early childhood test study guide

What is the authoritarian parenting style? How do their children turn out?

"Because I say so" could be the motto of parents that Baumrind labels as authoritarian. Authoritarians value obedience for its own sake. They have strict guidelines for right and wrong and demand that their children accept them without question. Like authoritative parents, they are controlling. But unlike authoritative parents, their enforcement methods rely on force. Moreover, authoritarian parents do not communicate well with their children or respect their children's viewpoints. Most researchers find them to be generally cold and rejecting Baumrind found the sons of authoritarian parents to be relatively hostile and defiant and the daughters to be low in independence and dominance . Other researchers have found that the children of authoritarian parents are less competent socially and academically than those of authoritative parents. They are anxious, irritable, and restrained in their social interactions. As adolescents, they may be conforming and obedient but have low self-reliance and self-esteem.

What is autobiographical memory

"You play games, open presents, and eat cake" (Fivush, 2002). However, an unusual experience, such as a hurricane, may be remembered in detail for years

By the age of four, children can remember events that happened at least ___ years ago

1 ½

How many calories do 2 to 3 year olds need? 4 to 8 year olds?

1000-1400 calories per day; 1200-2000 calories per day

How does media influence aggression? What study showed this

A classic experiment by Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) suggests the powerful influence of televised models on children's aggressive behavior. One group of preschool children observed a film of an adult model hitting and kicking an inflated Bobo doll, while a control group saw an aggression-free film. The experimental and control children were then left alone in a room with the same doll as hidden observers recorded their behavior. The children who had observed the aggressive model showed significantly more aggressive behavior toward the doll themselves. Television is a fertile source of aggressive models, and most organizations of health professionals agree that media violence contributes to aggression in children has been found for girls and boys of different ages, social classes, ethnic groups, and cultures

What are the zones of proximal development?

A related concept is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD). The zone refers to the area in which children develop new cognitive skills as a function of working with more skilled people. Adults or older children can best guide children through this zone by gearing their assistance to children's capabilities (Clark, 2014). Researchers assert that the key forms of children's cognitive activities develop through interaction with older, more experienced individuals who teach and guide them. In a related study, K. Alison Clarke-Stewart and Robert Beck (1999) had 31 five-year-olds observe a videotaped film segment with their mothers, talk about it with their mothers, and then retell the story to an experimenter. Children whose mothers focused the children's attention on the tape, asked their children to talk about it, and discussed the feelings of the characters told better stories than children whose mothers did not use such scaffolding strategies and children in a control group who did not discuss the story at all.

What is fast mapping and how does it influence vocab?

Word learning, in fact, does not occur gradually but is better characterized as a fast-mapping process in which the child quickly attaches a new word to its appropriate concept. Children apparently have early cognitive biases or constraints that lead them to prefer certain meanings over others

How much time do preschoolers spendin large muscle activity?

about 25 hrs per week

Are gender or individual differences larger in development of motor skills?

individual differences

What is social play?

social play; in each case, children are influenced by other children as they play. Parten found that associative play and cooperative play become common by age five. These types of play are more likely to be found among older and more experienced preschoolers. Girls are somewhat more likely than boys to engage in social play

What are the sterotypes around being a woman and being a man? What can be the stereotypes negative impact?

the stereotype of a vulnerable woman who needs the protection of a man. The stereotype of the vulnerable woman is a fixed, oversimplified, and conventional idea. So is the stereotype of the chivalrous, protective man. Unfortunately, these stereotypes create demands and limit opportunities for both genders.

What is constructive play?

▸Constructive play. Children use objects or materials to draw something or make something, such as a tower of blocks.

What is functional play?

▸Functional play. Beginning in the sensorimotor stage, the first kind of play involves repetitive motor activity, such as rolling a ball or running and laughing.

What are the five ways the media may influence aggression?

▸Observational learning. Children learn from observation. TV violence supplies models of aggressive "skills," which children may acquire. ▸Disinhibition. Punishment inhibits behavior. Conversely, media violence may disinhibit aggressive behavior, especially when characters "get away" with it. ▸Increased arousal. Media violence and aggressive video games increase viewers' level of arousal. We are more likely to be aggressive under high levels of arousal. ▸Priming of aggressive thoughts and memories. Media violence "primes" or arouses aggressive ideas and memories. ▸Habituation. We become used to repeated stimuli. Children exposed to violence are more likely to assume that violence is acceptable or normal and become desensitized to it.

What is symbolic play?

▸Symbolic play. Also called pretend play, imaginative play, or dramatic play, symbolic play emerges toward the end of the sensorimotor stage and increases during early childhood. In symbolic play, children create settings, characters, and scripts

What is the appearance reality distinction? How does it effect preschool children?

Children must acquire an understanding of the difference between real events, on the one hand, and mental events, fantasies, and misleading appearances, on the other hand. This understanding is known as the appearance-reality distinction. Piaget's view was that children do not differentiate reality from appearances or mental events until the age of seven or eight. In a study by Marjorie Taylor and Barbara Hort (1990), children age three to five were shown objects that had misleading appearances, such as an eraser that looked like a cookie. The children initially reported that the eraser looked like a cookie. However, once they learned that it was actually an eraser, they tended to report that it looked like an eraser. Apparently, the children could not mentally represent the eraser as both being an eraser and looking like a cookie. Three-year-olds also apparently cannot understand changes in their mental states. In one study , three-year-olds were shown a crayon box with candles inside. Before it was opened, they consistently said they thought crayons were inside. When asked what they had thought was in the box before it was opened, the children now said "candles."

Does parent activity level impact a childs activity level?

Children of active mothers are twice as likely to be active, children of active fathers are 3.5x as likely to be active.

WHat can happen to children who have frequent nightmares or sleep terrors? What can help?

Children who have frequent nightmares or sleep terrors may come to fear going to sleep. They may show distress at bedtime, refuse to get into their pajamas, and insist that the lights be kept on. As a result, they can develop insomnia. Children with frequent nightmares or sleep terrors need caregivers' understanding and affection. They also profit from a regular routine in which they are expected to get to sleep at the same time each night

When do the number of fears a child has peak? What is the preschool period marked by?

Children's fears change as they move from infancy into the preschool years. The number of fears seems to peak between two and a half and four years and then taper off . The preschool period is marked by a decline in fears of loud noises, falling, sudden movement, and strangers. Fear of social disapproval is not the most common fear among preschoolers.

How do questions develop in early childhood?

Children's first questions are telegraphic and characterized by a rising pitch (which signifies a question mark in English) at the end. Depending on the context, "More milky?" can be translated into "May I have more milk?", "Would you like more milk?", or "Is there more milk?" It is usually toward the latter part of the third year that the wh questions appear. Consistent with the child's general cognitive development, certain wh questions (what, who, and where) appear earlier than others (why, when, which, and how). Why is usually too philosophical for a two-year-old, and how is too involved. Two-year-olds are also likely to be noworiented, so when is of less than immediate concern. By the fourth year, most children are spontaneously producing why, when, and how questions. These wh words are initially tacked on to the beginnings of sentences. "Where Mommy go?" can stand for "Where is Mommy going?", "Where did Mommy go?", or "Where will Mommy go?", and its meaning must be derived from context. Later on, the child will add the auxiliary verbs is, did, and will to indicate whether the question concerns the present, past, or future.

What is symbolic play?

Children's symbolic play—the "let's pretend" type of play—may seem immature to busy adults meeting the realistic demands of the business world, but it requires cognitive sophistication

What is class inclusion and what mistakes to preoperation children make with it?

Class inclusion, as we are using it here, means including new objects or categories in broader mental classes or categories. Class inclusion also requires children to focus on two aspects of a situation at once. In one of Piaget's class-inclusion tasks, the child is shown several pictures from two subclasses of a larger class, for example, four cats and six dogs. She is asked whether there are more dogs or more animals. What do you think she will say? Preoperational children typically answer that there are more dogs than animals Why do preoperational children make this error? According to Piaget, they cannot think about the two subclasses and the larger class at the same time. Therefore, they cannot easily compare them. Children view dogs as dogs, or as animals, but find it difficult to see them as both dogs and animals at once

What are the gender differences observed at this age?

Clearly, females and males are anatomically different. And according to gender-role stereotypes, people believe that females and males also differ in their behaviors, personality characteristics, and abilities. Gender differences in infancy are small and rather inconsistent. Preschoolers display some differences in their choices of toys and play activities. Boys engage in more roughand-tumble play and are more aggressive. Girls tend to show more empathy and to report more fears. Girls show somewhat greater verbal ability than boys, whereas boys show somewhat greater visual-spatial ability than girls.

What type of fears emerge during middle childhood?

During middle childhood, children become less fearful of imaginary creatures, but fears of bodily harm and injury remain common. Children grow more fearful of failure and criticism in school and in social relationships.

What are formal games?

Games with rules include board games, which are sometimes enhanced or invented by children, and games involving motor skills, such as marbles and hopscotch, ball games involving sides or teams, and video games. Such games may involve social interaction as well as physical activity and rules. People play such games for a lifetime. Simple repetition and pretend play develop into play with games that have rules

What is the gender schema theory of gender differences?

Gender-schema theory proposes that children use gender as one way of organizing their perceptions of the world A gender schema is a cluster of concepts about male and female physical traits, personality traits, and behaviors. According to gender-schema theory, once children come to see themselves as female or male, they begin to seek information concerning gender-typed traits and try to live up to them. Jack will retaliate when provoked because boys are expected to do so. Jill will be "sugary and sweet" if such is expected of little girls. Today, most scholars would agree that both biology and social cognition interact to affect most areas of behavior and mental processes— including the complex processes involved in gender- typing.

What are the gender differences in play enviornment

Girls and boys differ not only in toy preferences but also in their choice of play environments and activities. During the preschool and early elementary school years, boys prefer vigorous physical outdoor activities such as climbing, playing with large vehicles, and rough-andtumble play. In middle childhood, boys spend more time than girls in play groups of five or more children and in competitive play. Girls are more likely than boys to engage in arts and crafts and domestic play. Girls' activities are more closely directed and structured by adults

Which gender reports greater anxiety levels and more fears?

Girls report more fears and higher levels of anxiety than boys.

What gross motor skills are girls and boys better at in early childhood?

Girls: balance and precision, Boys: throwing and kicking

What is an imaginary compassion and how many children have one? What child is most common to have an imaginary companion? Are they good for children?

Imaginary companions are an example of pretend play. It is estimated that between 10% and 50% of preschoolers have imaginary companions. Imaginary companions are most commonly found among firstborn and only children. Having an imaginary playmate does not mean that the child has problems with real relationships. In fact, children with imaginary companions are less aggressive, more cooperative, and more creative than other children. They have more real friends, show greater ability to concentrate, and are more advanced in language development.

What is the primary way children learn gross motor skills?

Imitating other children, NOT from adults

What is unoccupied play? Is it social or non social?

Non social Children do not appear to be playing. They may engage in random movements that seem to be without a goal. Unoccupied play appears to be the least frequent kind of play in nursery schools.

What is solitary play? Is it social or non social?

Non social Children play with toys by themselves, independently of the children around them. Solitary players do not appear to be influenced by children around them. They make no effort to approach them.

What is onlooker play is it social or non social?

Nonsocial Children observe other children who are at play. Onlookers frequently talk to the children they are observing and may make suggestions, but they do not overtly join in.

What is parallel constructive play?

Nonsocial play can involve educational activities that foster cognitive development. In fact, many four- and five-year-olds spend a good deal of time in parallel constructive play. For instance, they may work on puzzles or build with blocks near other children. Two-year-olds with older siblings or with group experience may engage in advanced social play.

How are older siblings compared to younger? Younger siblings are more likely to do what?

Older siblings tend to be more caring but also more dominating than younger siblings. Younger siblings are more likely to imitate older siblings and accept their direction. In many cultures, older girls care for younger siblings.

How does self esteem affect self concept?

One aspect of the self-concept is self-esteem. Children with high self-esteem are more likely to be securely attached and have parents who are attentive to their needs. They also are more likely to show prosocial behavior

What are the two dimensions of parenting?

Parents have different approaches to rearing their children. Investigators of parental patterns of child rearing have found it useful to classify them according to two broad dimensions: warmth-coldness and restrictiveness- permissiveness

What is conflict between sibilings like?

Parents often urge their children to stop fighting among themselves, and there are times when these conflicts look deadly (and occasionally they are). But garden-variety sibling conflict can enhance their social competence, their development of self-identity (who they are and what they stand for), and their ability to rear their own children. There is more conflict between siblings when the parents play favorites. Conflict between siblings is also greater when the relationships between the parents or between the parents and children are troubled

What are the types of restrictions that parents tend to use?

Parents tend to use the methods of induction, power assertion, and withdrawal of love.

How are restrictive parents to their children? How is this for children?

Parents who are restrictive tend to impose rules and to watch their children closely. Consistent control and firm enforcement of rules can have positive consequences for the child, particularly when combined with strong support and affection

What is authoritative style?

Parents who are restrictive tend to impose rules and to watch their children closely. Consistent control and firm enforcement of rules can have positive consequences for the child, particularly when combined with strong support and affection. This parenting style is termed the authoritative style. On the other hand, if "restrictiveness" means physical punishment, interference, or intrusiveness, it can give rise to disobedience, rebelliousness, and lower levels of cognitive development

How do passive sentences effect preschool age children?

Passive sentences, such as "The food is eaten by the dog," are difficult for two- and three-year-olds to understand, and so young preschoolers almost never produce them. In a study of children's comprehension, two- to five year-olds used puppets and toys to act out sentences that were read to them. Two- and three-year-olds made errors in acting out passive sentences (e.g., "The car was hit by the truck") 70% of the time. Older children had less difficulty interpreting the meanings of passive sentences correctly. However, most children usually do not produce passive sentences spontaneously even at the ages of five and six.

How are peer interactions in early childhood?

Peer interactions foster social skills—sharing, helping, taking turns, and dealing with conflict. Groups teach children how to lead and how to follow. Physical and cognitive skills develop through peer interactions. Peers also provide emotional support. By about two years of age, children imitate one another's play and engage in social games such as follow the leader . Also by this age, children show preferences for particular playmates—an early sign of friendship. Friendship is characterized by shared positive experiences and feelings of attachment. Even early friendships can be fairly stable When preschoolers are asked what they like about their friends, they typically mention the toys and activities they share . Primary school children usually report that their friends are the children with whom they do things and have fun. Not until late childhood and adolescence do friends' traits and notions of trust, communication, and intimacy become important.

How are permisive parents to their children?

Permissive parents supervise their children less closely than restrictive parents do. Permissive parents allow their children to do what is "natural," such as make noise, treat toys carelessly, and experiment with their bodies. They may also allow their children to show some aggression, intervening only when another child is in danger.

What is a permissive indulgent parenting style? results

Permissive-indulgent parents are low in their attempts to control their children and in their demands for mature behavior. They are easygoing and unconventional. Their brand of permissiveness is accompanied by high nurturance (warmth and support). The children of permissive-indulgent parents, like those of neglectful parents, are less competent in school and show more misconduct and substance abuse than children of more restrictive, controlling parents. But children from permissive-indulgent homes, unlike those from neglectful homes, are fairly high in social competence and self-confidence

What does rough and tumble play help develop? What is it different from?

Physical and social skills; It is different from aggressive behavior

DOES COGNITIVE D E V E L O P M E N T P R E C E D E LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT? Who believed this? Explain argument?

Piaget (1976) believed that cognitive development precedes language development. He argued that children must understand concepts before they use words to describe them. From Piaget's perspective, children learn words to describe classes or categories that they have already created. Children can learn the word kitty because they have perceived the characteristics that distinguish cats from other things. Some studies support the notion that cognitive concepts may precede language. For example, the vocabulary explosion that occurs at about 18 months of age is related to the child's ability to group a set of objects into two categories, such as "dolls" and "cars" . Other research suggests that young children need to experience an action themselves or by observing to learn the meaning of a verb.

When does pretend play usually begin? How does it develop?

Piaget ([1946] 1962) wrote that pretend play usually begins in the second year, when the child begins to symbolize objects. The ability to engage in pretend play is based on the use and recollection of symbols, that is, on mental representations of things children have experienced or heard about. Children first engage in pretend play at about 12 or 13 months. They make believe that they are performing familiar activities, such as sleeping or feeding themselves. By 15 to 20 months, they can shift their focus from themselves to others. A child may pretend to feed her doll. By 30 months, she or he can make believe that the other object takes an active role. The child may pretend that the doll is feeding itself

What is the three mountain test? What does it show?

Piaget used the "three-mountains test" to show that egocentrism prevents young children from taking the viewpoints of others. In this demonstration, the child faces a table before a model of three mountains. One has a house on it, and another has a cross at the summit. Piaget then placed a doll elsewhere on the table and asked the child what the doll sees. The language abilities of very young children do not permit them to provide verbal descriptions of what can be seen from where the doll is situated, so they can answer in one of two ways. They can either select a photograph taken from the proper vantage point, or they can construct another model of the mountains as they would be seen by the doll. The results of a classic experiment with the threemountains test suggest that 5- and 6-year-olds usually select photos or build models that correspond to their own viewpoints

What are the four stages of artistic development?

Placement: scribble on certain parts of the page; Shape: draw shapes; Design: combine shapes; Pictorial: resemble objects

What is dramatic play? WHAT ARE THE BENIFITS OF PLAY?

Play helps children develop motor skills and coordination. It contributes to social development, because children learn to share play materials, take turns, and, through dramatic play, try on new roles (Elkind, 2007). It supports the development of such cognitive qualities as curiosity, exploration, symbolic thinking, and problem solving. Play may even help children learn to control impulses

Can motor experience in infancy help motor development later?

Possibly, children with early crawling experience perform better in motor skills than those without

What are power assertive methods?

Power-assertive methods include physical punishment and denial of privileges. Parents often justify physical punishment with sayings such as "Spare the rod, spoil the child." Parents may insist that power assertion is necessary because their children are noncompliant. However, use of power-assertion is related to parental authoritarianism as well as the childs behavior

What are pragmatics in language and how do preschoolers use them?

Pragmatics refers to the practical aspects of communication. Children show pragmatism when they adjust their speech to fit the social situation. For example, children show greater formality in their choice of words and syntax when they are role-playing high-status figures, such as teachers or physicians, in their games. They say "please" more often when making requests of high-status people, or when they use "Motherese" in talking to an infant. Preschoolers tend to be egocentric; therefore, a two-year-old telling another child "Gimme my book," without specifying which book, may assume that the other child knows what she herself knows. Once children can perceive the world through the eyes of others, they advance in their abilities to make themselves understood. Now the child recognizes that the other child will require a description of the book or of its location to carry out the request.

What is animisma snd artificialism?

Preoperational children also show animism and artificialism in their attributions of causality. In animistic thinking, they attribute life and intentions to inanimate objects, such as the sun and the moon. ("Why is the moon gone during the day?" "It is afraid of the sun.") Artificialism assumes that environmental features such as rain and thunder have been designed and made by people.

What does causality show about egocentrism in the preoperational stage?

Preoperational children's responses to questions such as "Why does the sun shine?" show other facets of egocentrism. At the age of two or so, they may answer that they do not know or change the subject. Three year-olds may report themselves as doing things because they want to do them or "Because Mommy wants me to." In egocentric fashion, this explanation of behavior is extended to inanimate objects. The sun may be thought of as shining because it wants to shine or someone wants it to shine.

What is precausal?

Preoperational children's responses to questions such as "Why does the sun shine?" show other facets of egocentrism. At the age of two or so, they may answer that they do not know or change the subject. Three year-olds may report themselves as doing things because they want to do them or "Because Mommy wants me to." In egocentric fashion, this explanation of behavior is extended to inanimate objects. The sun may be thought of as shining because it wants to shine or someone wants it to shine. Piaget labels this structuring of cause and effect precausal. Unless preoperational children know the natural causes of an event, their reasons are likely to have an egocentric flavor and not be based on science. Consider the question, "Why does it get dark outside?" The preoperational child usually does not have knowledge of Earth's rotation and is likely to answer something like, "So I can go to sleep."

What is symbolic thought? What is the most important type of symbolic thought?

Preoperational thought is characterized by the use of symbols to represent objects and relationships among them. Perhaps the most important kind of symbolic activity of young children is language, but children's early use of language leaves something to be desired in the realm of logic.

At what point can a child make and evaluative judgement on themselves?

Preschool children begin to make evaluative judgments about two different aspects of themselves by the age of four. One is their cognitive and physical competence (e.g., being good at puzzles, counting, swinging, tying shoes), and the second is their social acceptance by peers and parents (e.g., having lots of friends, being read to by Mom). But preschoolers do not yet clearly distinguish between different areas of competence. A preschooler is not likely to report being good in school but poor in physical skills. One is either "good at doing things" or one is not

WHAT ARE PRESCHOOLERS MOST LIKELY TO FEAR?

Preschoolers are most likely to fear animals, imaginary creatures, the dark, and personal danger. The fantasies of young children frequently involve stories they are told and media imagery. Frightening images of imaginary creatures can persist. Many preschoolers are reluctant to have the lights turned off at night for fear that such creatures may assault them. Real objects and situations also cause many preschoolers to fear for their personal safety—lightning, thunder and other loud noises, high places, sharp objects and being cut, blood, unfamiliar people, strange people, and stinging and crawling insects.

How much sleep do preschoolers need?WHat are some sleep problems during this time?

Preschoolers do not need as much sleep as infants. The National Sleep Foundation (2012) recommends 11 to 13 hours of sleep in a 24-hour period for preschoolers. A common pattern includes nine to ten hours at night and a nap of one to two hours. Many children resist going to bed or going to sleep . Getting to sleep late can be a problem, because preschoolers tend not to make up fully for lost sleep . Many young children take a so-called "transitional object"— such as a favored blanket or a stuffed animal—to bed with them.

Development of vocab for a preschooler?

Preschoolers learn an average of nine new words per day

How can you engage a preschooler that does not involve asking them to stop what they are doing?

Preschoolers more readily comply when asked to do something than when asked to stop doing something. One way to manage children who are doing something wrong or bad is to involve them in something else.

How important are academic experiences in early childhood? Do they facilitate cognitive development?

Research suggests that preschool education enables children to get an early start on achievement in school. Children reared in poverty generally perform less well on standardized intelligence tests than children of higher socioeconomic status, and they are at greater risk for school failure. As a result, preschool programs were begun in the 1960s to enhance their cognitive development and readiness for elementary school. Children in these programs typically are exposed to letters and words, numbers, books, exercises in drawing, pegs and pegboards, puzzles, and toy animals and dolls—materials and activities that middle-class children usually take for granted. Studies of Head Start and other intervention programs show that environmental enrichment can enhance the cognitive development of economically disadvantaged children. In the Milwaukee Project, poor children of lowIQ mothers were provided with enriched day care from the age of six months. By the late preschool years, the children's IQ scores averaged about 121, compared with an average of 95 for peers who did not receive day care.

What is the influence of sibling on social behavior? What functions do siblings serve?

Siblings serve many functions, including giving physical care, providing emotional support and nurturance, offering advice, serving as role models, providing social interaction that helps develop social skills, making demands, and imposing restrictions.

What is encopresis? What percent of children 7-8 suffer from it? When does it occur?

Soiling, or encopresis, is lack of control over the bowels. Soiling, like enuresis, is more common among boys. About 1% to 2% of children at the ages of seven and eight have continuing problems controlling their bowels . Soiling, in contrast to enuresis, is more likely to occur during the day. Thus, it can be embarrassing to the child, especially in school.

What is non social play?

Solitary play and onlooker play are considered nonsocial play, that is, play in which children do not interact socially. Nonsocial play occurs more often in two- and three-year-olds than in older preschoolers. Parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play are considered

Where does parental warmth come from?

Some of it reflects parental beliefs about how best to rear children, and some reflects parents' tendencies to imitate the behavior of their own parents. But research by Hetherington and her colleagues suggests that genetic factors may be involved as well.

What is egocentrism? Is it the same as selfishness?

Sometimes the attitude "It's all about me" is a sign of early childhood, not of selfishness. One consequence of one-dimensional thinking is egocentrism. Egocentrism, in Piaget's use of the term, means that preoperational children do not understand that other people may have different perspectives on the world. Two-yearolds may, in fact, assume that their parents are aware of everything that is happening to them, even when their parents are not present.

What is the first step to gender typing? At what age does it occur?

The first step in gender typing is attaining gender identity. Gender identity is the knowledge that one is male or female. At two years, most children can say whether they are boys or girls. By the age of three, many children can discriminate anatomic gender differences

How does pretend play predict future behavior?

The quality of preschoolers' pretend play has implications for subsequent development. For example, preschoolers who engage in violent pretend play are less empathic, less likely to help other children, and more likely to engage in antisocial behavior later on. The quality of pretend play is connected with preschoolers' academic performance later on, their creativity, and their social skills

Which brain hemisphere is preferred in someone who is left-handed?

The right brain hemisphere

What is self concept and how is it developed?

The sense of self, or the self-concept, emerges gradually during infancy. Infants and toddlers visually begin to recognize themselves and differentiate themselves from other individuals such as their parents. In the preschool years, children continue to develop their sense of self.

What may happen when a child is sleepwaling? Is it safe to wake them?

When children sleepwalk, they may rearrange toys, go to the bathroom, or go to the refrigerator and have a glass of milk. They then return to their rooms and go back to bed. There are myths about sleepwalking, for instance that sleepwalkers' eyes are closed, that they will avoid harm, and that they will become violently agitated if they are awakened during an episode. All these notions are false.

When are preschoolers more likely to engage in physically oriented play?

When they are younger

What are the influences of prosocial behavior that reward it?

According to Piaget, preoperational children tend to be egocentric. They tend not to be able to see things from the vantage points of others. It turns out that various cognitive abilities, such as being able to take another person's perspective, are related to knowing when someone is in need or distress. Perspective-taking skills improve with age, and so do prosocial skills. Among children of the same age, those with better developed perspective-taking ability also show more prosocial behavior and less aggressive behavior

What is symbolism and how is it represented in preschoolers according to Piaget?

According to Piaget, preschoolers' drawings are symbols of objects, people, and events in children's lives. Symbolism is also expressed as symbolic or pretend play.

At what age do children have trouble distinguishing between mental and physical events?

According to Piaget, the preoperational child has difficulty making distinctions between mental and physical events. Children between the ages of two and four show confusion between symbols and the things they represent. Egocentrism contributes to the assumption that their thoughts exactly reflect external reality. They do not recognize that words are arbitrary and that people can use different words to refer to things. Piaget asked a four-year-old child, "Could you call this table a cup and that cup a table?" "No," the child responded. "Why not?" "Because," explained the child, "you can't drink out of a table!" Another example of the preoperational child's confusion of the mental and the physical is the tendency of many four-year-olds to believe that dreams are real, but begin to understand that they are not real at about the age of six

What is the preoperational stage?

According to Piaget, the preoperational stage of cognitive development lasts from about age two to age seven. Operations are mental manipulations of information, and at this stage, young children's logic is at best "under construction."

What is the role of evolution and heredity in gender differences?

According to evolutionary psychologists, gender differences were fashioned by natural selection in response to problems in adaptation that were repeatedly encountered by humans over thousands of generations. Men, who have generally been the hunters, breadwinners, and warriors, are more likely to be seen as adventurous, aggressive, and assertive. Women, who have more often been the homemakers and caretakers, are more likely to be seen as affectionate, agreeable, and emotional. The story of the survival of our ancient ancestors is etched in our genes. Genes that bestow attributes that increase an organism's chances of surviving to produce viable offspring are most likely to be transmitted to future generations. We thus possess the genetic codes for traits that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. These traits include structural gender differences, such as those found in the brain, and differences in body chemistry, such as hormones. The question is whether evolution has also etched social and psychological gender differences into our genes.

Why might parental activity level affect child activity? 4

Active role models, sharing of activities, encouragement of physical activity, genetic tendency

When does motor activity level decline and sustained focused attention increase?

Activity declines at 2 or 3 years of age, attention increases at 2 to 4 years

How does rehearsal impact a preschoolers memory?

Adults and older children use strategies to help them remember things. One strategy is mental repetition, or rehearsal. If you are trying to remember a new friend's phone number, for example, you might repeat it several times. Another strategy is to organize things to be remembered into categories. Most preschoolers do not engage in spontaneous rehearsal until about five years of age. They also rarely group objects into related categories to help them remember. By about age five, many children have learned to verbalize information silently to themselves by counting mentally, for example, rather than aloud. Having preschoolers sort objects into categories enhances memory. Even three- and four-year-olds will use rehearsal and labeling if they are asked to try to remember something.

What is theory of the mind? Do preschool kids possess it?

Adults appear to have a commonsense understanding of how the mind works—that is, a theory of mind. We understand that we can gain knowledge through our senses or through hearsay. We know the distinction between actual and mental events and between how things appear and how they really are. We can infer the perceptions, thoughts, and feelings of others. We understand that mental states affect behavior. Piaget might have predicted that preoperational children are too egocentric and too focused on misleading external appearances to have a theory of mind, but research has shown that even preschoolers can accurately predict and explain human action and emotion in terms of mental states

Where are childhood diseases a large killer?

Although many major childhood diseases have been largely eradicated in the United States and other industrialized nations, they remain fearsome killers of children in developing countries. Around the world, eight to nine million children die each year of just six diseases: pneumonia, diarrhea, measles, tetanus, whooping cough, and tuberculosis

DOES LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT PRECEDE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT?

Although many theorists argue that cognitive development precedes language development, others reverse the causal relationship and claim that children create cognitive classes to understand things that are labeled by words. When children hear the word dog, they try to understand it by searching for characteristics that separate dogs from other things.

How do cues play a role in the memory of a younger child?

Although young children can remember a great deal, they depend more than older children do on cues provided by others to help them retrieve their memories. Elaborating on the child's experiences and asking questions that encourage the child to contribute information to the narrative generally help children remember an episode. Children's memory can often be measured or assessed by asking them to say what they remember. But verbal reports, especially from preschoolers, appear to underestimate children's memory . Most of the information recalled at age four had not been mentioned at age two and a half, indicating that when they were younger, the children remembered more than they reported. Another study found that when young children were allowed to use dolls to reenact an event, their recall was better than when they gave a verbal report

How does tv effect preopperational children?

American children spend more time watching television than they do in school. By the time he or she turns three, the average child already watches two to three hours of television a day. Television has great potential for teaching a variety of cognitive skills, social behaviors, and attitudes. The Children's Television Act requires that networks devote a number of hours per week to educational television. Many but not all the resultant programs have been shown to have mild to moderate positive effects on preschoolers' cognitive development . Sesame Street is the most successful children's educational TV program. The goal of Sesame Street is to promote the intellectual growth of preschoolers, particularly those of lower socioeconomic status. Large-scale evaluations of the effects of the program have concluded that regular viewing increases children's learning of numbers, letters, and cognitive skills such as sorting and classification

At what stage of sleep does enuresis occur? What in the brain causes it?

Bed-wetting tends to occur during the deepest stage of sleep. That is also the stage when sleep terrors and sleepwalking take place. It is believed that enuresis might have organic causes, most often immaturity of the motor cortex of the brain. Just as children outgrow sleep terrors and sleepwalking, they tend to outgrow bed-wetting.

What do children tend to draw and when?

Between 3 and 5, they see what they have drawn then name it; beyond age 5, they become able to plan what they will draw

What can childhood illnesses help prevent?

Childhood illness may prevent more dangerous adult illness by developping antibodies

What is whole object assessment and how does it influence language development?

Children also assume that words refer to whole objects and not to their component parts or their characteristics, such as color, size, or texture. This bias is called the whole-object assumption. Therefore, the young child would assume that the word doggy refers to the dog rather than to its tail, its color, or its barking.

How do preschool children increase self regulation?

Children also become increasingly capable of selfregulation in early childhood. They become more and more capable of controlling their eliminatory processes, of controlling aggressive behavior, of engaging in play with other children, and of focusing on cognitive tasks such as learning to count and to sound out letters. Selfregulatory abilities are connected with maturation of the brain and the rearing practices of caregivers.

What is contrast assessment and how does it influence language development?

Children also seem to assume that objects have only one label. Therefore, novel terms must refer to unfamiliar objects and not to familiar objects that already have labels. This concept is the contrast assumption, which is also known as the mutual exclusivity assumption. Suppose that a child is shown two objects, one of which has a known label ("doggy") and one of which is unknown. Let's further suppose that an adult now says, "Look at the lemur." If the child assumes that "doggy" and "lemur" each can refer to only one object, the child would correctly figure out that "lemur" refers to the other object and is not just another name for "doggy"

How does do we perceive people of our own gender? The other gender?

Children and adolescents perceive their own gender in a somewhat better light. For example, girls perceive other girls as nicer, more hardworking, and less selfish than boys. Boys, on the other hand, think that they are nicer, more hardworking, and less selfish than girls

Are children at the age of three able to describe consistent emotional states?

Children as young as three years are able to describe themselves in terms of behaviors and internal states that occur often and are fairly stable over time (Rosen & Patterson, 2011). For example, in response to the question "How do you feel when you're scared?" young children frequently respond, "Usually like running away" (Eder, 1989). In answer to the question "How do you usually act around grown-ups?" a typical response might be, "I mostly been good with grown-ups."

What is going on during erikson's initiative vs guilt stage? How can parents help?

Children in this stage strive to achieve independence from their parents and master adult behaviors. They are curious, try new things, and test themselves. Children learn that not all their plans, dreams, and fantasies can be realized. Adults prohibit children from doing certain things, and children begin to internalize adult rules. Fear of violating the rules may cause the child to feel guilty and may curtail efforts to master new skills. Parents can help children develop and maintain a healthy sense of initiative by encouraging their attempts to learn and explore and by not being unduly critical and punitive.

What percentage of adult brain weight do we have at 2 years old? 5 years old?

75% at two years; 90% adult brain weight at 5 years

What chance do you have of being right handed if both your parents are ight handed? Leftie if both parents are lefties?

92% right handed with both parents righties, 50% left-handed if both parents lefties

How are egocentrism and empathy related?

According to Piaget, preoperational children tend to be egocentric. They tend not to be able to see things from the vantage points of others. It turns out that various cognitive abilities, such as being able to take another person's perspective, are related to knowing when someone is in need or distress. Perspective-taking skills improve with age, and so do prosocial skills. Among children of the same age, those with better developed perspective-taking ability also show more prosocial behavior and less aggressive behavior

How many children have chronic illnesses in the US?

About ⅓ of children under 18 have a chronic illness, such as arthritis, diabetes, cerebral palsy or cystic fibrosis

What is the largest cause of death in childhood

Accidents cause more deaths in early childhood than the next six most frequent causes combined. The single most common cause of death in early childhood is motor vehicle accidents.

What are the three concepts that emerge with gender typing

According to Kohlberg, gender typing involves the emergence of three concepts: gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy.

When are logical and emotional functioning fully integrated? How?

Age 8; the corpus callosum finishes myelinating, connecting the hemispheres

What is agressive behavior like and how does it maintain in later life?

Aggressive behavior appears to be generally stable and predictive of social and emotional problems later on, especially among boys. Toddlers who are perceived as difficult and defiant are more likely to behave aggressively throughout the school years. A longitudinal study of more than 600 children found that aggressive 8-year-olds tended to remain more aggressive than their peers 22 years later, at age 30. Aggressive children of both genders are more likely to have criminal convictions as adults, to abuse their spouses, and to drive while drunk.

How does aggression develop?

Aggressive behavior, as other social behavior, seems to follow developmental patterns. The aggression of preschoolers is frequently instrumental or possession oriented. Younger preschoolers tend to use aggression to obtain the toys and situations they want, such as a favored seat at the table or in the car. Older preschoolers are more likely to resolve conflicts over toys by sharing rather than fighting. Anger and aggression in preschoolers usually cause other preschoolers to reject them. By age six or seven, aggression becomes hostile and person oriented. Children taunt and criticize one another and call one another names; they also attack one another physically.

What is responsible for 1 in evry 5 deaths of children younger than the age of 5?

Air pollution from the combustion of fossil fuels for heating and cooking causes many respiratory infections, which are responsible for nearly one death in five among children who are younger than five years of age

What is the origin of knowledge identification process? When can children do this?

Another aspect of theory of mind is how we acquire knowledge. By age three, most children begin to realize that people gain knowledge about something by looking at it . By age four, children understand that particular senses provide information about only certain qualities of an object; for example, we come to know an object's color through our eyes, but we learn about its weight by feeling it . Although four- and five-year-olds had no trouble identifying the sources of their knowledge, the three-year-olds did. For example, after feeling but not seeing a ball in the tunnel, a number of three-year-olds told the experimenter that they could tell it was a blue ball. The children did not realize they could not learn the ball's color by feeling it.

What typically happens to 2-3 year old's appetites? How do they compensate?

Appetite becomes erratic; They may eat more at one meal after eating less at the last

What is the second step of gender typing and when does it occur?

At around the age of 4-5 most children develop the concept of gender stability. They recognize that people retain their gender for a life time. Girls do not believe that they will grow up to be a boy and boys do not think they will grow up to become mommies.

Why do children show these early preferences for gender-stereotyped toys and activities? 5

Biological factors may play a role, for example, boys' slightly greater strength and activity levels and girls' slightly greater physical maturity and coordination. adults treat girls and boys differently. They provide gender-stereotyped toys and room furnishings and encourage gender typing in play and household chores. Children, moreover, tend to seek out information on which kinds of toys and play are "masculine" or "feminine" and then to conform to the label. Some studies find that children who "cross the line" by showing interest in toys or activities considered appropriate for the other gender are often teased, ridiculed, rejected, or ignored by their parents, teachers, other adults, and peers. Boys are more likely than girls to be criticized. Another well-documented finding is that children begin to prefer playmates of the same gender by the age of two. Girls develop this preference somewhat earlier than boys. The tendency strengthens during middle childhood. Two factors may be involved in the choice of the gender of playmates in early childhood, One is that boys' play is more oriented toward dominance, aggression, and rough play. The second is that boys are not very responsive to girls' polite suggestions. Boys may avoid girls because they see them as inferior

Who is more likely to incur accidents?

Boys are more likely than girls to incur accidental injuries at all ages and in all socioeconomic groups. Poor children are five times as likely to die from fires and more than twice as likely to die in motor vehicle accidents than other children. The high accident rate of low-income children may result partly from living in dangerous housing and neighborhoods.

When is hand preference shown?

By 2 to 3 months, objects held longer in dominant hand, clear preference by 4 months, marked increase in preference between 6 and 14 months

What is the third step of gender typing and when does it occur?

By the age of five to seven, most children develop the more sophisticated concept of gender consitancy constancy and recognize that people's gender does not change, even if they change their dress or behavior. A woman who cuts her hair short remains a woman. A man who dons an apron and cooks remains a man. Once children have established concepts of gender stability and constancy, they seek to behave in ways that are consistent with their gender

When does visual processing speed reach adult levels?

By the onset of adolescence

What are social predictors of aggression?

Cognitive research with primary schoolchildren finds that children who believe in the legitimacy of aggression are more likely to behave aggressively when they are presented with social provocations. Aggressive children are also often found to be lacking in empathy and the ability to see things from the perspective of other people. They fail to conceptualize the experiences of their victims and are thus less likely to inhibit aggressive impulses. Social cognitive explanations of aggression focus on environmental factors such as reinforcement and observational learning. When children repeatedly push, shove, and hit to grab toys or break into line, other children usually let them have their way. Children who are thus rewarded for acting aggressively are likely to continue to use aggressive means, especially if they do not have alternative means to achieve their ends. Aggressive children may also associate with peers who value and encourage aggression. Children who are physically punished are more likely to be aggressive themselves than children who are not physically punished. Physically aggressive parents serve as models for aggression and also stoke their children's anger.

How are cold parents to their children?

Cold parents may not enjoy their children and may have few feelings of affection for them. They are likely to complain about their children's behavior, saying they are naughty or have "minds of their own."

What does cross cultural research show for Kohlberg's theory of gender typing?

Cross-cultural studies in the United States, Samoa, Nepal, Belize, and Kenya have found that the concepts of gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy emerge in the order predicted by Kohlberg. But research shows that gender-typed play emerges earlier than gender identity. Girls show preferences for dolls and soft toys and boys for hard transportation toys under the age of a year, but they are not fitting it to their concept of gender identity, which is yet to emerge

What are gender roles?

Cultural stereotypes of males and females are broad expectations of behavior that we call gender roles (Leaper, 2013). Researchers who investigate perceptions of gender differences in personality have found that people in our culture agree on certain groups of "masculine" and "feminine" traits

What is empathy and how does it develop in early childhood?

Empathy is sensitivity to the feelings of others and is connected with sharing and cooperation. Infants frequently begin to cry when they hear other children crying, although this early agitated response may be largely reflexive. Empathy promotes prosocial behavior and decreases aggressive behavior, and these links are evident by the second year . During the second year, many children approach other children and adults who are in distress and try to help them. They may hug a crying child or tell the child not to cry. Toddlers who are rated as emotionally unresponsive to the feelings of others are more likely to behave aggressively throughout the school years. Girls show more empathy than boys. It is unclear whether this gender difference reflects socialization of girls to be attuned to the emotions of others or genetic factors, although some researchers argue that prenatal exposure to testosterone has a suppressive effect on empathy

What does encopresis stem from?

Encopresis stems from both physical causes, such as chronic constipation, and psychological factors. Soiling may follow harsh punishment of toileting accidents, especially in children who are already anxious or under stress. Punishment may cause the child to tense up on the toilet, when moving one's bowels requires that one relax the anal sphincter muscles. Soiling, punishment, and anxiety can become a vicious cycle.

WHat is enuresis?

Enuresis is failure to control the bladder (urination) once the "normal" age for achieving bladder control has been reached. The American Psychiatric Association places the cutoff age at five years and does not consider "accidents" to represent enuresis unless they occur at least twice a month for five- and six-year-olds. A nighttime "accident" is termed bed-wetting. Nighttime control is more difficult to achieve than daytime control. At night, children must first wake up when their bladders are full. Only then can they go to the bathroom.

What are the genetic factors behind aggression?

Evidence suggests that genetic factors may be involved in aggressive behavior, including criminal and antisocial behavior . There is a greater concordance (agreement) rate for criminal behavior between monozygotic (MZ) twins, who fully share their genetic code, than dizygotic (DZ) twins, who, like other brothers and sisters, share only half of their genetic code. If genetics is involved in aggression, genes may do their work at least in part through the male sex hormone testosterone. Testosterone is apparently connected with feelings of self-confidence, high activity levels, and—the negative side—aggressivenes

What factors influence memory? (4)

Factors that affect memory include what the child is asked to remember, the interest level of the child, the availability of retrieval cues or reminders, and what memory measure we are using.

How do Fine motor skills develop in relation to gross motor skills?

Fine motor skills develop more gradually

What influence does a fixed logical order play on the memory of a child?

First, children find it easier to remember events that follow a fixed and logical order than events that do not. For instance, three- and five-year-olds have a better memory for the activities involved in making pretend cookies out of Play-Doh (you put the ingredients in the bowl, then mix the ingredients, then roll out the dough, and so on) than they do for the activities involved in sand play, which can occur in any order.

In what stages to gender roles develop? (3)

First, children learn to label the genders. At about two to two and a half years of age, they can identify pictures of girls and boys. By age three, they display knowledge of gender stereotypes for toys, clothing, work, and activities. Children of this age generally agree that boys play with cars and trucks, help their fathers, and tend to hit others. They agree that girls play with dolls, help their mothers, and do not hit others. One study found that preschool boys but not girls were rejected by their peers when they showed distress. Children become increasingly traditional in their stereotyping of activities, jobs, and personality traits between the ages of three and nine or ten. For example, traits such as "cruel" and "repairs broken things" are viewed as masculine, and traits such as "often is afraid" and "cooks and bakes" are seen as feminine.

What are first born children characterized by?

Firstborn children, as a group, are somewhat more highly motivated to achieve than laterborn children. Firstborn and only children appear to perform better academically and are more cooperative. As a group, they are more adult-oriented and less aggressive than later-born children. They obtain higher standardized test scores, including IQ and SAT scores. On the negative side, firstborn and only children show somewhat greater anxiety levels and are somewhat less self-reliant than later-born children.

How much weight and height do children generally gain in early childhood?

Following the dramatic gains in height in a child's first two years, the growth rate slows during the preschool years. Girls and boys tend to gain about two to three inches in height per year, and weight gains remain fairly even at about four to six pounds per year. Children become increasingly slender as they gain in height and shed some "baby fat." Boys as a group become slightly taller and heavier than girls. Noticeable variations in growth occur from child to child.

What are the stages or types of play piaget identified? (4)

Functional play Symbolic play Constructive oat Formal games

What are scripts?

Furthermore, young children seem to form scripts, which are abstract, generalized accounts of these repeated events. For example, in describing what happens during a birthday party, a child might say, "You play games, open presents, and eat cake" (Fivush, 2002). However, an unusual experience, such as a hurricane, may be remembered in detail for years

What neural factors create brain plasticity? 2

Growth of new dendrites, "sprouting"; and redundancy of neural connections

What two things must you focus on to understand condervation? Why is this hard for children in the preoperational phase?

Height and width\ Piaget called centration. First, the child is shown two squat glasses or beakers of water and agrees that they have the same amount of water (. Then, as he watches, water is poured from one squat glass into a tall, thin glass. Asked which glass has more water, he points to the tall glass. Why? When he looks at the glasses, he is swayed by the fact that the thinner glass is taller. The preoperational child's failure to show conservation also comes about because of irreversibility. In the case of the water, the child does not realize that pouring water from the wide glass to the tall glass can be reversed, restoring things to their original condition. After you have tried the experiment with the water, try this experiment on conservation of number. Make two rows with four pennies in each. As a four-year-old child watches, move the pennies in the second row to about an inch apart, as in Figure 7.6. Then ask the child which row has more pennies.

What are the six stages of play according to Parten?

In classic research on children's play, Mildred Parten (1932) observed the development of six types of play among 2- to 5-year-old nursery schoolchildren: unoccupied play, solitary play, onlooker play, parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play

What are the positive and negative effects of having siblings?

In early childhood, siblings' interactions have positive aspects (cooperation, teaching, nurturance) and negative aspects (conflict, control, competition).

What is the categorical self? Examples?

In the preschool years, children continue to develop their sense of self. Almost as soon as they begin to speak, they describe themselves in terms of certain categories, such as age groupings (baby, child, adult) and gender (girl, boy). Self-definitions that refer to concrete external

WHat is transductive reasoning?

In transductive reasoning, children reason by going from one specific isolated event to another. For example, a three-year-old may argue that she should go on her swings in the backyard because it is light outside or that she should go to sleep because it is dark outside. That is, separate events, daylight and going on the swings (or being awake), are thought of as having cause-and-effect relationships.

What is the gole of inductive methods

Inductive methods aim to teach knowledge that will enable children to generate desirable behavior on their own.

What tastes do babies like?

Infants like the taste of sugar; they are indifferent to salt

What stage of Eriksons self concept are the children in?

Initiative vs guilt

What is better for children: warm or cold parenting?

It requires no stretch of the imagination to conclude that it is better to be warm than cold toward children. The children of parents who are warm and accepting are more likely to develop internal standards of conduct—a moral sense or conscience. Parental warmth also is related to the child's social and emotional well-being.

How many children does diarrhea kill and what causes it?

Kills nearly 2 mill children under the age of 5 each years and it is mostly related to unsafe drinking water and poor hygiene/ unsanitary conditions

What are later born children like in comapriosn to first born kids?

Later-born children may learn to act aggressively to compete for the attention of their parents and older siblings. Their self-concepts tend to be lower than those of firstborn or only children, but the social skills later-born children acquire from dealing with their family position seem to translate into greater popularity with peers. They also tend to be somewhat more rebellious and liberal than firstborn children. By and large, parents are more relaxed and flexible with later-born children. Many parents see that the firstborn child is turning out well and perhaps they assume that later-born children will also turn out well.

What is the cognitive developmental theory of gender differences?

Lawrence Kohlberg (1966) proposed a cognitive-developmental view of gender typing. According to this perspective, children form concepts about gender and then fit their behavior to the concepts (Martin & Ruble, 2004). These developments occur in stages and are entwined with general cognitive development.

What is the left brain good at?

Logical analysis and problem solving, language, and computation

How does lead poisoning occur and what are the effects of it?

Many youngesters are exposed to lead in early childhood, often by eating chips of lead paint from their homes or breathing in lead dust from paint. Infants fed formular made with tap water may be at risk of lead poisoning, because water pipes sometimes contain lead. Lead causes neurological damage and may result in lowered cognitive functioning and other delays.

What are false beliefs? How do preschool children interact with them (crayon example)

One indication of preschoolers' understanding that mental states affect behavior is the ability to understand false beliefs. This concept involves children's ability to separate their beliefs from those of another person who has false knowledge of a situation. It is illustrated in a study of three-year-olds by Louis Moses and John Flavell (1990). The children were shown a videotape in which a girl named Cathy found some crayons in a bag. When Cathy left the room briefly, a clown entered the room. The clown removed the crayons from the bag, hid them in a drawer, and put rocks in the bag instead. When Cathy returned, the children were asked whether Cathy thought there would be rocks or crayons in the bag. Most of the threeyear-olds incorrectly answered "rocks," demonstrating their difficulty in understanding that the other person's belief would be different from their own. But by the age of four to five years, children do not have trouble with this concept and correctly answer "crayons"

What percentage of american children suffer from enuresis? In which gender is it more common?

Overall, 8% to 10% of American children wet their beds , with the problem about twice as common among boys.

What are parental power assretions correlated to?

Parental power assertion is associated with lower acceptance by peers, poorer grades, and more antisocial behavior in children. The more parents use power-assertive techniques, the less children appear to develop internal standards of conduct. Parental punishment and rejection are often linked with aggression and delinquency.

What is the concept of scaffolding?

Parental responsiveness and interaction with children are key ingredients in children's cognitive development. One component of this interaction is scaffolding. Cognitive scaffolding refers to temporary support provided by a parent or teacher to learning children. The guidance provided by adults decreases as children become capable of carrying out the task on their own

What does parenting depend on that is situational?

Parenting styles are not merely a one-way street, from parent to child. Parenting styles also depend partly on the situation and partly on the characteristics of the child . For example, parents are most likely to use power-assertive techniques when dealing with aggressive behavior. Parents prefer power assertion to induction when they believe that children understand the rules they have violated and are capable of acting appropriately. Stress also contributes to use of power. Baumrind's research suggests that we can make an effort to avoid some of the pitfalls of being authoritarian or overly permissive.

What is prosocial behavior?

Prosocial behavior, also known as altruism, is intended to benefit another without expectation of reward. Prosocial behavior includes sharing, cooperating, and helping and comforting others in distress. It is shown by the preschool and early school years and is linked to the development of empathy and perspective taking

Brain development in processing visual information, sustaining attention, and screening distraction allows what? At what age?

Reading and schoolwork; 4 to 7 years old

What is the main type of inductive technique? How/why does it work

Reasoning or explaining why one kind of behavior is good and why one kind is not. Reasoning with a one- or two-yearold can be basic. "Don't do that—it hurts!" qualifies as reasoning with toddlers. "It hurts!" is an explanation, though brief. The inductive approach helps the child understand moral behavior and fosters prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing

What is the rejecting neglecting parental style? results

Rejecting-neglecting parents are also low in their demands for mature behavior and attempts to control their children. Unlike indulgent parents, they are low in support and responsiveness. The children of neglectful parents are the least competent, responsible, and mature. The children of permissive-indulgent parents, like those of neglectful parents, are less competent in school and show more misconduct and substance abuse than children of more restrictive, controlling parents.

What influences the development of food preferences for sweet and salty foods? 3

Repeated exposure, parental influence, television advertising

How does interest level in toys effect memory? Boys v girsl

Research consistently shows that (most) preschool boys are more interested in playing with toys such as cars and weapons, whereas (most) preschool girls are more interested in playing with dolls, dishes, and teddy bears. Later, the children typically show better recognition and recall for the toys in which they were interested.

Gender differences in play: At what point do children seek toys associated with their gender. Which gender is most likely to move away from that?

Research shows that infants show visual preferences for gender-stereotyped toys as early as three to eight months of age. Although preferences for gender-typed toys are well developed by the ages of 15 to 36 months, girls are more likely to stray from the stereotypes. Girls ask for and play with "boys' toys" such as cars and trucks more often than boys choose dolls and other "girls' toys."

What is the theory of sex hormones contribution to gender differences?

Researchers suggest that the development of gender differences in personality, along with the development of anatomical gender differences, may be related to prenatal levels of sex hormones. Although the results of many studies attempting to correlate prenatal sex hormone levels with subsequent gender-typed play have been mixed, a study of 212 pregnant women conducted by Bonnie Auyeung and her colleagues (2009) found that higher-than-normal levels of testosterone in the fetal environment, due to maternal stress, were related to more masculine-typed play among girls at the age of eight and a half years. Emily Barrett and her colleagues (2014) found that exposure to the prenatal environments of stressed mothers can boost masculine-typed play in girls and decrease it in boys. Other studies have shown that children display gendertyped preferences—with boys preferring transportation toys and girls preferring dolls—as early as the age of 13 months. Another study investigated the gender-typed visual preferences of 30 human infants at the early ages of three to eight months The researchers assessed interest in a toy truck and a doll by using eye-tracking technology to indicate the direction of visual attention. Girls showed a visual preference for the doll over the truck (i.e., they made a greater number of visual fixations on the doll), and boys showed a visual preference for the truck.

What is a minor illness? Which type is dangerous in developing countries? How many minor illnesses do children average between age 1 to 3? Ages 4 to 10?

Respiratory infections and gastrointestinal upsets like colds, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea; diarrhea can be dangerous in developing countries; kids average 8 to 9 per year from ages 1 to 3, then 4 to 6 per year from ages 4 to 10

What two types of parenting are restrivictive? Permissive?

Restrictive: Authoritarian and authoritative Permissive: Permissible indulgent and regectibg neglective

What are sleep terrors? At what stage of sleep to they occur? At what age do they occur? What can they be associated with?

Sleep terrors are more severe than the anxiety dreams we refer to as nightmares. Sleep terrors usually occur during deep sleep. Nightmares take place during lighter rapid-eyemovement (REM) sleep, when about 80% of normal dreams occur. Sleep terrors usually begin in childhood or early adolescence and are outgrown by late adolescence. They are sometimes associated with stress, as in moving to a new neighborhood, beginning school, adjusting to parental divorce, or being in a war zone. Children with sleep terrors may wake suddenly with a surge in heart and respiration rates, talk incoherently, and thrash about. Children may then fall back into more restful sleep. The incidence of sleep terrors wanes as children develop.

What neurological signs does sleep walking reflect?

Sleepwalking in children is assumed to reflect immaturity of the nervous system. As with sleep terrors, the incidence of sleepwalking drops as children develop. It may help to discuss a child's persistent sleep terrors or sleepwalking with a health professional.

What is sleep walking and in what stage of sleep does it occur? At what age does it occur?

Sleepwalking, or somnambulism, is more common among children than adults. As with sleep terrors, sleepwalking tends to occur during deep sleep. Onset is usually between the ages of three and eight.

What is associative play? Is it social or non social?

Social Children interact and share toys. However, they do not seem to share group goals. Although they interact, individuals still treat toys as they choose. The association with the other children appears to be more important than the nature of the activity. They seem to enjoy each other's company.

What is cooperative play? Is it social or non social?

Social Children interact to achieve common, group goals. The play of each child is subordinated to the purposes of the group. One or two group members direct the activities of others. There is also a division of labor, with different children taking different roles. Children may pretend to be members of a family, animals, space monsters, and all sorts of creatures.

What is parallel play and is it social or non social?

Social Children play with toys similar to those of surrounding children. However, they treat the toys as they choose and do not directly interact with other children.

What is the social cognitive theory of gender differences?

Social cognitive theorists consider both the roles of rewards and punishments (reinforcement) in gender typing and the ways in which children learn from observing others and decide which behaviors are appropriate for them. Children learn much about what society considers "masculine" or "feminine" by observing and imitating models of the same gender. These models may be their parents, other adults, other children, even characters in electronic media such as TV and video games. Socialization also plays a role. Parents, teachers, other adults—even other children—provide children with information about the gender-typed behaviors expected of them. Children are rewarded with smiles and respect and companionship when they display "gender-appropriate" behavior. Children are punished with frowns and loss of friends when they display "inappropriate" behavior. Boys are encouraged to be independent, whereas girls are more likely to be restricted. Boys are allowed to roam farther from home at an earlier age and are more likely to be left unsupervised after school. Primary school children show less stereotyping if their mothers frequently engage in traditionally "masculine" tasks such as washing the car, taking children to ball games, or assembling toys . Maternal employment is associated with less polarized gender-role concepts for girls and boys

What is brain plasticity? When is it greatest?

The ability for one part of the brain to compensate for an injury or weakness in another part; Greatest at 1 to 2 years, then declines

What is overregularization?

The apparent basis of one of the more intriguing language developments— overregularization—is that children acquire grammatical rules as they learn language. At young ages they tend to apply these rules rather strictly, even in cases that call for exceptions. As children become aware of the syntactic rules for forming the past tense and plurals in English, they often misapply them to irregular words. As a result, they tend to make charming errors. Some three- to five-year-olds are more likely to say "Mommy sitted down" than "Mommy sat down" or talk about the "sheeps" they "seed" on the farm and about all the "childs" they ran into at the playground. Some parents recognize that their children at first were forming the past tense of irregular verbs correctly but that they then began to make errors. Some of these parents become concerned that their children are "slipping" in their language development and attempt to correct them. However, overregularization reflects accurate knowledge of grammar, not faulty language development. In another year or two, mouses will be boringly transformed into mice, and Mommy will no longer have sitted down.

What adjustments are made after the birth of a sibling

The birth of a sister or brother is often a source of stress for preschoolers because of changes in family relationships. When a new baby comes into the home, the mother pays relatively more attention to that child and spends less time with the older child, and the older child may feel displaced and resentful. Children show a mixture of negative and positive reactions to the birth of a sibling. They include regression to baby-like behaviors, such as increased clinging, crying, and toilet accidents. Anger and naughtiness may increase. But the same children may also show increased independence and maturity, insisting on feeding or dressing themselves and helping to care for the baby. Parents can help a young child cope with the arrival of a baby by explaining in advance what is to come.

What is the theory of organization of the brain accounting for gender differences? Give specific differences in brain structure.

The organization of the brain is largely genetically determined. The hemispheres of the brain are specialized to perform certain functions. Both males and females have a left hemisphere and a right hemisphere, but the question is whether they use them in quite the same way. Consider the hippocampus, a brain structure that is involved in the formation of memories and the relay of incoming sensory information to other parts of the brain. Matthias Riepe and his colleagues have studied the ways in which humans and rats use the hippocampus when they are navigating mazes. Males use the hippocampus in both hemispheres when they are navigating. Women, however, rely on the hippocampus in the right hemisphere along with the right prefrontal cortex, an area of the brain that evaluates information and makes plans. Riepe and his colleagues wonder whether different patterns of brain activities might contribute to preference for using landmarks or maps.

What is the authoritative style of parenting? How do their children turn out?

The parents of the most capable children are rated high in both dimensions ). They are highly restrictive and make strong demands for maturity. However, they also reason with their children and show strong support and feelings of love. Baumrind (2013) applies the label authoritative to these parents; they know what they want their children to do but also respect their children and are warm toward them. Compared with other children, the children of authoritative parents tend to show self-reliance and independence, high selfesteem, high levels of activity and exploratory behavior, and social competence. They are highly motivated to achieve and do well in school

Development of grammar?

There is a "grammar explosion" during the third year . Children's sentence structure expands to include the words missing in telegraphic speech. Children usually add to their vocabulary an impressive array of articles (a, an, the), conjunctions (and, but, or), possessive adjectives (your, her), pronouns (she, him, one), and prepositions (in, on, over, around, under, through). Usually between the ages of three and four, children show knowledge of rules for combining phrases and clauses into complex sentences, as in "You goed and Mommy goed, too."

How do parents try to control children with withdrawal of love? What are the effects?

They isolate or ignore misbehaving children. Because most children need parental approval and contact, loss of love can be more threatening than physical punishment. Withdrawal of love may foster compliance but also instill guilt and anxiety

WHat is the law of conservation?

To arrive at the correct answers to these questions, you must understand the law of conservation. The law of conservation holds that properties of substances such as volume, mass, and number remain the same— or are conserved—even if you change their shape or arrangement.

THE INTERACTIONIST VIEW: OUTER SPEECH AND INNER SPEECH

Today, most investigators find something of value in each of these cognitive views. In the early stages of language development, concepts often precede words, and many of the infant's words describe classes that have already developed. But later language influences thought. Vygotsky believed that during most of the first year, vocalizations and thought are separate. But during the second year, thought and speech combine forces. Children discover that objects have labels. Learning labels becomes more self-directed. Children ask what new words mean. Learning new words fosters creation of new categories, and new categories become filled with labels for new things. Vygotsky's concept of inner speech is a key feature of his position. At first children's thoughts are spoken aloud. You can hear the three-year-old instructing herself as she plays with toys. At this age, her vocalizations serve to regulate her behavior, but they gradually become internalized. What was spoken aloud at four and five becomes an internal dialogue by six or seven. Inner speech is the ultimate binding of language and thought. It is involved in the development of planning and self-regulation, and facilitates learning. In the next chapter, we'll continue our exploration of early childhood, looking at the social and emotional development that take place.

What is a greater risk violent video games or violent tv? Why? What are other influences?

Violent video games may create the greatest risk of violence because they require audience participation. Players don't just watch; they participate. Playing violent video games increases aggressive thoughts and behavior in the laboratory. Males are relatively more likely than females to act aggressively after playing violent video games and are more likely to see the world as a hostile place. However, students of both genders who obtain higher grades are less likely than students of lower achievement to behave aggressively following exposure to violent video games. Thus, cultural stereotyping of males and females, possible biological gender differences, and moderating variables like academic achievement also figure into the effects of media violence. There is no simple one-to-one connection between media violence and violence in real life. There seems to be a circular relationship between exposure to media violence and aggressive

What is the right brain good at?

Visual-Spatial Functions, aesthetic and emotional responses, and understanding metaphors

How are warm parents to their children?

Warm parents are affectionate toward their children. They tend to hug and kiss them and smile at them frequently. Warm parents are caring and supportive. They communicate their enjoyment in being with their children. Warm parents are less likely than cold parents to use physical discipline

What causes agression?

What causes some children to be more aggressive than others? Aggression in childhood appears to result from a complex interplay of biological factors and environmental factors such as reinforcement and modeling.