Developmental Psych Midterm III
marshmallow test
- Children are told that they can either have one marshmallow right now or wait and receive two later on. - the more the kids are able to distract themselves the longer they were able to wait. Finding an alternative strategy is one way that children regulate their emotions. - Walter Michelle tracked the kids after they finished the experiment and he found that the kids who were able to wait to get 2 generally did better in school, had fewer behavioral problems, and also did better on standardized test years later. - Delayed gratification ability predicts a number of future tests and abilities for the child.
Freudian belief about children and mom
- Children develop feelings of mom as strongest love object, causing them to develop a fear of loss of love.
How do children impact parenting styles
- Children elecit positive and negative behaviors form parents. - Child filter and react to parental behaviors based on their own views of these behaviors o Bidirectional influence that change the way that parents and children relate to each other
How are 3 year old children at differentiating between
- Children have difficulties differentiating between the real and fake emotions of other people - The expressions that other people show might not be true comes a little later. -Has to do with deception and related to theory of mind. Children have not truly gained this yet, and so it is difficult for them to understand it
Kant problems
- Studied by psychologist using complex issues o Like the trolley problem ♣ You are on trolley about to kill 5 people, but veering will kill one person. The moral dilemma is killing one person with your own agency versus killing the five people
Study for intervention of attachment
- Study conducted Netherlands ½ moms of 6 mo babies at risk for insecure attachment were randomly assigned to a condition in which sensitivity was trained and the ohter half were in control condition o Mother sensitivity is linked with child empathy and secure attachment style o They were labelled at as risk either by their own actions (drug use), or previous insecure attachments of older children o 3 mo later more the infants of the moms in the experiment group were securely attached than control group o differences in attachment still existed when kid was 18 mo, 24 mo, and 3.5 yrs
embarrassment
- The amount of children that are able to feel embarrassment is much higher for those who touched their body and thus passed the rouge self-recognition test
emotional regualtion
- The process of initiating, inhibiting or modulating internal feeling state, emotional related physiological process and emotion-related cognitions or behaviors in the service of accomplishing one's goal
initial reception of Freud theories
- Theory initially rejected
Brain areas and discrete emotion theory
- There is research that shows there are different areas of the brain that control fake smiles versus real smiles.. - More evidence o Even in blind children facial expression there is similarity and consistency in their facial expression o Also occurs in corss-cultural studies
Kohlberg morality theory (conformity)
- To identify morality with conformity is to be forced to take the position that a loyal Nazi was behaving morally o Emphasized the danger in thinking that morality and conformity are the same
What's the importance of Erikson's stages
- Unsuccessful task/crisis will bring developmental problems for your - Thought that individuals faced different crises that must be resolved. Thought there was a quest for identity - Successful navigation of these phases result in a strong development of personality and well adjusted adults]
Problems with Freud's theories
- Vague and untestable hypothesis - Development does not end after childhood, which he never really talked about - Dreams and slips don't always reflect hidden desires
Kohlberg Western biases
- Western bias o Heavy western bias that suggest that people of different cultures don't necessarily reach the same stages, which is probably not true.
Goodness of fit
- degree to which an individual's temperament is compatible with the demands an expectation of his/her social environment
behavior modification
- form of therapy based on principles of operant condition in which reinforcement contingencies are changed to enocourage more adaptive behavior.
Two stages Piaget
- heteronmy - autonomy
Disorganize/disorientated attachment
- infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with stress of Strange situation. Behavior is often confused ore event contradictory, and often appear dazed or disorientated.
Fixated
- overly focused on the needs of one stage and always working to satisfy those needs and resolve associated conflicts.
Secondary Emotions
- require a sense of self and self evaluation which could explain why they develop later o 15-24mo first time young children show embarrassment o 3 yrs is the first time that young children show pride
Co-regulation
- the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce his or her distress
Discoveries from Skinner's research
-- Attention is a powerful motivator -- Time-out works because it temporarily isolates the child and withdraws attention. Ends reinforncement for the behavior.
main ideas of ecological theories of development
-Behavior shaped by evolution just as physical characteristics are o Different strategies and behavior were selected for
psychic energy
-Biologically based instinctual drive that fuels behaviors -Energy that needs to let out, and it will be let out in different ways depending on the stage of development. -Children move through phases of erotic zones in order to decrease "psychic energy"
What were some of the major breakthroughs in attachment research
-Dr. Brennomen -Psychologist Catherine Wolf -Harlow's experiment
emotional development
-Essential for human social life. o Determine how we interact with each other. o Guide action and feelings - Characterized by neural and physiological responses, subjective feelings, emotional expressions, cognitions related to these feelings and often the desire to take action o Generally, think of these stimuli as occurring nearly simultaneously
What were Bowlby's main infleunce
-Freudian theories -Ecological ideas
executive function task
-Performance on delayed gratification task are linked to performance -Executive functioning is pretty much the capacity to inhibit potent Reponses. Moving flexibly from one task to another (like UNO)
Erikson's stages and ages
-basic trust v mistrust (birth to 1 yrs) [hope] -autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 to 3) [willpower] -intiative vs. guilt [Purpose] o Industry vs. inferiority (6 to puberty) [Competance] o Identity vs. role confusions , adolescence to early adultery hood (fidelity) o Intimacy vs. isolation (Love) o Generativity vs. stagnation, middle age (care) o Ego integrity vs. despair old age (Wisdom)
3 origins of aggression
-biological -parental quality -peers
smile development
-birth endogenous smiles -1 to 3 mo. exogenous smiles - 3 to 6 mo. When the first satisfied smiles start occurring.. When the baby is pleased or satisfied
ID
-controls babies ♣ Pleasure Principle • Not grounded in reality o Reduces drives in an unhelpful way like sucking on your thumb when you're hungry • Only does what feels good when ever • Described it as stupid
Child maltreatment
-intentional abuse or neglect that endangers the well-being of anyone under the age of 18. - More maltreatment and increased severity more likely that the child will have future problems
How is the Six dimensions of infant temperament different from Chess study (Rothbert & Bates)
-more modern approach -♣ Also uses questionnaires, but has parents rate frequency that child shows the specific temperaments. Allows the idea that the child shows all of these different temperaments at a given time.
Exogenous/Social smiles
-occurs around 1 to 3 months and they start to smile in response to outside stimuli - Evolutionary function that causes the parents to invest in their offspring.
Functionalist approach
-often subconscious - The basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal - Emotional reactions area affected by social goals - Emotions are not discrete form one another and vary based on social environment o Not necessarily discrete from each other o For example, embarrassment depends upon your social environment on how and where you will be embarrassed.
3 new ways to determine child temperment
-parental report -EEG recordings -lab studies
What are the 4 phases of attachment development
-preattachement - attachment-in the making - clear-cut attachement - reciprocal relationships
3 attachment types and numbers
-secure (50 to 60%) -insecure/resistant (9%) -insecure//avoidant (15%)
Commonalities between Bowlby and Ainsworth
-secure base -humans are very altricial -strong evolutionary basis
3 important social conginiton theories
-sellman's stage theory of role taking -dodge's information processing theory of social problem solving -Dweck's theory son self-attributions and acheivement motivation
Timeline of negative emotion development
1. 4 to 6 mo 2. 6 mo. surprise 3. Between 7 and 8 mo fear.
4 main types/families of social development theories
1. Psychoanalytic theories 2. Learning theories 3. Theories of social cognition 4. Ecological theories
two hypothesis of the internet
1. rich get richer 2. social compensation
clear-cut attachement
(6 to 8 mo to 1.5 yrs). Infatns actively seek contact with caregivers. Greet them happily. Can exhibit separation anexity when they leave
attachment-in the making
(6 we to 6-8 mo). Infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people. Smile, laugh or babble and are soothed more easily by primary caregiver
anal stage (t)
2nd stage last form 2nd to 3rd yr and primary pleasure comes from defection
what is necessary for observational learning
Attention, encoding, retival, and storing are necessary for proper observational learning.
Low responsiveness, high demandingness
Authoritarian parenting
high responsiveness, high demandingness
Authoritative parenting (best outcomes for the child in the future. Correlated with the most competent self-assured children. Fostering independence and self-reliance).
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura's concept that child- environment infleunce operate in both directions; children are affected by aspects of their environment, but they also influence the environment
Electra complex
Fredu's term for the convlict experienced by girsl in the phallic stage when they develop unacceptable romatic feelings for their father and see their mother as rival
parents dismissive child emotion
Parents who are dismissive of children's emotions tend help form children who are low in social comptence and less sympathetic to the plight of others
PreConventional period Kohlberg: (stage, age, description)
Obedience/ Punishment Infancy No real difference between doing right and avoiding punishment, but nothing to do with morality Self-interest Pre-School until age 10 Interest shifts to rewards rather than punishment. Want to secure benefits for yourself. More egocentric, focused on outcome. "tit for tat"
when can babies identify the 6 basic emotions
At 7 mo infants identify the 6 basic emotions
coaching
Preschool children generally more popular if their parents effectively coach them in how to deal with unfamiliar peers
Low responsiveness/sensitivity; Low demandingness
Rejecting-neglecting parenting.
embedded cognitions
[Supports discrete emotions, as certain mannerisms can lead to certain cognitions only} Goes back and forth can be positive (frown upside down) or negative (stewardess) o There is research that suggests that putting on a certain expression might help you feel it more o But there is also research that suggests that putting on a false emotion creates stress (fake emotion) for too long
Systemic desensitization
a form of therapy based on classical condtioning in which positive response are gradually conditioned to stumli that initially elecited a highly negative response. This approach is especially useful in the treatment of fears and phobias.
Stress
a physioligcal reaction some change or threat in the envirionement
Incremental theory
a theory that a person's intelligence can grow as a function of experience.
Age related to secondary emotion capacity
Some evidence that individual variability in the age at which self-recognition occurs (shown by the Rouge test), influences how much children develop secondary emotions.
Temperament (l
Stable disposition of the child.
Entity theory
a theory that a person's level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
What is a theory of social development
a theory that have tried to explain a child's development in their social world.
Parental investment theory
a theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many apsects of parental behavior including the extensive investment parents make in their offspring. - Stepchildren more likely to receive abuse, violence, and accidental deaths (drowinging)
Conventional period Kohlberg: (stage, age, description)
Conformity and Interpersonal Accord School age Good bye/girl level. Internalizing society rules. Want to secure approval and maintain friendly relations (hero for saving wife and getting drugs) Authority and Social Order School age Focused on fixed rules. Need to have certain laws to not have anarchy
Temperament
Constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation. Temperamental characteristics are seen to demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as stability over time
How do the causes of behavior disorders support bronfenbrenner's ecological model
Could be affected by • Parental treatment • Poverty • Neighborhood
emotional intelligence
abiity to cognitively process information about emotions and to use that information to guide both thought and behavior.
sympathy
feeling of concern for another in response to the other's emotional state or condition
Guilt
feeling of empathy towards sometone else through remorse or regret.
Separation anxiety
feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers experience when they are separated or expect to be separate from individual to whom they are emotionally attached
Dweck's theory of self-attribution and achievement motivation
growth and fixed/entity mindset
6 universal emotions
happiness, fear, anger, sadness, surprise disgust.
Altruistic motives
helping others for reasons that initially include empathy or sympathy for others and, at later ages, the desire to act in ways consistent with one's own conscience and moral principles.
Cooperation
helping others possibly driven by sympathy or fairness
Temperament phenotype causes
high heritability. Stressful environments and maternal drug use. More genetic than environmental
Authoritarian parenting
high in demandingness and low in responsiveness. Nonresponsive to their children's needs and tend to enforce their demands through parental power and threats/punishment. Orientated toward obedience and authority expect children to comply with demands
Authoritative parenting
high in demandingness and supportiveness. Authoritative parents set clear standards an limits for their children and are firm about enforcing them. Also allow children considerable autonomy within these limits. Attentive and responsive and consider child's perspective. Children high is social and academic confidence.
Permissive parenting
high in responsiveness low in demandingness. Responsive to their children's needs and don't require their children to regulate themselves or act in appropriate or mature ways
Qsort measures
high reliability and high validity
Within person scale
idea that all people have some traits that are measured, and measure to see the exact amount within the person
Macrosystem
in the bioecological model the larger cutlrual and social context within which the other systems are embedded
Exosystem (t
in the bioecological model, enviornemental setting that a child does not directly expereinc but that can affect the child indirectly
Chronosystem (t
in the bioecological model, historical changes that influence the other systems.
intermittent reifnrocment
inconsistent response to the behavior of anther person for example, sometimes punishing an unacceptable behavior and soemtiems ignorit it
Temperament (t
individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present form infancy and thus thought to be genetically based.
Conscience
internal regulatory mechanism that increase the individual's ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in his/her culture
what did Erikson think of the problems of childhood
its possible to resolve if went backword to solve crisis
Relational aggression
kind of aggression that involves excluding other from the social group and attempting to do harm to other people's relationships including spreading rumor, withholding friendship, and ignoring people
macrosystem
laws of the society
parental report (temperament)
• Advantages: constantly seeing child and they are essentially expermts on the child • Disadvantages: no other child to compare to. Also develop biases towards your and about your child.
self-distraction behavior
looking away from an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one's level of arousal - Increases over time
uninvolved parenting
low in demanding ness and responsiveness. Disengaged and neglectful
sociometric status
measurement that reflects the degree to which children are liked or disliked by peers as a group. Not necessarily stable, but more stable for rejected children
Depression
mental disorder that involves a sad or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that interfere with daily life
Thomas and Chess Temperament results
• Easy babies: 40% of infants; adjust easily to new situations, quickly establish routines, are generally cheerful and easy to calm. • Difficult babies: 10% of infants: slow to adjust to new experiences, likely to react negatively and intensely to stimuli and events • Slow to warm up babies: 15% of infants; somewhat difficult at first but become easier over time.
Six Dimensions of Infant Temperament
• Fearful distress • Irritable distress • Attention span and persistence • Activity level • positive affect • rhythmicity
Humans very altricial
• Humans require a lot of care and are dependent o their parents for a long development period.
parent sex differences
mother tend to spend more time with kids than fathers, but their affects of treatment on the child are pretty much the same.
Fast Track program
multi-yr preventative program to reduce h.a.b. in kindergarteners. With small group activities and coaching.
Coercive cycles
negative behavior in children produces frustration in parents which causes negative behavior in parents which produces worse behavior in children. Type of bidirectionality effect
emotions
neural and physiological responses to the envionrement, subjective feelings, congnitions related to those feelings and the desire to take action. 5 parts: neural response, physiological factors, subjective feelings, emotiona expressions, desire to take action
Bandura and Ross Study 1 procedure
o 36 boys and 36 girls ♣ 24 saw aggressive models ♣ 24, saw a non-aggressive mode ♣ 24 saw no mode • non-aggressive: assembled tinker toys • aggressive banged the doll and hit him repeatedly after starting assembling the tinker toy ♣ half of them saw a female model and half saw a male model ♣ Subjects were matched on aggressiveness by teacher's rating
Prosocial Behavior
o Actions that benefit others o Some are costly and others are at a cost to themselves o Very early on children notice when someone else is crying, and often will bring over their caregiver to help o Origins of altruistic prosocial behavior
Anti-social behavior
o Acts that harm others o Correlated with things that are considered amoral behaviors. o Kids in America commit murders, rapes, robberies, and assaults
Children left alone in kitchen Piaget story
o And tries to get cookies when mom isn't there and accidently breaks a cup or a plate o Attempts to help the parent by setting the table and accidently breaks a whole tray of cups/plates ♣ Young children tend to be more focused on the outcome, so they say the child who breaks multiple glasses/plates will be in more trouble than the one who only broke one. ♣ Older children tend to be more focused on the intentions of the child and the one who intended to do the wrong thing will be more in trouble than the others
evolutionary psychology
o Applies Darwinian concepts of natural selection and adaptation to human behavior o Basic idea is that certain genes predispose individuals to behave in certain ways that enchases survival chances ♣ For example, Parental Investment: any investment by the parent in an an individual offspring that increases the offspirng's chance of surviving (and hence reproductive success) at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring • Leads to sibling rivalry • Focuses on one child versus bettering the entire family
Self-disclosure to whom by age
o At the beginning disclosure tends to be towards parents and friends, but as children get older confiding tends to happen more towards friends and romantic partners o Friends provide validation and support, but in times of stress kids will go back to their family
Ekman research on basic research.
o Basic emotions can be distinguished by different universal facial expression (Evidence that these emotions are cross-cultural universial and develop relatively early.) ♣ Anger ♣ Fear ♣ Disgust ♣ Surprise ♣ Joy ♣ Sadness
biological component discrete emotion theory
o Biological component: Amygdala is generally involved with detecting and processing fear, indicating that there is support for the distinct emotion perspective, as there are distinct brain regions.
is there a way to reduce the steriopoties in the Harlow monkey
o But if moneky is raised with clothe moneys and peers they showed normal emotional affect and even better than just raised with cloth monkeys.
Why are peer relationship importatnt
o Children learn a lot about the world form their peers. Even as early as from the playgrounds among little kids. ♣ Piaget, Vygotsky argued that peer relationships give Unique context for social and cognitive development.
• Self fulfilling prophecy
o Children will be more confident in engaging in behaviors that they feel positively about and this will be a self-fulfilling prophecy. Constantly getting feedback informing your behavior. If you have self-efficacy in a domain that will create a self-fulfilling prophecy in that domain.
learned helplessness
o Classical conditioning ♣ Animals learn that he/she will get a shock based on a situation ♣ Learned to stop working hard to avoid shock if they keep getting it o Can be seen in children Can teach them to be helpless if we emphasize fixed mindset
Martin Daily and Wilson study on evolutionary psychology
o Compares genetic fathers to stepfathers and the likelihood of homicidal behavior. Children under age two are much more likely to be murdered by the stepfather than by their genetic father. o Idea is that genetic relatedness is the main thing that affects parental investment and the actions of the parents
- Evidence for Piaget theory
o Cross Cultural Work has confirmed Piaget's Moral theory. It does seem true for many children that when they are young they have more authoritative understanding of morality. o Parental punitiveness yields less mature moral reasoning. Increased puniativenes actually delays the change from initial moral stage to second moral stage - Perspective taking skills are correlated with moral reasoning o Reduced egocentrism - But there is no evidence that quantity of peer interactios simulate moral development. Quality seems more important
Dog punishment learning (food)
o Dog presented with two bowls. One tasty food and one with plain food. When dog attempts to eat tasty food they are either swatted right before they eat or when they eat. Dogs learn not to eat it faster when they are hit before eating the food versus when they are hit after eating the food . o Suggesting that penetrative measures might better than punishing the child after they do something bad.
Dr. Chaffen foster homes
o Dr. Chaffen in response to stats campaigned to remove children from institutions to foster homes.
- Behaviorism
o Emphasized reinforcement and the role of shaping in behavior o Environment only affects the child o Passive child
Basic idea of Bandura Bobo experiment
o Exposure to aggressive modeling causes children to not only play aggressively ,but to also invent new ways to aggression ♣ Guns and new ways to hit the children
what was the result of leaving the monkey in the cage alone
o Had weird affects. Did not relate to peers as well. Did not mate
4 key concepts of ecological theories of development
o Interaction of nature and nature o Importance of sociocultural context o Continuity of development o Children's active role in their own development is the main focus
Loneliness
o Internal self understanding of your experience, not necessarily related to the number of friends that you have o Associated with many mental health disorders including suicide and Alzheimer's. Also associated with poor physical health. o Can be predicted by sociometric status
Anna Frued and Sophie Dan on peer relationships
o Kids were living in concentration camp without parents o Kids were monitored somewhat by parents, but mostly relied on themselves. Group of orphans liberated from a Nazi concentration camp at the end of WWII ♣ Results: The children were really dependent on each other and would sometimes show aggression towards other and groupthink • Parallels Harlow monkey story
how is negative emotion development different from positive emotion development
o Negative emotions: are more difficult to tease apart. Distress and negative emtions are internally generated
Social Learning Theory Bandura
o Observation and imitation can work just for the expectation of the reward, but they don't rally need the reward. Vicarious reinforcement can work too sometimes
Emotional regulation in older children
o Older kids use cognitive strategies in addition to behavioral strategies like rethinking their emotions and actions. o There is increasing ability to use cognitive strategies
Freudian stages of development
o Oral stage (before 1) o Anal stage (1-3) o Phallic stage (3 -6) o Latency stage (6 -12) o Genial stage (puberty)
ego and consciousness
o Origin of consciousness ♣ Link to reality ♣ Learning to delay gratification ♣ Learning to reduce drives in a more reality grounded way real part of a person's personality (ie how much they give into the either one).
- Depressed primary caregiver
o Parent becomes less accurate at judging both negative and positive emotions in infants ♣ View their own baby as more negative o View own babies a more negative than objective observer
parent child interaction and peer relations
o Parent-child interactions are associated with peer relationship in ways similar to attachment patters ♣ Mothers of popular children are more likely than mothers of less popular child to discuss feeling and warm verbalization reasoning and explanations ♣ Father's parenting practices seem less correlated to children's social competence and sociometric status.
5 things correlated with secure attachments
o Parental relationships o Peer relationships o Romantic relationships o Emotional health o Higher grades
parenting style (l)
o Parenting styles are parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate of parent-child interactions
How does martial conflict influence child's emotions
o Parents engage in more negative parenting of preschool children (no, saying no, yelling no) o Preschool children are worst at regulating emotions o Infants ♣ Poorer parasympathetic regulation ♣ Worse emotional regulation o One predictor of the child's emotional regulation
parental quality reason for aggression
o Parents who abusive punishment and provide salient models of aggression Inconsistent parental punishment/rewards.
Friendship over the yrs
o Positive, intimate reciprocated positive relationships between people. o Often random in the beginning and then become more selective ♣ Around 10 to 12 mo already observe that children differentiate between others. ♣ Children maintain friendships in an active way in the classroom ♣ In preschool friends generally made for proximity, similarity in age, and by the end of preschool preference for same sex friendship.
- The still face experiment
o Primary caregiver makes faces at the baby and the baby makes faces at the back o Then create a mother affect in which the mother doesn't respond and only shows blank affect ♣ Baby reacts with negative emotions and the baby feels more distressed and begins to start crying ♣ A depressed caregiver is analogous to this and that is extremely distressing for the infant.
rich get richer
o Rich get richer hypothesis Socially competent people may benefit more from the internet because they more likely to interact in appropriate and positive ways
social compensation
o Social-compensation hypothesis: Online tech may provide a means of obtaining communication and emotional intimacy with peers.
- How could parents influence their children's emotional development
o The language that parents uses, the way they respond to emotions, and the way they respond to their children. -Displays of parents own emotions -Reaction to children's emotions -Discussion about emotions.
- Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model
o There are many different levels of ecological influences on children Including: 1. microsystems 2. mesosystems 3. ecosystems 4. macrosystem 5. chronosystem
Ecological ideas that influenced Bowlby
o Thought that attachement is a lot like imprinting and that humans imprint on the one that is closesr to the them (mother or father)
Thomas and Chess Temperament experiment background
o Tried to figure out types --First attempt to diffrentiatie individual differences in children. -Opposing Normative model. Thinking about individual differences. However, sill influenced by behaviorism, so created questionnaires to get objective answers about the child's behavior. (very behavioristic, not just subjective opinions of parents)
Superego
o Voice of conscience that focuses on how we ought to behave o Developing as child internalizes their parents' standards o Voice of conscience that focuses on how we ought to behave o Children are internalizing what they should be ashamed of and what's gross Still not rooted in reality; very much a heavy extreme ♣ Voice of shame and disgust for example toilet training
3 ways parents can influence children's development
o direct instruction. Teach them how to tie their shoe o indirect socializer: children learn by observing their parents and internalize trends and info. o Providers and controllers of opportunities: esp true in early childhood. But also throughout life you're dependent upon your parents and what they can provide for you.
Konrad Lorenz
o ducks imprint onto first moving figure and imprint on them (critical period for imprinting). ♣ Experience expectant process.
5 within person traits of temperament
o fear o distress at limitation or anger/frustration o attention span o activity level o smiling/laughter - different temperaments also produce different HRV
Endogenous smiles
o occurs right after birth. Generated internally. Often happens during REM sleep. Does not happen to outside stimulus
Vicarious reinforcement
observing someone else receive a reward or punishment
Bidirectionality
of parent-child interactions- parents and their children are mutually affected by one another's characteristics and behavior
Sellman's stage theory idea
• Like Dodge Tries to explain why children's social world/social problem solving changes dramatically • Believes that what's changing over development is the ability to adopt other people's perspectives • Aspect of being able to put yourself in other's shoes develops throughout development
Parenting style
parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate in regard to parent-child interacting, such as parental responsiveness and demandingness
emotional coaching
parents discuss emotins with their children and help learn ways to cope with the emotions
how does parental emotional expression affect children
parents expression of emotion provides children with a model of when and how to express emotion. Depression and anger can increase the likelihood of the child expressing these emotions.
Insecure attachment-
pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a less positive attachment to their caregiver than do securely attached children. Insecurely attached children can be classified as insecure/resistant (ambivalent0 insecure/avoidant, or disorganized/disorientated.
Anger/sadness timeline
peaks around 18 to 24 mo and readce form 3 to 6 yrs
Shame
personal understanding and negative emotion directed towards yourself and you're behavior.
sociometric status categoreis
popular, rejected, neglected, average, controversial
what did Frued think of the problems of childhood
problems of chlldhood are irreversible and cause lasting damage.
Emotional socialization
process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and furutre roel in their particular culture
Preconventional level
self- centered. Focused on rewards and punishment.
Harlow experiment cloth mother
serves as base/starting mother, from which the monekys can seek comfort and then explore new surroundings.
Emotion regulation
set of both conscious and unconscious process used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions
Anxiety disorders
set of mental disorders that involve the inability to regulate fear and worry - 1/3 variance seen as heritable
discipline
set of strategies and behaviors parents use to teach children how to behave appropriately
2 important kinds of pro-social behavior
sharing and cooperation
Social smiles
smiles that are directed at people; they first emerge as early as 6 or 7 mo
Selman
social cognition is hampared by children's inability to do role taking behavior.
Display rules (t
social groups' informal norms about when, where, and how much one should show emotions and when/where dipslays of emotion should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions. - Children increasingly abide by display rules with age, they also get better at masking their emotions with age.
Mental disorder and treatments
state of having problems with emotional reactions to the environment and with social relationships in ways that affect daily life - drugs and CBT are generally used as treatment
Traumatic stress
stress created by a single negative event
Individual differences
strongly contribute to the type of parenting the children receive.
etiology
study of the evolutionary bases of behavior
ADHD
system that involves difficulty in sustaining attention. Highly heritable. Also maternal drug/alcohol use has an affect. Diet
Hostile attributional bias
tendency to assume that other people's ambigious actions stem from hostile intent (neglect/abuse in early ages, harsh parenting, underdeveloped understanding of what promotes anger in other people)
Social competence
the ability to achieve personal goals in social interaction while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others -- Those who are able to deal constructively with stressful sitation shave more positive outlooks than peers
Rumination
the act of focusing ion one's own negative emotions and negative self-appraisals and on their causes and consequences without engaging in efforts to improve one's situation
Q-sort
the attachment Q-set was developed to provide an economical methodology for further examining relations between secure base behavior at home and strange situation classifications.
Mesosystem
the bioecological model, the interconnections aont immediate or microsystem settigns
Mutlifinality
the concept that certain risk factors do to always lead to mental disorder
Equifinality
the concept that various causes can lead to the same mental disorder
Toxic stress
the experience of over-whelming levels stress without support form adults to help mitigate the effects of that stress
Genital stage: (t)
the final stage in Freud's theory, beginning in adolsence in which seucla maturation is complete and sexual intercourse is a major goal
Oral stage (t)
the first stage in Freud's theory occurring in the 1st yr in wihch the primary source of satisfaction and pleasure is oral activity
family dynamics
the way in which family members interact through various relationship: mother with each child, father with each child, mother with father and siblings with one another
Prosocial behavior
voluntary behavior intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing with, and comforting others
Interalization (t)
the process of adopting as one's own the attributes beleifs and standards of another person (generally parents)
socialization
the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their particular culture
Ego (t)
the second personality structure to develop. Rational logical problem solving component of personality
Social referencing
the use of a parent's or other adult's facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations.
Secure attachment
• "The infant and young child should experience a warm intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother or permanently mother substitute in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment."
What therapy was inspired by Skinner's work
behavior modification therapy
Role taking
being aware of the perspective of another person, therby better understanding that person's behavior thoughts, and feelings
Attachment relationship
between child and someone else.
Microsystem (t
bioecological model, the immediate envionremnt that an individual child personally experiences and participates in
similarities between freud and Erikson
both use stage theories and believe that the family/enviornement are important for shaping the induvidual
Parental sensitivity
caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children, such as when they require assistance or are in distress.
popular (peer status)
category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are viewed positively by many peers and are viewed negatively by few peers.
Rejected children
category that refers to children or adolescents who are not liked by most people and disliked by many. Less developed theory of mind
Post conventional
centered on ideals and moral principles. Best interest of the group.
Internal working model of attachment
child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figures and of relationships in general that is constructed as result of experiences with caregiver. The working model guides children's interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages.
Dr. Harlow Rhesus Monkey experiment background
• Monkeys were really expensive and he wanted to do research on monkey learning habits, but wanted to avoid contagion • So began to remove monkeys from mom's cages hrs after they were born and the monkeys developed steriopoty, (odd actions that interfere with daily life) but physically fine
EEG recordings (temperament)
• When children are confronted with novel stimuli or challenges. Kids who show right frontal activity are more likely to show withdrawal, fear, anxiety in the future. • When confronted with new situations, high levels of left frontal activity is correlated with exploration, positivity, and approach behavior
correlation of aggression levels self report
• When children self-report levels of aggression in age 8 it correlates with aggression in age 30
♣ Animal parallels of sociometric status
• When dominant males died en masse due to TB the baboon population became nicer as less dominant baboons rose to power.
Secure attachment characteristics
• When the caregiver leaves they may or may not leave, but they need to be happy when the caregiver returns and use them as a secure base. Seek comfort and desire to be near them. • Acknowledge's the mother's return and does not show an angry avoidance or uncomfortable contact. • Returns to play pretty quickly
Future trends for rejected children both types
• Withdrawn and rejected group tend to have increased amounts of problem including problems with the police, dropping out, suspensions. The aggressive-rejection children tend to have more externalizing behavioral problems and more internalizing loneliness problems
Aggressive-rejected children (l numbers and intervention
♣ 40-50% of rejected children tend to be aggressive. Related to hostile attribution theory. • Can do interventions through social problem solving, positive play training, group-entry skills training and dealing effectively with strong negative feelings. • 26 sessions for 30 min. After going thought this program children were rated more positively by their peers
Exosystem
♣ : things that influence the child that they do not directly interact with •Parent's professional space •Local services •Extended neighborhood •Extended family
sociometric status (l
♣ A term that evaluates a child's dominance/power in the social group and classroom. Kids are told to rate the children in their classroom based on who they like most and who they don't like. Then researcher's use the other other kids information to talk about the child's sociometric status.
growth mindset
♣ Ability can change (grow) incremental view of intelligence ♣ Tend to answer that they feel smart when they are learning more and gaining information ♣ Derive self-esteem based on own self evaluation ♣ Have incremental/mastery orientation ♣ Positive Infderence Rule • Effort allow syou to fully use ability (incremental theorists) ♣ Challenge seeking
Fixed mindset /entity theory & inverse rule
♣ Ability cannot change. Entity view of intelligence. Leads to helpless orientation. ♣ end to answer that they feel smart when they finish first and do well. When activities are easy for them. ♣ Derive self-esteem from praise/reward from others ♣ Inverse Rule • Tend to believe that individuals who exert a lot of effort do so because they have have low ability, so high effort = low ability • Hopes to inspire growth mindsets in children Way to inspire mastery orientation is to build growth mindsets
Bandura and Ross Study 1 results
♣ All children exposed to aggressive model showed much higher physical aggression towards doll than to those who did not see aggression modelled ♣ Boys showed more physically aggressive behavior than the girl children ♣ The children who saw the male model be aggressive, showed more physical aggression than if they saw the female model ♣ Female children seemed more affected by watching a female model verbally antagonize the doll
Bowlby attachment theory
♣ Attachment: strong emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across time and space • Bidirectional and defines ones particular attribute. Parents affect children and children affect parents. • Inspired by evolutionist thought
Autonomy v. shame/doubt
♣ Autonomy vs dependence ♣ Children are starting to learn new ways to do things on their own, but can't really do much without their independence ♣ The child is balancing the independence and wanting parents help ♣ Critical that parents don't shame children for their mood swings between independence and dependency ♣ Parents needed to be firm in setting limits and flexible giving them the independence they need ♣ Stage difficult for children. ♣ Children should be given simple decisions like (sandals or sneakers), no suggestions turned into questions (grocery store or nah).
polymorphic perversity
♣ Baby has pleasure areas all over the body, and any kind of external stimuli will help reduce the desires
Mary Ainsworth
♣ Began to develop an empirical measure to determine attachment levels. -Developed the strange situation test -did some cross-cultural work in Uganda
aggression
♣ Behavior aimed at harming or injuring others • Instrumental aggression: aggression motivated by a desire to obtain a concrete goal. • Relational aggression: Harms other by damaging peer relationships
- behavior modifications therapy
♣ Behavioral modification is the idea that you can change behavior through different kinds of positive and negative reward. For example: o intermittent reinforcement o Time outs ♣ Withdrawal positive feedback to children
newborn anger experiment
♣ Between 4 to 6 months: anger • Will hold down newborns' arms, which leads to anger. And newborns sometimes become selectively upset at the specific experimenter who held down their arm.
initiative v. guilt (purpose)
♣ Child acquiring a sense of purpose. ♣ Important to encourage children to use their energy in active and constructive way ♣ It would impede the child to hover too much and be too involved in their life.
o Autonomy
♣ Child is more focused on the intention and motivation of the actor
Friendship at age 7
♣ Children tend to seek out other kids who are more like them in aggression and maturity
Cooperation in Chimps
♣ Chimps will help one another sometimes, even if they are getting nothing out of it but only • If it doesn't require too much work from the helper • If the helper had the possibility of securing the food himself ♣ If two chimps are needed to work together to pull food to themselves they will help each other if the food is on either end • If the food is in the middle then the chimps have difficulty sharing the spoils and they stop helping each other
friendship in baboons
♣ Common in even non-human primates. ♣ Baboons there are particular males that are friends with females, and have no sexual relationships with the female Males who are friends with the females are more likely to aid the female who they are friends with. Also when the sound of the female's voice is played back males are more likely to look at the sound and go to the female when they hear her voice.
o Initiative vs guilt (4 to 6) [Purpose} (t)
♣ Develop a conscience
Kohlberg morality vignette
♣ Dilemma: Woman near death special kind of cancer. There was only a little bit of drug created by a pharmacist, who is selling it 10x as much he created. Man crowdfunds and only gets half the money. Pharmacist won't sell for less and husband steals • Small child says no shouldn't steal since authorities will capture him • Older child says yes because its right, and we don't need to always need follow the law • Teen says that he should steal the drug because life is more important than money.
Transitional Period Piaget
♣ During the transition period children are spending more time with their peer relationships and less with their (coercive authority), causing them to be more thoughtful about intentions and motivations. The authority makes the young child more salient about punishment and how they will be treated. The egalitarian relationship reduces egocentrism and allows children to be less authority focused.
o Industry vs. inferiority (6 to puberty) [Competence] (t
♣ Ego development ♣ Sense of confidence
o Autonomy vs shame and Doubt (1 to 3) [Willpower} (t)
♣ Either become confident or begin to doubt their abilities
Microsystem
♣ First interactions very local, but as they get older they meet more people.. Direct contact in these systems. • Family • Daycare • Doctor's office • Playground • School
retrospective v. prospective
♣ Freud Wanted to know about past experiences in the relationship, not the future relationships. ♣ Bowlby wanted to know about the prospective understanding of parents.
o Heteronomy
♣ Heavily focused on material features and the response of authority figures. Egocentric. More focused on punishment and number of things that went wrong. ♣ Children are heavily focused on rules and how it affects them. They start to view rules as things in themselves
Dr. Breenamon quarantine conclusion
♣ In 1931, Dr. Breennamon discovered that while quarantine was working, the youngest infants were still dying and the children that were the nurses' pets did not die.
o Basic Trust v mistrust (birth to 1 year) [Hope] (t)
♣ Infant either learns to feel good and reassured by being close to people or not.
Basic trust vs. mistrust
♣ Infant totally helpless and need parents to care for them ♣ Child learning internal coping ♣ Successful will develop a notion that the world is predictable and will be hopeful for the future because they have had all of their needs met throughout their life ♣ Needs to have this trust in order to build a healthy attachment ♣ If child did not get these contingent behavior, they would fail to develop empathy, which would impede social functioning in later stages. ♣ Can't delay gratification, so there should be no point in training. Should just have all their needs met.
Display Rules
♣ Information norms about when, where, and how much one should should show emotions and when emotions should be suppressed or masked • Children internalize this and start to develop to only show emotions at appropriate times.
performance goals motivate children is characterized by what
♣ Kids seek to gain favorable judgments of competence and avoid negative judgments ♣ Linked to entity theory of intelligence (fixed and unchangeable).
learning goals motivating children is characterized by what
♣ Kids want to increase competence and master new things. ♣ Incremental theory of intelligence (effort and persistence is impt in what it takes to be successful and intelligent)
Bandura and Ross Study 1 conclusions
♣ Learning happens through imitation not only when behaviors are directly rewarded or punished • No reinforcement or punishment, but still emulating the behavior ♣ Physical aggression imitation was greatest when the model was male ♣ Verbal aggression was greatest when the model was the same sex as the child.
o Identity vs. role confusions , adolescence to early adultery hood (fidelity) (t)
♣ Learning identity. Determine who they really are
hostile attribution bias
♣ Mal-adaptive for the child's biology o Tendency to search for hostile intent o Becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy ♣ Ex child in school gets bumped by a peer who is running. Child's stuff falls and others laugh. Those with hostile attributional style think that people are out to get them and they need to prove that they are strong enough to fight. o Aggressive children are more likely to attribute hostile intent to ambiguous situations
Normal reaction to strange situation test
♣ Normal reaction is to have the baby to crawl back caregiver gain some comfort and return to normal activities. Even if crying before.
modeling
♣ Parents can also influence children's competence with peers by modeling social competent and incompetent behavior
long term benefits of friends
♣ Preadolescence • Reciprocated best friends. Tends to have a positive impact on people's lives ♣ Amount • The greater number of friends have the increased age of life in baboons. • In humans the more friends you have the healthier you tend to be.
Bandura and Ross Study 2 set up
♣ Preschool children observe and adult model perform highly aggressive actions on a Bobo doll • Observed the model either be o Rewarded with candy and soda for the aggressive behavior o Scolded o Received no consequences • Children matched for pretest aggression • Children are positively incentivized to do a certain behavior
main characteristics of learned helplessness
♣ Reasons for bad things occurring can be: internal, external, malleable (effort based) ♣ Stable ♣ Internal ♣ Global
Timeline of children determine negative emotion.
♣ Sad can be identified by age 4 ♣ Anger, fear, and happiness by age 5 ♣ Complex secondary emotions are difficult to identify until they get older. - Using the situation to predict emotion is difficult, and it unfolds in a continuous way
• How do hostile attributional styles develop in children and what are the cognitive mechanism
♣ Self fulfilling prophecy. Children who have hostile attributional bias tend to be more hostile causing others to treat them as more hostile, creating a feedback look with bidirectional effects. Children are influencing how people react to them - o Kids in abusive homes tend to show this, suggesting that it does indeed exist
instrumental helping
♣ Someone is trying to achieve a goal and can't. ♣ Children often go to help the adult. ♣ Both chimps and children help an adult pick something up if it falls, but child has a greater range to help with other things like door opening ♣ Deep evolutionary roots to help in humans, shown by chimps, but extended further in humans.
ADHD example of bromembrenne's ecological model
♣ Syndrome that involves difficulty in sustaining attention ♣ Genetic factors paly a role in causing ADHD. Environment influences, including parental behavior, are also important. ♣ Could be affected by • Prolonged exposure to technology • Diet • Demands of the microsystems around you..
affect
♣ System for identifying emotional expression in infants ♣ Attempts to characterized the movement of each of the muscles of the baby and associate that with a certain emotion.
Why was Bowlby's theory different from mainstream
♣ Using all the research available Bowlby created his attachment theories ♣ The idea of talking to children while parents were there, was heretical and many did not support it. ♣ Surprised that the field was so focused on behaviorism and not children's actual lives. • Not an aspect of the child itself, but definitely a relationship character as child can have different attachments to different caregivers
Bandura and Ross Study 2b set up
♣ Wanted to see if boys were being more aggressive because they were encoding it more, so they told the kids that they would be rewarded if they imitated the model's behavior (cookie or something) • In that case girls and boys were pretty much equally likely to be aggressive, suggesting that they were remember what was happening, they just did not commit as many aggressive behaviors as the boys
2 imp dimensions of parenting styles
♣ degree of parental warm, support and acceptance versus parental rejection and non-responsiveness ♣ the degree of parent strictness and rigidity • these are orthogonal and the cross create difference in parents. • Now always easy to peg the parents over time and can be fluid over time. Sometimes domain specific. Different styles in different domains
long term costs of friendship
♣ kindergarten boys that have friends that have a lot of conflicts tend to be correlated with increased violence and loneliness
vicariously reinforcement
♣ learning happens through imitation not only when behaviors are directly rewarded or punished, AND not only when the model is reinforced
Six things to observe in the reunion period.
♣ proximity and contact seeking (moving towards moms) ♣ contact maintaining (keeping touch with mom) ♣ resistance (not looking, not wanting to be held) ♣ avoidance (not looking ♣ search (seeking out the parents) ♣ distance interaction (looking back towards parents)
Neglected Children
children or adolescents who are infrequently mentioned as either liked or disliked. They simply are not noticed by peers (few overt negative pronunciations)
Aggressive-rejected children and intervention
children who are especially prone to physical aggression, disruptive behavior, delinquency, and negative behavior such as hostility and threatening others. Tend to have behavioral and academic problems in future. - PATH program hoped to help rejected kids and teach them about emotions and regulation
Disgust
culturally specific and kids can express as young children
Social-conventional judgments
decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social coordination and social organization (clothes)
Moral judgments
decisions that pertain to issues of right and wrong fairness and justice
Personal judgments
decisions that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration (friends)
Id (t)
earliest and most primitive personality structure. It is unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure.
internalization
effective discipline that leads to a permanent change in the child's behavior because the child has learned and accepted the desired behavior.
Attachment (t)
emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across pace and time. Usually attachments are discussed in regard to the relation between infants and specific caregivers, although they can also occur in adulthood.
Self-conscious emotions
emotions such as guilt shame, embarrassment and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions to us. - Doesn't develop until 2or 3
Guilt
empathy for others
Co- rumination
extensively discussing and self-disclosing emotional problems with another person.
average children
f they get roughly the same number as positive and negative.)
primary emotions
basic emotions that infants can recognize
Self-comforting behavior-
repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly postivie physical sensation -decreases over time
Rouge test
- Serriptiously (unknown to the baby) mark the babies' face and see how they behave towards the mark. - Generally the babies are interested in the baby in the mirror and looking at it, but they aren't necessarily aware of the reflection concept. (7mo & 12 mo) - By the time that babies get to be 18 mo they recognize that the image is themselves. The older babies pass the test because they often touch their own body part, when they see the mark in the mirror
prefrontal cortex
- Slowest of the brain region to develop and supports executive function tasks - Research shows that adults who were better as children in delaying gratification are better at adult versions of the task, and show more self-control. They show more prefrontal activation when engaging in the task. -Child performance is predicted of success later.
preattachement
(birth to 6 weeks). Infants cry and they seek comfort in the fact that the caregiver always returns
reciprocal relationships
(from 1.5-2 yrs to forever) can understand caregiver's feelings, goals and motivations and use this organize efforts to be closer to caregiver. Child take active role. Less separation anexity
steriopoty
(strange stereotypical behaviors that become extreme and interfere with natural life)
experiment shame/guilt
- 3 yr olds are given hard puzzles and easy puzzles. - When the children are successful, they don't show shame, but they show pride, and show more pride if the puzzle was difficult - When the child fail, they do show shame, but they are more likely to show shame if the puzzle was easy and they fail. Shame after failure is less if the puzzle is difficult. - Girls and boys performed the same, but girls showed more shame when they performed poorly as compared to boys.
universal principle
- A person should act that the principle of one's act could become a universal law of human action action a world in which one would hope to live - A person treat other people as having intrinsic value, and not merely as a means to achieve one's end
All learning theories
- All emphasize continuity - Active child
grit
- Aspect of perseverance and executive function. - Some studies have shown that grit/executive function is sometimes more predictive of later success than IQ
Kohlberg conclusions
- Being a moral person requires people take on the understanding/perspective of others and differentiate rules from moral principles Things like games are societal contracts and children are taking other people's perspective to internalize rules and being able to differentiate societal rules from universal rules
Why was Freud so important
- But many of his theories part of human (Zeitgeist way to understanding the human) - Revolutionized the way that humans are understood and explained
Emotions
- Characterized by neural and physiological responses, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action.
Training for executive functioning
- Child performance is predicted of success later. - If the relationship is causal, then we might be able to train the children to improve their executive function along with increasing their self control in childhood. - Parenting styles and practices can sometime encourage delayed gratification self control over impulsivity
bandura experiment overall takeaways
- Children learn by watching others. - They don't need to directly experience reward or punishment o Can have vicarious reinforcement/punishment, like when the model is punished by the experimenter and the prevents the kids from mimicking their actions. o The incentive condition showed that they learned when they were inhibited from imitating e(saw the model punished) ♣ It showed that they learned the behavior, but prevented from doing it when there were negative consequences - Male models inspired more physical aggression in both girls and boys - Boys imitated more aggressive acts - Boys and Girls verbally imitated same sex models more - Girls and boys showed equal vicarious learning (incentives)
young children and empathy
- Children that are too young, generally don't show empathy. - Even when they don't have the skills to comfort themselves, they still pull the parent in to try and help the stranger - There is a relationship between the parents' expression of emotion and the child. The more empathetic the parent is the earlier empathy is expressed in the child.
Piaget moral development tests
- Created vignettes to see how children were reasoning and how they took into account the intentionality and the outcomes of the reasoning.
Deconditioning
- Elimination of fear
What are the main categories that specialized social developmental theories try to explain.
- Emotion - Personality - Attachment - Self - Peer relationships - Personality - Gender
Attachment
- Emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time o Particular person o Not like temperament
Discrete emotions theory
- Emotions are innate - Each emotion is characterized by a specific set of bodily and facial reactions - Distinct emotions are present early in life.
Social acceptance and SES
- Family Stress and Children's social competence o Children with higher amounts of family stress and lower socio economic status ten to have less social competence. o Children from families with fewer economic resources and higher levels of stress are more likely than other children to be rejected by peers.
Theories of social cognition
- Focus on children's ability to think and reason about their own thoughts and emotions as well as other people's thoughts, feelings, motives and behaviors. Really focuses on the internal process of the child and their ability to represent the world - Emphasizes the process of self-socialization, rather than the role of others.
What is learning theory
- Focus on external factors shaping external activity and behavior - Development = continuous process, that is not domain specific. o Doman general learning principles that are guiding people's lives o Systemic desensitization o Children's behavior ♣ Dependent on punishment and consequences
Kohlberg Gender Bias
- Gender Biases o Argued that some conclusions that Heinz made emphasized different reasoning parents that are different between men and women ♣ Argues that women focus more on caring about others in these scenarios ♣ Males tend to focus more on abstract rights and justice. ♣ Argued that males and females reached different stages if just using Heinz scenario
What was the goal of Freud's theories
- Goal was to understand how humans development and ways to treat them and Believed that it was necessary to understand children's development and order of development to really understand adult psychology
Freud's lasting contribuito to developmental psychology
- Importance of early experience - Importance of unconsciousness - Emphasis on the role of emotional relationships in development.
Recognize other's emotions
- Its important to recognize other people's emotions, behaviors and motives in order to regulate one's own behavior and emotion. -When can kids recognize other people's emotions? - Babies (6mo) can match expressions to vocal sounds - At 3 or 4 mo babies can show differentiation between happiness and sadness using habituation procedure - At less then 10 mo babies use their caregivers' emotions to inform their action (social referencing in the visual cliff exp) - By age 3 children can easily name an emotion when given a story about a character and how they are feeling.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
- NeoFreud - Ego psychologist - Development driven by a series of age-related crises. - Each stage is characterized by a crisis by some kind of task that the individual must resolve
emotional regulation timeline
- New infant has no way of regulating their emotion and self-regulation does not come until around 6 mo old - Holding on to security blanket and sucking thumb are examples of avoiding distress - Even averting gaze is a way that 6 mo old can avoid looking at something scary or weird
Q-sort procedure
- Observer watches mom and child and sorts cards as to whether they agree or disagree with the statements o For example: statement might be child shares with the caregiver o Using the cards and the statements this can be scored and rate the attachment qualities
Children and sexuality according to Freud
- Really sexual creatures who have sexual fantasies about their parents
orphanages and attachment death stats
- Relatively new philosophy created in the 20th century as a result of viewing how orphaned children related to other people (after WWII). o Infants mortality was really high in orphanages in the 1700s and 1800s. Anywhere from half to 2/3 of children died in orphanages
Improving executive function in children
- Scenario. Colin must wait to eat cookies at age 3 in grocery store -Being in a grocery store may help distract him. -When he is 3 most likely he will eat it, but teaching him distraction skills and moving the package away from the child can help
Seperation anexity
- Separation anxiety develops around 8 mo of age - Infants whine or cry - Increases between 8 and 13 mo of age - Generally decreases about 15 mo age - If doesn't decrease by that age usually a sign of future anxiety or bad temperament. Primary v Secondary Emotions
Emotional development after birth
- Soon after birth mother and infant have non-verbal communication right after birth.
phallic stage (t)
3rd stage in Freud's theory. Age 3 to 6 in which sexual pleasure is focused on genetalia
One of the most important aspects of Bronfennor's theory
Bidirectional return of all the systems.
brain changes
Brain is plastic and exposure to socially favorable environment can change brain structure and increase white matter
Conventional moral reasoning
Centered on social relationships and focus on law and order.
Cooperation in children
Children help each other and divide the spoils together, so they are able to continue to helping each other. The children use language to negotiate with each other.
When can children label emotions from a picture
Children start off being able to identify happiness at age 2, then anger/fear/sadness, then disgust/surprise and finally self-concious emotions in elementary school
Sharing
Children will spontaneously share in a situation when one receives something that it seems like both should succeed
Is the id conscious or unconscious?
Completely unconscious
what is one way to help prevent abuse
Cognitive reframing can be a good way to prevent abuse. Creating an intervention in which the parents start to believe that the children and them are not in a power struggle and that the children are trying to fight them.
how does cultural affect peer opinions?
Culture affects what children think is desirable in peers and thus their rankings of their peers.
what is one important criteria of instrument learning
Domain specific for animals, but much more genral for children
Chronosystem
Era in which the child was born. Soceital expectation and influences
Psychic energy (T)
Freud's term for the collection of biologically based instinctual drives that he believed fuel behavior thoughts, and feelings
Oedipus comple
Freud's term for the convlfict experienced by boys in the phallic period because of their sexual desire for their mother and their fear of reatilation by the father
Egogenous zones t
Freud's theory, areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development
autonomous morality
In Piaget's theory of moral development, the stage at which a person understands that people make rules and that punishments are not automatic.
mesosystem
Incorporates changes between the individual microsystems
Kohlberg practicality bias
Kohlberg changed stages and levels multiple times o Practitioners have difficult putting people into one category versus another
Corporal punishment
Many negative outcomes correlated with extreme punitativness in parents
High responsiveness/sensitive; Low demandingness
Permissive parenting (indulgent parents)
parental cellphone use and language study
Po arents were given a cellphone and came in with children between 18 and 2 yrs. The parents are suppose to be teaching the kids they new made up world. The experimenter tells the parents that they might need to be contacted by the experimenter on the phone ♣ Group 1 parents are interrupted from word learning by the call ♣ Group 2 parents are not interrupted from world learning • Significantly less words learned by kids when parents were interrupted.
Jerome Kagen and lab study on temperament
Procedure: Present 4 mo olds with bright colored toy swinging back forth in front of face ♣ 20% of the babies motorically active and distressed • 1/3 of high reactive babies showed highly fearful response to new lab setting and only 3% showed low fear 10 months and 17 months later respectively. • Not one to one link. Not necessarily best diagnostic tool for one baby ♣ 40% of babies don't cry or fret and not worried • 1/3 of the low reactive babies were minimally fearful. Only 4 % show high fear. • So 2/3 babies don't show this difference ♣ other 40% of the babies are somewhere in the middle. ♣ These responses are predictive of temperament a year or two later.
ego
Seeks to gratify the ID in realistic ways o Stuck in between the dumb pleasure driven force and the angel lie part of our personality assuring
Post-conventional period Kohlberg: (stage, age, description)
Social Contract Teens Are universals that are morally right and legally right and these are not necessarily the same thing. Mutual benefit reciprocity. Universal Principles Adulthood Morality is passed on principles that transcend mutual benefit. Not reached by everyone
What did Erickson think didictated and drove human behavior
Social factors (parents, intimate partners)
• Perceived self-efficacy
The degree to which you feel good about something. This will influence your behavior in the world and that will effect your behavior. How you think you are a power agent in a certain domain.
one sentence overview of Freudian view of personality
The mind is like an iceberg and much of the human's understanding is unconscious. (and hidden), and behavior is driven by the need to satisfy biological drive
Differential susceptibility (orchid)
a circumstance in which the same temperament characteristic that puts some children at high risk of negative outcomes when expose a harsh home environment als causes them to blossom when their home environment is positive
Imprinting
a form of learning in which the newborns of some species of birds and mammals become attached to and follow adult members of the species (Critical period)
Secure attachment (t
a pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a positive and trusting relationship with their attachment figure. In the Strange situation, a securely attached infant for example, may be upset when the caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly form any distress. When children are securely attached, they can use caregivers as a secure base for exploration. ' - predictive of better adjustment and more social skills
Discontionus growth
abrupt qualitative change in children's abilities to experience self-conscious emotions related to emergence of a sense of self
Peers
are the people around your age with no power over you
Influential children
are those who have clout in the school and are recognized as such but are also aggressive and aren't necessarily popular
Kohlberg continuity argement
argued that change was discontinuous and once, a person attained a level they didn't go back.
Mental health
children's sense of well-being both interally, such as in their emotions and stress levels as well as externally, such as in their relationships with family members and peers
Controversial children
children/adolescents who are liked by quite a few peers are disliked by quite a few others. (aggressive but also cooperative)
Secondary emotions
combination of primary emotions - Remorse = sadness + disgust
Heteronomous morality
first stage of Piaget moral development in which the consequences are more important than the intentions.
Latency period (t)
fourth stage in Freud's theory, form age 8 to 12 when sexual energy gets channeled into social acceptable activities
Entity/helpless orientation
general tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and to give up in the face of failure
Incremental/mastery orientation
general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure
Surprise
generally starts around 6 mo. Influenced by how strong emotion is in caregiver
Insecure/resistant (or ambivalent) attachment
infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environment. Tend to become very upset when caregiver leaves them alone in the room. When caregiver returns not easily comforted and seek comfort + resist efforts by caregiver to comfort them
Insecure/avoidant attachment (t
infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and many avoid them. Indifferent to caregiver before they leave the room and indifferent or avoidant when they return. Equally comforted by stranger as by caregiver.
shame
is more of an internal practice and works with feelings of exposure - How parents treat children can affect how they manifest guilt and shame.
Other-oriented induction
reasoning focused on the effects of a behavior on other people.
Achievement motivation
refers to whether children are motivated by learning goal, seeking to improve their competence and master new material, or by performance goals, seeking to receive positive assessments of their competence or to avoid negative assessments.
Withdrawn rejected children
rejected children who are socially withdrawn and tend to be timid. Social withdrawl is both a cause and consequence of peer exclusion
Timeline for fear of strangers
relatively normal and sharp peak from 8 mo to 16 mo.
Self socialization
the idea that children play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preerences, friendship choices, and other things.
Secure base
the idea that he presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment.
discrete emotions theory
theory about emotions emotions are viewed as innate and secrete form one another from very early in life and each emotion is believed to be packaged with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions
Attachment theory
theory based on John Bowlby's work that posits that children are biologically predisposed develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chance of their own survival happens in 4 phases
functionalist perspective
theory of emotion proposed by Campos and others, arguing that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal. In this view, emotions are not discrete form one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment. (goal)
Superego (t)
third personality strucuture that has internalized moral standards. Results because children need to cope with intense sexual desires of phallic stage
peers reason for aggression
• Antisocial friends or being part of an antisocial peer group • Males engage in more aggressive behaviors than females, but here is an aggressive spike.
Austerian psychologist Catherine Wolof research on WWII kids
• Austrian Psychologists Catherine Wolof studied that children that were rescued/escaped WWII conditions were failing to thrive even when in families that gave them food and love • Warned about Sterilizing the child's psyche • Signs started changing form wash your hands before picking up the baby to don't leave the room without picking up a baby.
What did Bowlby think of symbolism and attachmenet
• Believed that children were developing a mental representation of the self, of the attachment figures and of relationships in general. o Thus attachment can have a profound impact on the child for the rest of their life.
biological reason for aggression
• Biological factors may be the reasoning for extreme conduct disorder • Arousal level o Arousal is linked to morality (Low arous is linked to high crime) o Empathy ♣ Low empathy correlated with antisocial behavior
Strange situation test
• Caregiver and child are in a room together and there is a one way window o Need a door, collection of toys, chair for primary caregiver o Sequence of 8 episode. ♣ (1-2) Child and mom walk in then the child is set down to play. (3-4) Stranger enters the room and then the mother leaves the room. The stranger attempts to comfort the child. Then in the crucial step the mother comes back and the stranger leaves and how the child reacts to this reunion is crucial (5). The leaving and the coming back with the stronger happens again, and there is one more crucial step when the mother returns again the reunion can be measure again (8).
Insecure/resistant attachment
• Child is clingy in the strange situation • Child is extremely upset when caregiver leaves • Child reestablishes contact, but resists caregiver's efforts at comfort • Children stay close to their caregiver and seem clingy.
Stranger anexity
• Develops around 7 mo of age (before 7 mo no real stranger anxiety. • Attachment to their caregiver has grown • Can recognize familiar face and will sometimes smile at the familiar face • Generally lasts to about age 2.
Disorganized/disorientated attachment style
• Don't fit in any other categories • Kid may behave differently in different reunions • No consistent way of coping • Has dazed expression • Demonstrates variable behaviors.
Insecure/avoidant attachment
• Don't maintain eye contact and don't look at the parent. • Child might cry when the parent leaves the room, but then does not approach or look at the parent when they return. • Relatively rare in Asian populations studied and most variable in corss-cultural studies • Elevated heart rate
How does the Harlow experiment oppose behaviorism
• Opposes behaviorism: because the monkeys don't run to wire mother, even tho cloth mother is not providing the baby with resources. When fearful or in general monkey runs to cloth mother. • Harlow "If monkeys have taught us anything it's that you have to learn how to love before you learn how to live.
Quarantine principle
• Parents were urged to reduce physical contact. "If it cries, neer mind it; it will soon larn to sleep without having to depend on rocking and nursing" o Goal was to keep the baby safe and not touching the baby o Babies were separated and there was reduced contact between nurses and babies.
What kind of feedback encourages mastery orientation
• Point to lack of effort when child fails Point to ability and effort when child succeeds
popular kids
• Popular (people who show up as the most liked, not necessarily the ones that people who are known as the most popular). Sometimes people with high perceived popularity may be seen as popular, but many not actually be popular
Stability of sociometric status
• Popularity and rejectedness is fairly stable, but controversial and average children tend to be more fluid. Rejected children tend to stay rejected and it is very stable
what are the best ways to highlight performance goals
• Promotes defensive strategies • Encourage interpreting negative outcome in terms of ability • Encourages helpless pattern as opposed to mastery orientation.
2 influential movies to move away from behavioral perspective
• Rene Spitz "Grief: A peril in Infancy" (1947) • James Roberson's "A two year old goes to the hospital" o You can see the phases of grief in the child when they are separated from their parents abruptly.
Bandura and Ross Study 2 results and conclusion
• Rewarding aggressive behaviors does not really affect the level of aggression • However, the model being scolded for his/her behaviors does prevent the children from performing the behavior
Strong evolution basis
• Secure attachment is the most positive relationship one can have with their parent • "Child develops a mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general
♣ Reciprocal determinism
• Since the child's behavior is shaping their environment and their environment is shaping them, children are going further and further into a canalized path. (children can get into a positive or negative rut).
Sellman's stages
• Stage 1 [6 to 8 yrs] (children are completely unable to take perspectives, but think that another people can have a perspective that is different than their own, but only because the person's doesn't have the information that they do). • Stage 2 (8 to 10) (Children are still unable to take perspective of others, but they are getting better at it) • Stage 3 (10-12) (First time that children can systematically take the perspective of other people versus a general model). Driving their social interactions • Stage 4 (Adolescence) [Children truly understand other's people perspectives and the idea that they can have this, and not just because they have different information.). Their ability to take these perspectives and roles is then what drives their social interactions.
Baboon experiments that support Dodge's theory
• Support for this by baboons o Healthier phenotype to baboons that don't have hostile attributional bias o Dominant males' basal hormone levels are elevated (high cortisol level) if dominant males that are generally hostile all the time o Opposite is true in non-hostile dominant males
secure base• be more independent.
• be more independent. o Kids in playgrounds are more likely to be open and adventurous if they feel secure and trusting and therefrore can explore more. o A Child can never be too attached. They can be too dependent, but not too attached.
Dodge's information processing theory main ideas
• changes dramatically • Emphasizes cognitive processes • Focuses on why some children have such difficulties socializing properly He argues that some children have problems making friends because they have: 1. hostile attributional bias 2. tendency to search for hostile intent 3. which eventually becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy
Contact comfort
• is a large variable. Monkey will go to the cloth over a wire mom even if the wire mom nurses it.
What kind of parental feedback encourages a helpless pattern
•Pointing to lack of ability when child fails •Pointing to neatness or effort only when the child succeeds o Parents don't necessarily say the child is smart of working hard when they fail at a task -More effective to praise effort vs allowing them to connote success with intelligence'