and everything below it is under autonomic control
cardiac output
the total blood volume pumped by a ventricle in one minute CO = heart rate x stroke volume -same in each ventricle bc connected in series -5 L/min in humans (autonomic nervous system can inc or dec this w exercise or rest)
ATP cleavage
the transfer of a high-energy phosphate group from ATP to another molecule; generally this activates or inactivates the target molecule -phosphoryl group transfer
verbal communication
the transmission of information via the use of WORDS, whether spoken, written, or signed (includes sign language and Braille/tactile language) -often dependent on nonverbal cues for receiver to understand the sender's full meaning though
absorption (digestion)
the transport of products of digestion from the digestive tract into the circulatory system for distribution to the body's tissues and cells
chemiosmotic coupling
the utilization of the proton-motive force generated by the ETC to drive ATP synthesis in oxidative phosphorylation
role set
the various roles associated with a status
there is a layer of muscle around ______ that can raise and lower the testes
the vas deferens
lacteals
the vessels of the lymphatic system
expiratory reserve volume
the volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation
inspiratory reserve volume
the volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation
tidal volume
the volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath
how do vessels maintain sufficient pressure while the ventricular muscles are relaxed (during diastole)?
the walls of the large arteries are elastic -if not for this, the diastolic blood pressure would be 0
transamination and deamination
the way AAs released from proteins begin catabolism, by losing their amino group
behavioral component of attitude
the way a person acts with respect to something -Avoiding snakes or spending time with one's family
affective component of attitude
the way a person feels toward something; the emotional component of attitude -Snakes scare me or I love my family
cognitive component of attitude
the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually justification for the affective and behavioral components -I know that snakes are poisonous (so I am afraid of them, and I avoid them)
social cognition
the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior -provides tools to make judgments and impressions regarding other people -aka social perception
renal pelvis
the widest part of the ureter; spans almost the entire width of the renal hilum
absorption directly from stomach
there are a few substances that are absorbed directly from the stomach (like alcohol and aspirin), but the stomach is mainly an organ of digestion
atria
thin-walled structures where blood is received from either the venae cavae (deoxygenated blood entering the right heart) or the pulmonary veins (oxygenated blood entering the left heart)
shortening of the sarcomere
this is after Ca2+ binds to troponin and the myosin-binding site on actin is exposed! -the free globular heads of the myosin molecules move toward and bind with the exposed sites on actin -the newly formed actin-myosin cross bridges then allow myosin to pull on actin, drawing the thin filaments toward the M-line, shortening the sarcomere *see diagram, start at top* a-b) myosin carrying hydrolyzed ATP (ADP and Pi) is able to bind with myosin-binding site b-c) the release of inorganic phosphate and ADP in rapid succession provides energy for powerstroke and results in sliding of actin filament over myosin filament c-d) then ATP binds to the myosin head releasing it from actin d-a) this ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and Pi, which recocks the myosin head so that it is in position to initiate another cross-bridge cycle -repetitive binding and releasing of myosin heads on actin filaments allows for the thick filament to slide along the thin filament, causing sequential shortening of the sarcomere; this is the *sliding filament model*
hepatic portal vein
this is how the liver receives all blood draining from the abdominal portion of the digestive tract -then the nutrient-rich blood can be processed by the liver before draining into the inferior vena cava on its way to the right side of the heart -for example, the liver takes up excess sugar to create glycogen, and stores fats as triacylglycerols, etc.
how does the body react to acidemia (pulmonary)
this means H+ is too high -acid-sensing chemoreceptors just outside the blood-brain barrier send signals to brain to increase respiratory rate -further, the increasing H+ shifts the bicarbonate buffer system (shown), generating additional CO2 -the respiratory centers in the brain (medulla oblongata, etc.) are sensitive to this increasing partial pressure of CO2 and will also promote an increase in respiratory rate -as respiratory rate increases, more CO2 is blown off, pushing the buffer equation to the left ^but different because the first shift was caused by an increase in [H+] which increased [CO2], but now this removes CO2 to cause a shift to the left that allows [H+] to return to normal
cohort studies
those in which subjects are sorted into 2 groups based on differences in risk factors (exposures) and then assessed at various intervals to determine how many subjects in each group had a certain outcome -type of observational study
distant networks
those that are looser and contain weaker ties -like composed of acquaintances (rather than friends)
positive controls
those that ensure a change in the dependent variable when it is expected -like administering a test to a group of blood samples KNOW to contain HIV when devloping a new assay for HIV detection
peripheral route processing
those who don't elaborate, focusing on superficial details - the appearance of a person delivering the argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility -aspect of elaboration likelihood model
epinephrine requires _____ to have a significant metabolic effect
thyroid hormones
latent period muscle
time in a simple twitch between reaching threshold and contraction; it is during this time that the AP spreads along the muscle and allows for calcium to be released from the SR
canaliculi
tiny channels interconnecting the lacunae in the bone matrix -allow for exchange of nutrients and wastes between osteocytes and the Haversian and Volkmann's canals
virulence factors
traits that increase how pathogenic a bacterium is -may be carried in plasmids
virulence factors
traits that increase how pathogenic a bacterium is... like toxin production, etc. May be carried by plasmids
passive immunity
transfer of antibodies to an individual -transient because only the antibodies, and not the plasma cells that produce them, are given to the individual
complex I
transfer of electrons from NADH to CoQ -important subunits are Fe-S cluster and FMN (a flavoprotein that oxidizes NADH) -NADH transfers its electrons to FMN, becoming oxidized to NAD+ as FMN is reduced to FMNH2 -FMNH2 is reoxidized while the Fe-S cluster is reduced -Fe-S cluster donates electrons to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone) -Co-Q becomes CoQH2 -one of 3 sites where proton pumping occurs; 4 protons into intermembrane space -net effect: NADH + H+ + CoQ --> NAD+ + CoQH2, 4 H+ pumped across
complex IV
transfers electrons from cytochrome c to oxygen, the final electron acceptor -includes subunits of cyt a, cyt a3, and Cu2+ ions -cyt a and a3 make up cytochrome oxidase; this gets oxidized as oxygen becomes reduced and forms water -2 protons pumped across membrane 4 cyt c [with Fe2+] + 4H+ + O2 --> 4 cyt c [with Fe3+] + 2H2O
integral proteins
transmembrane and embedded proteins -associated with the interior of the plasma membrane, which is usually assisted by one or more membrane-associated domains that are partially hydrophobic
types of membrane proteins
transmembrane, embedded (these 2 make up integral), and membrane assisted
Volkmann's canals
transverse channels (axis perpendicular to the bone) in the bony matrix -these and Haversian canals contain the blood vessels, nerve fibers, and lymph vessels that maintain the health of the bone
acute stress disorder
trauma- and stressor-related disorder -when you have PTSD symptoms but for less than one month (but more than three days)
direct therapy
treatment that acts directly on the individual, like medication or periodic meetings with a psychologist
resting tremor
tremor that appears when muslces are not being used (PD)
socialist economies
tret large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual to the system; profit is distributed equally to the work force
B-cells
turn into plasma cells to produce antibodies as a part of adaptive immunity -the agents of humoral immunity -develop and mature in the bone marrow but are activated in spleen or lymph nodes
group
two or more people who share similar characteristics ands a sense of unity -many sociologists see social interaction as the most important characteristic that strengthens a social group
body dysmorphic disorder
type of OCD and related disorders -person has unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed toward a certain body part -actually normal in appearance -body preoccupation disrupts day-to-day life, and sufferer may seek multiple plastic surgeries or other extreme interventions
monocytes
type of agranulocyte (which is a type of leukocyte); phagocytize foreign matter -in most organs -once they leave the bloodstream and enter an organ they are called macrophages
lymphocytes
type of agranulocyte (which is a type of leukocyte); specific immune response -antibody production, immune system modulation, and targeted killing of infected cells -some act as primary responders against infection and others function in memory bank for pathogen recognition -if they mature in spleen or lymph nodes they are B cells; if they mature in the thymus they are T cells
brown fat
type of fat that may be present in us in addition to brown fat, and is especially present in infants -much less efficient ETC --> more heat energy released as fuel is burned
neutrophil
type of granulocyte, nonspecific defense -the most populous leukocyte, very short-lived -present in bloodstream and in tissues -phagocytic and target bacteria - follow them using chemotaxis -can also detect bacteria once they have been opsonized -dead neutrophil collections are responsible for pus
eosinophils
type of granulocyte, nonspecific response -allergic reactions and invasive parasitic infections -upon activation, they release large amounts of histamine --> leakiness of blood vessels allowing additional immune cells to move out of the bloodstream and into the tissue (inflammation)
facilitated diffusion
type of passive transport -simple diffusion for molecules that are impermeable to the membrane (large, polar, or charged) -the energy barrier is too high for these molecules to cross freely, so the molecules require integral membrane proteins to serve as transporters or channels for these substrates -the classic examples involve a carrier or channel protein
coenzyme Q aka
ubiquinone
aerotolerant anaerobes
unable to use oxygen for metabolism, but are not harmed by its presence in the environment
control of diaphragm
under autonomic control even though breathing is under somatic control
control of diaphragm
under somatic control even though breathing is under autonomic control
mesenchymal tissue
undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue -transformed into and replaced by bone via intramembranous ossification
vertical mobility
upward or downward social mobility
five ethnicities model
used by the US Census Bureau and NIH: white, black, Asian, Latino, Native American -some argue that racial and ethnic boundaries are more ambiguous and fluid and say we need a new model
omega numbering system
used for unsaturated fatty acids; the w(omega) designation describes the position of the last double bond relative to the end of the chain and identifies the major precursor fatty acid -ex: linolenic acid (18:2 cis,cis-9,12) is a precursor of the w-6 family, which includes arachidonic acid
importance of DHAP
used in hepatic and adipose tissue for triacylglycerol synthesis -formed from F16BP, and can be isomerized to glycerol 3-phosphate, which can then be converted to glycerol, the backbone of triacylglycerols
glycerophospholipid use
used in membrane synthesis and can produce a hydrophilic surface layer on lipoproteins such as very-low-density lipoprotein, a lipid transporter
ingratiation
using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over -method of impression management / self-presentation
managing appearances
using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image -like wearing a white coat, or keeping calm while dealing with a difficult patient, or mentioning associations with an important researcher during an interview -method of impression management / self-presentation
in most living systems how do we determine internal energy
usually just heat (work in thermo means change in pressure and volume, neither of which occurs in most living systems)
elder abuse
usually manifests as neglect of an older relative - although physical, psychological, and financial abuse may occur as well -caretaker is the most common source of abuse
how many capillary beds will blood pass thru before returning to the heart
usually only one, unless blood goes thru portal system - in which case, two
nervous system regulation of cardiac muscle
vagus nerve provides parasympathetic outflow to the heart and slows the heart rate
Native American health profile
varied in comparison to whites -some of the highest rates of death by suicide
expressivity
varying phenotypes despite identical genotypes -constant or variable
more muscular: ventricles or atria
ventricles! this allows for more powerful contractions necessary to push blood thru the rest of the CV system (atria only have to push blood into the ventricles)
VLDL
very-low-density lipoprotein -transports triacylglycerols and fatty acids (FAs are from excess glucose or retrieved from chylomicron remnants) from liver to tissues -produced and assembled in liver cells
provirus
virus does not lyse bacterium and integrates into the host genome; part of lysogenic cycle -aka prophage
prophage
virus does not lyse bacterium and integrates into the host genome; part of lysogenic cycle -aka provirus
bacteriophage
viruses that infect bacteria -don't actually enter bacteria, but rather inject their genetic material leaving the remaining structures outside the cell -in addition to a capsid, bacteriophages contain a tail sheath (acts like syringe, injecting genetic material into bacterium) and tail fibers (help bacteriophage recognize and connect to correct host cell)
Cholecalciferol aka
vitamin D
Tocopherols and tocotrienols are
vitamin E
stroke volume
volume of blood pumped per beat
emesis
vomiting -certain conditions - like exposure to chemicals, infectious agents, physical stimulation in the posterior pharynx, and even cognitive stimulation - can lead to the reversal of peristalsis in this process
interventricular septum
wall between the ventricles
what membrane element provides membrane stability
waxes
how can we convert acetyl-CoA and fatty acids back to glucose?
we CAN'T!!! -because most fatty acids are metabolized solely to acetyl-CoA, they are not a major source of glucose either (except for fatty acids with odd # of carbon atoms, which yield a small amount of proprionyl-CoA) -BUT acetyl-CoA from fatty acids can be converted into ketone bodies as an alternative fuel for cells, including the brain
social institutions
well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture -regulate the behavior of individuals in core areas of society -include education, family, religion, government, economy, medicine
values
what a person deems important in life; dictate one's ethical principles and standards of behavior
compact bone
what the bone's characteristic strength comes from -dense and strong -has the bone matrix -forms the outer layers of a bone
endoskeleton
what vertebrates have -internal but are not able to protect the soft tissue structures as well as exoskeletons -better able to accommodate growth of larger organism
occluded state
when a carrier protein in facilitated diffusion is briefly not open to either side of the phospholipid bilayer
secure attachment
when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore, knowing that he or she has a secure base to return to -the child will be upset at departure of caregiver and comforted by caregiver's return -trusts that the caregiver will be there for comfor; while child can be comforted by a stranger, clearly prefers caregiver -this attachment pattern is vital aspect of child's social development (children with other attachment styles can have deficits in social skills)
duplication mutations
when a segment of DNA is copied multiple times in the genome
insertion mutations
when a segment of DNA is moved from one chromsome to another -small insertion mutations (including those where the inserted DNA is not from another chromosome) are considered frameshift mutations
inversion mutations
when a segment of DNA is reversed within the chromosome
latent function
when an action has unintended positive consequences on other parts of society -conferences have the manifest function of sharing research findings but the latent function of creating stronger bonds between physicians that attend -aspect of functionalisy
manifest function
when an action is intended to help some part of a system (can also have latent functions) -conferences have the manifest function of sharing research findings but the latent function of creating stronger bonds between physicians that attend -aspect of functionalism
bruise
when capillaries are damaged, blood can leave them and enter the interstitial space; if this occurs in a closed space it results in a bruise
differential reproduction
when mutation or recombination results in a change that is favorable to the organism's reproductive success, that change is more likely to pass on to the next generation, and the opposite is also true -current form of Darwin's theory
surplus and populations
when one sex has a larger population than the other
exocytosis
when secretory vesicles fuse with the membrane, releasing material from inside the cell to the extracellular environment -important in nervous system and intracellular signaling
micturition reflex
when the bladder is full, stretch receptors convey to the NS that the bladder requires emptying; this causes parasympathetic neurons to fire, and the detrusor muscle contracts -this contraction also causes the internal sphincter to relax - the micturition reflex
endocytosis
when the cell membrane invaginates and engulfs material to bring it into the cell -the material is encased in a vesicle, which is important because cells will sometimes ingest toxic substances -initiated by substrate binding to specific receptors embedded within the plasma membrane
inbreeding depression
when the loss of genetic variation causes reduced fitness of the population
culture shock
when traveling outside of one's own society, cultural differences can seem very dramatic
gentrification
when upper- and middle-class populations begin to purchase and renovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing the low-SES population
residential segregation
where one lives - urban, suburban, or rural environment, and which neighborhood in that environment - affects how people interact, cooperate, and advance -urban: more diversity, more anonymity, more opportunities than rural areas (don't take up family business as much for example), more career options, can improve SES more easily (edu, career choice, marriage); but this also depends on neighborhood (quality of schools, college grads, violent crime, etc.)
extrusion
where virus leaves cell by fusing with its plasma membrane; allows for survival of host cell and continued use of host cell by the virus; a virus in this state is said to be in a productive cycle
characteristic institution
where you find the basic organization of society; has changed throughout time (prehistoric - kin or clan, today - bureaucracy)
leukocytes
white blood cells -less than 1% of total blood volume (can increase like in infection) -part of immune system - defend against things not recognized as self -five types in two classes: granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes)
authentic self
who the person actually is, including positive and negative attributes
tactical self
who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us -similar to the ought self
ideal self
who we would like to be under optimal circumstances
mores
widely observed social norms
a person with type A blood...
will recognize the type A protein as self but the type B protein as foreign, and will make antibodies for types B and AB -produce A antigen -produce anti-B antibodies
glass ceiling
women are less frequently promoted in the workplace and may have more difficulty obtaining top-level administrative positions within a company
Alzheimer's men/women at greater risk
women at greater risk
what would happen if the thymus were deleted
would not be able to mount response against viruses... T-lymphocytes, which mature in the thymus, are the *ONLY* defense against intracellular pathogens!!!
are stereotypes ever positive, in a psychological sense
yes they categorize and systematize info to better identify items, predict their behavior, and react - like stereotyping what different cuisines taste like --> help define categories and determine what doesn't fit into the category
lipid digestion and absorption (whole process)
DIGESTION: -dietary fat is mostly triacylglycerols, with the remainder being cholesterol, cholesteryl esters, phospholipids, and free fatty acids -lipid digestion is minimal in the mouth and stomach; lipids are transported to the small intestine essentially intact -upon entry to the duodenum, emulsification occurs -formation of an emulsion increases the surface area of the lipid, which permits greater enzymatic interaction and processing -emulsification is aided by bile (secreted from liver and stored in gallbladder), which contains bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol -pancreas secretes pancreatic lipase, colipase, and cholesterol esterase into the small intestine, which together hydrolyze the lipid components to 2-monoacylglycerol, free fatty acids, and cholesterol MICELLE FORMATION: -emulsification is followed by absorption of fats by intestinal cells -free fatty acids, cholesterol, 2-monoacylglycerol, and bile salts form micelles (soluble in aqueous component of intestinal lumen) -at the end of the ileum, bile salts are actively reabsorbed and recycled; any fat remaining in the intestine will pass into the colon and ends up in the stool ABSORPTION: -micelles diffuse to the brush border of the intestinal mucosal cells, where they are absorbed -the digested lipids pass through the brush border where they are absorbed into the mucosa and re-esterified to form triacylglycerols and cholesteryl esters and packaged, along with certain apoproteins, fat soluble vitamins, and other lipids, into chylomicrons -chylomicrons leave the intestine via lacteals and re-enter the bloodstream through the thoracic duct -the more water-soluble short-chain fatty acids can be absorbed by simple diffusion directly into the bloodstream
Methylases
DNA methylases add methyl groups to cytosine and adenine nucleotides -Silencing gene expression -Silences genes in development that don't need to be activated anymo
Probe DNA
DNA with known sequence that is often added to a mixture of target DNA sequences in lab processes like PCR; when it binds to target sequences this may provide evidence of the presence of a gene of interest
What's this an example of: Hypertension and diabetes are more common in obsese people; thus a doctor may screen obese patients for HT and diabetes at a higher rate than healthy-weight patients, inflating the true value of teh secondary measurement
Detection bias
DNA binding domain
Domain of a transcripiton factor that binds to a speific nucleotide sequence in the promoter region or to a DNA response element to help recruit transcriptional machinery
Activation domain
Domain of transcription factor that allows for the binding of several transcription factors and other important regulatory proteins like RNA polymerase and histone acetylases
risk of Alzheimer's is higher in people with what disorder
Down syndrome -B-amyloid precursor gene on chromosome 21 is associated with developing Alzheimer's
galactose metabolism
ENTERS GLYCOLYSIS AT GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE -reaches liver through the hepatic portal vein -once transported into tissues, it is phosphorylated by *galactokinase*, trapping it in the cell -then galactose-1-phosphate is converted to glucose-1-phosphate by *galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase* and an epimerase -then from there becomes glycogen and/or glucose-6-phosphate (then to glycolysis or glucose)
Nucleotide excision repair
Eliminates thymine dimers that form because of UV light -A cut-and-patch process -Starts because specific proteins scan the molecule and recognize the lesion because of a bulge in the strand
Humanistic perspective
Emphasizes the internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward happiness and self-realization -Personality is the result of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals -Gestalt therapy
MSH2 and MLH1
Encode the enzymes that are used for mismatch repair during G2 -These enzymes are homologues of MutS and MutL in prokaryotes
Ribozyme
Enzyme made of RNA molecules instead of peptides
Proofreading
First DNA repair mechanism, very good -When the complementary strands have incorrectly paired bases, the H bonds between strands can be unstable, and this lack of stability is detected as the DNA passes through this part of the polymerase -3' to 5' exonuclease repair -The incorrect base is excised and can be replaced with the correct one (the polymerase knows which one the template strand is because it's more methylated) -DNA ligase lacks proofreading ability, so the likelihood of mutations in the lagging strand is much higher than the leading strand
Initiation
First step of translation -Small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA (in prokaryotes, to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in the 5'UTR; in eukaryotes, to the 5' cap) -Charged *initiator tRNA* binds to the AUG start codon thru base pairing in P site of ribosome - the initial AA in proks is N-formylmethionine (fMet) and in euks is Met -Large subunit binds to small subunit, forming completed initiation complex - this is assisted by *initiation factors* that are not permanently associated with the ribosome
agents of socialization
HUGE number -include family to peers to work to environment to geography to ethnic background to social groups to media and more
How/why can DNA be denatured
Heat, alkaline (basic) pH, and chemicals like formaldehyde and urea -Need access to DNA for things like replication and transcription
causes for attribution
Heider put them in 2 main categories, dispositional (internal) and situational (external)
Beginning of transcription
Helicase, topoisomerase, etc. unwind dsDNA and prevent formation of supercoils Only ONE STRAND of mRNA results (because only the template strand is used as a template)
Additional function of telomere
High GC content creates strong strand attractions at the end of chromosomes to prevent unraveling - "knot off" the end of the chromosome
Hfr
High frequency of recombination cells that have undergone this change: after conjugation has occurred, if the sex factor plasmid becomes integrated into the host genome, then the entire genome replicates because it now contains the sex factor, and the donor cell will then attempt to transfer an entire copy of its whole genome into the recipient; the bridge usually breaks before the whole DNA sequence can be moved A bacterium that possesses the F factor integrated into the bacterial genome, hence, when it conjugates with another bacterium, it attempts to transfer a copy of the F factor as well as a portion of or the entire chromosome to the recipient bacterium.
Social cognitive perspective (personality)
How environment influences our behavior and how we interact with that environment (personality comes from these interactions) -Reciprocal determinism -Locus of control Best predictor of future behavior is past behavior in similar situations
Personal construct psychology
Humanism -The individual is a scientist, a person who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life; the individual constructs a scheme of anticipation of what other people will do -Psychotherapy is a process of insight in which the individual acquires new constructs that will allow him/her to successfully predict troublesome events
Gestalt therapy
Humanistic approach Practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives
Force field theory
Humanistic theory -The field is one's current state of mind, which is simply the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time - forces either assist inattainment of goals or block our path to them -Focused little on personality constraints or on the individual's past or future
how does insulin affect fats?
INCREASES: -glucose and triglyceride uptake by fat cells -lipoprotein lipase activity, which clears VLDL and chylomicrons from the blood -triglyceride synthesis in adipose tissue and the liver from acetyl-CoA DECREASES: -triglyceride breakdown in adipose tissue -formation of ketone bodies by liver
Sense strand
Identical to the mRNA except T and U (sequence determined off of template strand); coding strand
Coding strand
Identical to the mRNA except T and U (sequence determined off of template strand); sense strand
Gene duplication
Increases expression of a gene product -Can be duplicated in series on same chromosome, yielding many copies in a row of the same genetic info -Or can be duplicated in parallel by opening the gene w helicases and permitting DNA replication of only that gene (end w many copies on same chromosome)
Janis and groupthink
Janis studied decisionmaking of groups that had led to bad foreign policy decisions and examined 8 factors that are indicative of groupthink: 1) *illusion of invulnerability* 2) *collective rationalization* 3) *illusion of morality* 4) *excessive stereotyping* 5) *pressure for conformity* 6) *self-censorship* 7) *illusion of unanimity* 8) *mindguards*
what is most responsible for gradual change of body mass over time
LIPIDS! -water is subject to rapid adjustment and is source of frequent minor fluctuations -overall mass of proteins and carbs usually stable over time but can be modified by periods of prolonged starvation or significant muscle-building activities
primary target for glucagon
LIVER!
Equipoise
Lack of knowledge of which treatment is superior to another -If it becomes evident that one treatment is superior before the study is scheduled to finish, trial must be stopped because providing inferior treatment is net harm - an aspect of beneficence
DNA librarires
Large collections of known DNA sequences -DNA fragments, often digested randomly, are cloned into vectors and can be utilized for further study -Either of genomic DNA or cDNA
Termination
Last step of translation -When any of the 3 stop codons moves to the A site, *release factor* binds to the termination codon, causing a water molecule to be added to the PP chain -This allows peptidyl transferase and termination factors to hydrolyze the completed PP chain from the final tRNA -The PP chain will then be released from the tRNA in the P site and the 2 ribosomal subunits will dislocate
cDNA libraries
Libraries constructed by reverse-transcribing processed mRNA -Thus uses reverse transcriptase and DNA ligase (cloned into vectors to be utilized for further study) -Thus lacks noncoding regions and only includes the genes expressed in the tissue from which the mRNA was isolated -cDNA = complementary DNA; these libraries are called "expression libraries"
Surfactant
Lowers the surface tension at the surface of a liquid, serving as a detergent or emulsifier
exogenous pathway
MHC-II pathway - antigens originated outside of the cell (because the pathogen was endocytosed)
Chromatin
Made up of DNA and its associated histones -The DNA that makes up a chromosome is in this structure
Central traits
Major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, like honesty or charisma
Neuroticism
Measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations (if neurotic, high emotional arousal)
Extraversion
Measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation
Justice (medical)
Medicine core ethical tenet - Responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care and to distribute healthcare resources fairly
Beneficence (medical)
Medicine core ethical tenet - The obligation to act in the patient's best interest
Nonmaleficence
Medicine core ethical tenet - The obligation to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweihs the potential benefit
largest proportion of immigrants are from what countries (recently)?
Mexico, Caribbean, India
Transgenic mice
Mice that are altered at their germ line by introducing a cloned gene (transgene) fertilized ova or into embryonic stem cells
citric acid cycle and mnemonic
Mnemonic for substrates: Please, Can I Keep Selling Seashells For Money, Officer? Pyruvate, Citrate, Isocitrate, a-KG, Succinyl-CoA, Succinate, Fumarate, Malate, Oxaloacetate
carbon dioxide and the blood
Most CO2 exists in the blood as HCO3- -When CO2 enters an RBC it encounters carbonic anhydrase which cobines CO2 and water to make H2CO3 Think: CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3- -This will dissociate into a proton and the bicarbonate anion (both have high solubilities in water so good for transporting metabolic wastes to lung) -When they reach the alveolar capillaries, the reaction above can be reversed so we breathe out CO2 -Increased CO2 production will cause right shift in equation, resulting in increased [H+] -These protons can bind to hemoglobin, reducing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen -The whole curve shifts right - *Bohr effect* -This allows for still 100%ish O2 saturation in the lungs, but lower affinity allows more oxygen to be unloaded at the tissues (like at exercising muscle with PP of 20 mmHg, the affinity is lower)
Truncation mutation aka
Nonsense mutation
Initiation factors
Not permanently associated with the ribosome; help large subunit bind to small subunit after small subunit binds protein, in order to form the completed initiation complex
individual is perfectionistic and inflexible, tending to like rules and order
OCPD
Chimera
Organism that has patches of cells derived from 2 lineages - one that has the transgene and one that does not -Result of developing transgenic mice via embryonic stem cells
PCR
Polymerase chain reaction (type of hybridization) -Automated process that can produce millions of copies of DNA sequence without amplifying the DNA in bacteria -Knowing the sequences that flank the desired region allows for amplification of sequences in between -Requires primers complementary to the DNA that flanks the region of interest, nucleotides, and DNA polymerase; also heat to cause double helix to denature (DNA pol from humans doesn't work at high temps so we use Thermus aquaticus) -DNA of interest is denatured, replicated, and then cooled to allow reannealing of the daughter strands with parent strands -Repeated until enough copies of the DNA sequence are available for further testing
erythrocyte
RBC; specialized cell for oxygen transport -each one contains 250 million molecules of hemoglobin, which can each bind 4 molecules of O2 --> 1 billion molecules of oxygen
respiratory quotient
RQ = (CO2 produced)/(O2 consumed) for the complete combustion of a given fuel source helps us analyze the metabolism that is occurring
Deacetylases
Remove acetyl groups from histones --> closed chromatin conformation and overall decrease in gene expression levels in cell
Trp operon
Repressible system (negative) -When trp is high in the local environment, it acts as a corepressor -The binding of 2 molecules of Trp ot the repressor causes the repressor to bind to the operator site -Thus the cell turns off its machinery to synthesize its own Trp
systematic error
Reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same direction. Systematic errors are often due to a problem which persists throughout the entire experiment. They may occur because: -there is something wrong with the instrument or its data handling system -because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter LIMITS ACCURACY Leads to bias (random error does not)
Detection bias
Results from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way; because prior studies have indicated that there is a correlation between 2 variables, finding one of them increases the likelihood that the researcher will search for the second -Ex: Hypertension and diabetes are more common in obsese people; thus a doctor may screen obese patients for HT and diabetes at a higher rate than healthy-weight patients, inflating the true value of teh secondary measurement
class
SES -one of the major social factors that influences prejudice and discrimination
pathway of sperm thru male reproductive system
SEVE(N) UP Seminiferous tubules Epididymis Vas deferens Ejaculatory duct (Nothing) Urethra Penis
How does a protein get secreted
Signal sequence directs the ribosome to move to the ER (then the signal sequence is removed) so the protein can be directly translated into lumen of rough ER -Then Golgi (glycosylation; must be properly folded first) -Then vesicle -Then exocytosis
Promoter
Special region of DNA that helps RNA polymerase locate genes; RNAP binds here
Spliceosome
Splicing happens here -snRNA (small nuclear RNA) molecules couple with snRNPs (small nuclear ribonucleoproteins) -snRNA/snRNP complex recognizes both the 5' and 3' splice sites of the introns -Introns are excised in the form of a lariat and then degraded
Colloid
Substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance -Like when we add a soap to oil-water mixture
Acetylases
TFs that bind to DNA can recruit these -Acetylate lysine rsidues on amino terminal tail regions of histones -Decreases + charge and results in open chromatin conformation, easier access to transcriptional machinery
Example of DNA CODING STRAND that would code for premature stop codon
TGA
cytotoxic T cells
Tc, CTL, or CD8+ T cells -directly kill virally infected cells by injecting toxic chemicals that promote apoptosis into the infected cell -respond to antigens on MHC-I, so best against viral (and intracellular bacterial or fungal) infections
In DNA proofreading how can polymerase tell which is the template strand and which is the daughter strand
Template strand is more methylated
Required Hill criteria to prove causality
Temporality (exposure must occur before outcome) -However this is not sufficient but simply required