Discussion Questions

What have been the costs and benefits resulting from the region's historic reliance on exploitation of natural resources?

-Disparities in wealth distribution -Poor labor conditions -Health and environmental hazards

What are the defining features of "plantation societies"?

- Production of export cropping in Central America - The land was owned by the gov who would usually be rich and foreign and removed from the society they were creating - Highly unequal - People were farming for other people, not themselves

Describe the evolution of critical thought and popular/accepted definitions of race Discuss the limitations and advantages of these definitions What definition(s), if any, do you feel best apply to Latin America? Why?

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How did the Spanish penetration of Central America differ from the conquest of Mexico? What implications did this have?

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How did the move by the Portuguese royal family to Rio de Janeiro in 1808 diminish sentiments toward independence? To what extent did the presence of the monarchy in Brazil lead to a break with Portugal in 1822?

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How have Latin American governments confronted problems of poverty and inequality? What policies have proven to be most effective?

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Many argue that Brazilian history is marked by peaceful transitions, conciliation among different political and social forces, and a spirit of compromise. Do you agree or disagree?

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What have been the long-term consequences of the construction of the Panama Canal? What if an inter- oceanic waterway had been built in Nicaragua instead?

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What were the causes of the intense nationalist sentiments in the Andean region?

Anti-imperialism = nationalism Political instability

In what ways has nationalism manifested itself differently in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador?

Bolivia had different indigenous groups. Led to biodiversity in different political ideologies and social realities

What were the causes and the results of the Bolivian Revolution of 1952?

Causes: ? Results: The new government under Estenssoro dropped all electoral literacy requirements and enfranchised hundreds of thousands of Indians. Voting population had increased and coal mines were nationalized. Estenssoro purged military officers who favored elites and reduced the size of the army.

Letter from Jamaica: What was the context in which this letter was written, and who was its intended audience? How does its content reflect social tensions inherent in the independence movements in Latin America? How did Bolívar see Latin America's ideal future?

Composed during one of his periods of exile, in 1815. Even though the Carta de Jamaica was nominally addressed to Henry Cullen, it is clear that its fundamental objective was to gain the attention of the most powerful liberal nation of the 19th century, Britain, with the aim that it would decide to involve itself in American independence. Bolívar affirmed his undying faith in the cause of independence, even in the face of the patriots' repeated defeats. While laying out sharp criticisms of Spanish colonialism, the document also looked toward the future. For Bolívar, the only path for the former colonies was the establishment of autonomous, centralized republican government.

Address of the Congress of Angostura: What was the purpose of the Congress of Angostura? Describe Bolivar's vision for Gran Colombia? What does Bolivar highlight as the biggest challenges facing Gran Colombia?

During Simon Bolivar's address at the Congress of Angostura, in 1819, he argued for the freedom of the people of Latin America. He stated that government should work in favor of the people because they are all "American by birth and European by law", and that they should have the same rights as the other Europeans. The conference included 26 delegates from the countries of Venezuela and Colombia. Those two countries both got their independence due in large part to the work of Simon Bolivar.

Import-substitution industrialization appeared to work well in some countries in the decades after World War II. What led to its demise?

ISI came about in the 1930s. Industrialization was generally seen as a supplement for agricultural production and not as a replacement for it. Latin America's economies start producing manufactured goods that they formerly imported from abroad (eg textiles, apparel, beverages, ceramics, cosmetics etc). In theory, it was supposed to give Latin America a comparative advantage where they could achieve true political sovereignty only on the basis of self-sufficiency and independence (which meant industrialization) from Europe & the US. In practice, it kinda worked. Larger countries developed quickly than plantation societies (Central America & Caribbeans).

What were the consequences of the War of the Triple Alliance for Brazil and Latin America?

Instigated by Argentina, who wanted full rights of maritime traffic to the Rio de la Plata, Brazil found it a threat since its southern provinces heavily relied on the basin. With an alliance from Uruguay, the two defeated Argentinian rebels. Until Paraguay wanted to expand their influence into the Plata along with wanting to conquer the Brazilian province of Rio Grande. The Triple Alliance thus consisted of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina against Paraguay. There were political consequences for Brazil. It was forced to enlarge its army, whose officers became important actors in politics. Pedro II took unprecedented steps in asserting his authority demanding for Paraguay's unconditional surrender. The war also brought the attention of slavery since slaves were recruited and did well, they were given freedom as compensation.

What were the varied roles of the Catholic Church in colonial Latin America?

One of the main roles of the Catholic Church in Latin America was to help with the conquest. It was essential in order to keep the settlers in touch with their faith. It was also essential to help in the conversion of native Indians from their cultural lifestyle to that of the Catholics.

How did the rule of Pedro II reflect continuity in Brazil and how did his reign mark a time of significant change?

Pedro II asserted his dominance against Paraguay to surrender (War of Triple Alliance) whereas his Liberals, who had the majority Chamber members, wanted to negotiate. He dismissed the Liberals cabinet and called for new elections. Some Liberals reacted angrily that they created a new party that will be known as the Republican Party. He also abolished slavery during his time.

Discuss the U.S. and Soviet efforts to shape attitudes in Latin America during the Cold War.

The US did not want the countries of Latin America to fall into communism, as it was happening in Asia, mainly because geographically, Latin America is attached to the US which gave the US a sense of "big brother protection." Also because should Latin American countries fall into communism, they could turn their back on US democracy and instigate a war that could be prevented. The Cuban Missile Crisis, for example, was the USSR about to launch a missile to Cuba which is 90 miles south of the coast of Florida. This threatened US security greatly that the US wanted to ensure Latin American countries stayed democratic.

What were the economic strategies of the Spaniards and Portuguese in the different regions of Latin America?

Trade was a large strategy of the Spanish economy. In order to strengthen their own economy, they allowed trade throughout all of the Spanish ports known as the Decree of Free Trade. The Jesuits were also disbanded by the Spanish crown seeing as they were much like a state that would rival that of the crown. Court appointments were sold in order to increase Monet and creating American-born judges.

What factors and motivations led to Spanish and Portuguese expansion across the Atlantic Ocean?

o Tech- weapons, horses, etc o Money to fund it o Desire for exploration o Spreading the Catholic faith o Move up in status and gain wealth

What kinds of racial and social hierarchies existed in colonial Spanish and Portuguese America? How did they change, if at all, over time?

o The whites were at the top and held all status and wealth o "mixed blood" people in the middle o Black slaves from Africa at the very bottom o Rank -Peninsulares -Criollos -Mestizos/ Mixed bloods -African (slaves) o Policies to control population Interaction between the races were, fortunately, not really tense but extremely complicated. Concubines of different races were not uncommon, but marriages occurring between different races were very rare. Men were generally dominate over women, but not all women married.

In what ways did the indigenous peoples resist and adapt to the European conquest of their territories?

o They fought back o Intermingling and "mixing blood" o Converting to Catholicism o Working with the Spanish to take over other native empires (like what happened with the Aztecs)