Early Modern Europe

Europe

Cannot treat Europe as a homogeneous thing Europe exists as an idea and as a culture Continents exist as imagined communities Patterns shared across the space: Christianity as a shared religious history Roman Law and shared legal structure Shared history of colonization

The Radical Reformation

Composed mostly of lower class people with very little education and none ordained. Anti-church, state, class hierarchy and really profound change. The Radical Reformation was the response to what was believed to be the corruption in both the Roman Catholic Church and the expanding Magisterial Protestant movement led by Martin Luther and many others. the radical Protestant groups rejected the authority of the institutional "church" organization, almost entirely, as being unbiblical.

Life Expectancy and Child Mortality

Average life expectancy: 35 1/2 all children die before 10 1/3 die before the age of 1 Life expectancy low partially because of female death during childbirth Varied by class: peasants how lower mortality rates Male aristocrats often died through violence

Faith and Works

Roman Catholic theologians leaned heavily on the second chapter of James to maintain that justification is not by faith alone but by faith and works. The Reformers were taking every opportunity to say that justification is a free gift, that we receive it by faith alone, and that Paul's letters to the Romans and to the Galatians back them up. Thus, said the Reformers, we are justified by faith alone, but justifying faith is never found alone; it always brings forth good fruit. Men such as Luther and Calvin said that we are not justified by making a profession of faith but by possessing faith. A person who professes faith and then lives a life characterized by unrighteousness is surely deluding himself with counterfeit faith. Fundamental difference in beliefs between Protestants and Catholics: Catholics: WHY: Importance in getting into Heaven (good works as a means to salvation) HOW: Importance ritualistic aspects, immerse yourself in "holy poverty," with exceptions for some groups Protestant: WHY: Belief in predestination but leading a godly life significance because it is a sign to your community and yourself HOW: Soul is much more important than body (distinction). Doesn't matter what you do with your body, the only thing that will be saved is the soul. Gospel is the most important thing.

Cahokia

Had the biggest population in this part of the world until the late eighteenth century, around 20,000. Cahokia represents a large complex of late Mississippian culture. Involved the construction of large earth mounds, and, like most civilizations, concentrated in river valleys for reasons of trade, communications, and subsistence. The river valleys attract game, as well as being a source for fish. A road network had evolved that covered the valleys, and beyond. Maize culture arrived in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys through the road system, as did sea shells, highly prized for ornamentation. Surrounded by agricultural land, controlled by the city. Very stratified and hierarchical. Prior to Columbus, lifespans the same as Europe. Hernan DeSoto was the first white explorer to reach the valleys, and the Angel Mounds site was still occupied when he made his headquarters camp nearby. Important because it laid inland and population had dramatically dropped before de Soto got there. Influences European attitudes about Native American land and people.

Community

2/3 people lived in rural villages and city populations stayed down. Communities in villages were 500-700 and likely poor.

Sprezzatura

A certain nonchalance, so as to conceal all art and make whatever one does or says appear to be without effort and almost without any thought about it. A easy facility in accomplishing difficult actions which hides the conscious effort that went into them. (Baldassare Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier, 1528)

Cultivated Landscapes

A specific regime of land use in which Native Americans created areas for animal domestication. They did not live in close proximity to animals like Europeans did but kept them in a nearby habitat that Europeans mistook for forests.

Patronage

A system in which a powerful person provides continuous social, material or financial support to a less powerful person. In the Renaissance the client was often an artist, writer or musician. Important because it illustrates the hierarchy of society. Art had to be commissioned, it had to be supported by a higher class Also important to note that the church was the most powerful and important patron

Tenant Farmer

A tenant farmer traditionally refers to a farmer who does not own the land that he lives on and works, but rather it is owned by a landlord. Generally, the landlord contributes the land, capital, and management, while the tenants contribute their labor, and possibly some capital. Many tenant farmers became affluent and socially well connected, and employed a substantial number of laborers and managed more than one farm. Tenancy could be either in perpetuity or rotated by the owners. Important for understanding social stratification.

Theocracy

A theocracy is essentially a government where god is the supreme ruler and the laws are only those that are interpreted by religious leaders. An example of theocracy during this period was Geneva, Switzerland under John Calvin. He reformed the church there, and exiled all who didn't agree with him, and frequently punished those who did not follow is religious laws devoutly.

Bartolome de las Casas

An early Spanish historian and Dominican missionary in the Americas, who was the first to expose the oppression of the Indian by the European and to call for the abolition of Indian slavery. His several works include Historia de las Indias (first printed in 1875). A prolific writer and in his later years an influential figure of the Spanish court, Las Casas nonetheless failed to stay the progressive enslavement of the indigenous races of Latin America.

Anti-clericalism

Anti-clericalism refers to historical movements that opposes the clergy for reasons including their actual or alleged power and influence in all aspects of public and political life and their involvement in the everyday life of the citizen, their privileges, or their enforcement of orthodoxy. Not all anti-clericals are irreligious or anti-religious, some anti-clericals have been religious and have opposed clergy on the basis of institutional issues and/or disagreements in religious interpretation, such as during the Protestant Reformation. Anti-clericalism in one form or another has existed through most of Christian history. Some philosophers of the Enlightenment, including Voltaire, attacked the Catholic Church, its leadership and priests claiming moral corruption of many of its clergy.

Abolition of the Veneration of Saints and the Virgin Mary

Calvinists advocated for the abolition of all superstitious ceremonies, which they claimed confused simple Christians.

German Peasants' War

Biggest peasant revolt prior to the French Revolution From 1524 to 1526 - short lived Begins as a local uprising between peasants and lords - peasants right to fish in a local stream Turned violent quickly and spread across Germany People had been restricting peasant activities, raised taxes, forced labor Peasants across Germany band together to form regional paramilitary groups - peasant armies Seize castles, towns, some monasteries Sights of secular and religious power sources

Religious Persecution

Both reformations lead to the mass increase in the persecution of religious minorities Against Jews Witch hunts and trials Unleashed massive amounts of religious violence The Holy Roman Empire, encompassing present-day Germany and portions of neighboring lands, was the single area most devastated by the Wars of Religion. The Empire was a fragmented collection of semi-independent states with an elected Holy Roman Emperor as its head; after the 14th century, this position was usually held by a Habsburg.

The Puritan "War on Christmas"

Christmas celebrations in New England were illegal during part of the 1600s, and were culturally taboo or rare in Puritan colonies from foundation until the 1850s. The Puritan community found no Scriptural justification for celebrating Christmas, and associated such celebrations with paganism and idolatry. "Christmas occupied a special place in the ideological religious warfare of Reformation Europe." Most Anabaptists, Quakers, and Congregational and Presbyterian Puritans, he observes, regarded the day as an abomination while Anglicans, Lutherans, the Dutch Reformed and other denominations celebrated the day as did Roman Catholics. Attacked it saying that: First, no holy days except the Sabbath were sanctioned in Scripture Second, the most egregious behaviors were exercised in its celebration Third, December 25 was ahistorical. The Puritan argued that the selection of the date was an early Christian hijacking of a Roman festival, and to celebrate a December Christmas was to defile oneself by paying homage to a pagan custom

Italian Wars

Created by the Counter Reformation A series of wars in which France and Italy fought for control of the Italian Peninsula. King Charles VIII invaded France around the time Savonarola was executed (monk who tried to change the church from within) Expanded the Italian Renaissance throughout Europe. Troops returned home carrying ideas they were exposed to in Italy. Artists from Italy fled to the north, bringing new techniques and styles.

Twelve Articles

Demands by peasants who were uprising as a way to end the war: Call for guaranteed rights Elimination of the bureaucratic system Ask for lower taxes Right for every community to choose their own priest and ensure he is Godly Religious, political, economic, social reform all in one Appeals to lower classes to make critique Frame demands as religious reform

Granada, 1492

During this time Ferdinand and Isabella seized Granada and claimed possession of the Iberian Peninsula. They expelled all remaining Muslims and Jews from the former Al-Andalus.

Early Modern

Early modern Europe is the period in the history of Europe which spanned the centuries between the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, roughly the late 15th century to the late 18th century.

Girolamo Savonarola

Girolamo Savonarola was a reformer and monk who tried to change the Catholic Church from within. Eventually Pope Alexander excommunicated then executed him. Italian Dominican friar and preacher active in Renaissance Florence, and known for his prophecies of civic glory, destruction of secular art and culture, and calls for Christian renewal. He denounced clerical corruption, despotic rule and the exploitation of the poor.

Heresy

Heresy is any provocative belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs. A heretic is a proponent of such claims or beliefs. Heresy is distinct from both apostasy, which is the explicit renunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion. The term is usually used to refer to violations of important religious teachings, but is used also of views strongly opposed to any generally accepted ideas

De Soto Expedition

Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern-day United States (Florida, Georgia, Alabama and most likely Arkansas), and the first documented European to have crossed the Mississippi River. A vast undertaking, de Soto's North American expedition ranged throughout the southeastern United States searching for gold, silver and a passage to China.Brave leadership, unwavering loyalty, and ruthless schemes for the extortion of native villages for their captured chiefs became de Soto's hallmarks during the Conquest of Central America. He gained fame as an excellent horseman, fighter, and tactician, but was notorious for the brutal treatment of Native Americans. When he found it in 1539 he declared it very populous but when others visited the next century populations were gone.

Abolition of Feast Days

In June 1647, a further Parliamentary ordinance abolished the feasts of Christmas, Easter and Whitsun, and substituted as a regular holiday for students, servants and apprentices, the second Tuesday of every month. Calvinists advocated for the abolition of all superstitious ceremonies, which they claimed confused simple Christians. It entailed the purging of traditional feast days and liturgy as well as extensive iconoclasm.

Religious Perceptions of Native Americans

Infidels: non-Christian (Indians were like Muslims or Jews). Worshipped the wrong religion but could be converted. Edenic Innocents: Adam and Eve lost wanderers, could easily be informed to believe anything. Soulless Beasts: Not even considered human

Humanism

Intellectual Movement shaped by colonization that was used to describe the style and type of education during the Renaissance, which was based above all on the close study of classical texts. Plato, Aristotle, Virgil Not just about the past but very much concerned with modern day problems Was incredibly important because it led to the questioning of biblical history and how people fit into the narrative, which just led them to readapt the model of the bible Mapping out new territories, people who didn't fit the part or did but shouldn't have

John Calvin/Calvinism

It is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians. Calvinists broke with the Roman Catholic Church but differed with Lutherans on the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, theories of worship, and the use of God's law for believers, among other things. Strong belief that human beings are inherently sinful and they can only we wiped clean by the grace of God. Five Points of Calvinism (TULIP): "Total depravity" asserts that as a consequence of the fall of man into sin, every person is enslaved to sin. People are not by nature inclined to love God but rather to serve their own interests and to reject the rule of God. "Unconditional election" asserts that God has chosen from eternity those whom he will bring to himself not based on foreseen virtue, merit, or faith in those people; rather, his choice is unconditionally grounded in his mercy alone "Limited atonement," implies that only the sins of the elect were atoned for by Jesus's death. "Irresistible grace," asserts that when God sovereignly purposes to save someone, that individual certainly will be saved. "Perseverance of the saints" asserts that since God is sovereign and his will cannot be frustrated by humans or anything else, those whom God has called into communion with himself will continue in faith until the end. Series of rules for: Blasphemy Drunkenness Songs and Dances Games Celebration of Marriage Used to quell the activities of the middle and lower classes

Valladolid debate

Las Casas vs. Sepulveda about whether Native Americans should be enslaved. Both sides use the classics to prove their points. Sepulveda quotes Aristotle and says that it was moral to enslave certain people because they were naturally suited for slavery, a point that Las Casas does not refute 1550

Arranged Marriage

Marriage was later for the poor because they needed children to help with farming and kids would leave once they were married Couldn't start own household until a parent died Family unit only thing keeping people alive - houses needed to maintain a gender balance so all activities were gendered Marriage determined all aspects of future and often arranged by parents Peasants had more freedom

Hierarchy

Only a handful in the village could be considered wealthy and literate: inn keeper, estate manager and priest. No one outright owned land except the overseer, everyone else succumbed to the hierarchy.

The Commons

Originally in medieval England the common was an integral part of the manor, and was thus legally part of the estate owned by the lord of the manor, but over which certain classes of manorial tenants and others held certain rights. A commoner would be the person who, for the time being, was the occupier of a particular plot of land. Some rights of common were said to be unconnected with tenure of land. Most land with appurtenant commons rights is adjacent to the common or even surrounded by it, but in a few cases it may be some considerable distance away.

Peace of Augsburg

Peace of Augsburg was the first permanent legal basis for the existence of Lutheranism as well as Catholicism in Germany, promulgated on September 25, 1555, by the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire assembled earlier that year at Augsburg. The Diet determined that in the future no ruler in the empire should make war against another on religious grounds and that this peace should remain operative until the churches were peacefully reunited. Only two churches were recognized, the Roman Catholic and the adherents of the Augsburg Confession—i.e., the Lutherans. Moreover, in each territory of the empire, only one church was to be recognized, the religion of the ruler's choice being thus made obligatory for his subjects. Any who adhered to the other church could sell his property and migrate to a territory where that denomination was recognized.

Diet, Health and Class

Peasants actually healthier: active physical labor, exposed to more pathogens (animals in houses). Cities were highly unsanitary so diseases spread often and easily - Plague returned every year. Elites don't eat vegetables because they are considered low class (eaten by peasants and animals) so only ate bread and meat. Demonstrates the cultural Great Chain of Being: brought forth from the earth are the lowest Fat was attractive by high class standards Peasants subject to food scarcity

Perspective

Perspective: The representation of 3D objects on a 2D surface, especially in order to create the illusion of space, depth or distance Develops because they are being commissioned to create images of urban spaces Virtuosic: trying to show off their plethora of talents under a specific commissioned painting

Pope Paul III

Pope Paul III, born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope from 13 October 1534 to his death in 1549. He came to the papal throne in an era following the sack of Rome in 1527 and rife with uncertainties in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Reformation. During his pontificate, and in the spirit of the Counter-Reformation, new Catholic religious orders and societies, such as the Jesuits, the Barnabites, and the Congregation of the Oratory, attracted a popular following. He convened the Council of Trent in 1545. He was a significant patron of the arts and employed nepotism to advance the power and fortunes of his family. The fourth pope during the period of the Reformation, Paul III became the first to take proactive reform measures in response to Protestantism. One of the most significant artistic works of Paul's reign was the depiction of the Last Judgement by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican Palace

Predestination

Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God. Explanations of predestination often seek to address the "paradox of free will," whereby God's omniscience seems incompatible with human free will.

Printing Revolution

Propaganda during the Reformation, helped by the spread of the printing press throughout Europe, and in particular within Germany, caused new ideas, thoughts, and doctrine to be made available to the public in ways that had never been seen before the sixteenth century. The printing press was invented in approximately 1450 and quickly spread to other major cities around Europe; by the time the Reformation was underway in 1517 there were printing centers in over 200 of the major European cities. These centers became the primary producers of Reformation works by the Protestants, and in some cases anti-Reformation works put forth by the Roman Catholics.Pamphlets or leaflets were one of the most common forms of propaganda during the reformation period. Pamphlets usually consisted of approximately eight to sixteen pages and were relatively small and easy to conceal from the authorities, thus making them very useful to reformers whose ideas were not accepted by the Roman Catholic authorities. The majority of these pamphlets promoted the Reformation and the Protestant ideas; however pamphlets were also used by Roman Catholic propagandists, but not to the same effect. Propagandists from both groups attempted to publish documents about church doctrine, to either retain their believers or influence new believers. Occasionally these printed texts also acted as manuals for lay people to refer to about the appropriate way to conduct themselves within the church and society. They called for a change in the way that the church was run and insisted that the buying and selling of indulgences and religious positions be stopped as well as the papal corruption that had been allowed to occur. idea that every person should be granted access to the Bible to interpret it for themselves; this was the primary reason why Luther translated and published numerous copies of the New Testament during the Reformation years. Printing press: able to mobilize geographically broad support Deeply concerned on shining a light of the problems of poverty (especially contrast with so many clergy officials and those they are charged to care for) - indulgences and not engaging in their vows of chastity and poverty

Juan Gines de Sepulveda

Sepúlveda, a humanist lawyer born in 1490, was an important figure in the court of Charles V where he served as the Emperor's chaplain and his official historian. In 1544, Sepúlveda wrote Democrates Alter (or, on the Just Causes for War Against the Indians). This became the most important text at the time supporting the Spanish conquest of the Americas and their methods. The text justified theoretically following Aristotelian ideas of natural slavery the inferiority of Indians and their enslavement by the Spaniards. He claimed that the Indians had no ruler, and no laws, so any civilized man could legitimately appropriate them. In other words, Sepúlveda considered the Indians to be pre-social men with no rights or property. The debate, which continued in 1551, reached no firm conclusion; but the court seemed to agree with Las Casas, and demanded a better treatment for the Indians.

Sola fide

Sola fide (Latin: by faith alone), also historically known as the doctrine of justification by faith alone, is a Christian theological doctrine that distinguishes most Protestant denominations from Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and some in the Restoration Movement. The doctrine of sola fide or "by faith alone" asserts God's pardon for guilty sinners is granted to and received through faith, conceived as excluding all "works," alone. All mankind, it is asserted, is fallen and sinful, under the curse of God, and incapable of saving itself from God's wrath and curse. But God, on the basis of the life, death, and resurrection of his Son, Jesus Christ alone (solus Christus), grants sinners judicial pardon, or justification, which is received solely through faith. Faith is seen as passive, merely receiving Christ and all his benefits, among which benefits are the active and passive righteousness of Jesus Christ. Christ's righteousness, according to the followers of "sola fide," is imputed (or attributed) by God to the believing sinner (as opposed to infused or imparted), so that the divine verdict and pardon of the believing sinner is based not upon anything in the sinner, nor even faith itself, but upon Jesus Christ and his righteousness alone, which are received through faith alone. Justification is by faith alone and is distinguished from the other graces of salvation. .

St. Teresa of Avila

St. Teresa lived in Spain during the period known as the Reformation. A member of the Carmelite Order, she initiated with St. John of The Cross, a reform of her community, seeking that its members would live the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience with greater zeal and vigor. In doing so, they would stand as a witness against the corruptions of the Church, and inspire others to see the radical witness of holiness of life.

Virgin Soil Epidemic

Term that defines land in which the populations at risk have had no previous contact with the diseases that strike them and are therefore immunologically almost defenseless. When a population has not had contact with a particular pathogen, individuals in that population have not built up any immunity to that organism, and have not received immunity passed from mother to child. Responsible for the decimation of huge populations in Native American territory. Pre-Columbian population 9-112 million and the post-Columbian mortality rate was 95%.

Castiglione's Book of the Courtier

The Book of the Courtier is a courtesy book. It was written by Baldassare Castiglione over the course of many years, beginning in 1508, and published in 1528 by the Aldine Press in Venice just before his death; an English edition was published in 1561. It addresses the constitution of a perfect courtier, and in its last installment, a perfect lady. The Book of the Courtier is an example of the Renaissance dialogue, a literary form that incorporated elements of drama, conversation, philosophy, and essay. Considered the definitive account of Renaissance court life, it is cited frequently along with Stefano Guazzo's The civil conversation (1574) and Giovanni Della Casa's Galateo (1558). They are among the most important Renaissance works of the Italian Renaissance.

Columbian Exchange

The Columbian exchange was the exchange of products between the Americas and Europe, between the New World and the Old. It was significant because it opened up both the movement of ideas and goods and turned the world into a global network. It was more significant for the New World because of the negative goods that were moved in. Revolutionized the economies of both worlds. The primary movement into the Americas was diseases, which decimated the populations. Imbalances exchange of plants, diseases and animals. Shaped European perceptions of the land - diseases had killed off large populations. Helps us to understand why the European colonization played out as it did.

Religious Violence

The European wars of religion were a series of religious wars waged in Europe from ca. 1524 to 1648, following the onset of the Protestant Reformation in Western and Northern Europe. Although sometimes unconnected, all of these wars were strongly influenced by the religious change of the period, and the conflict and rivalry that it produced. This is not to say that the combatants can be neatly categorized by religion or were divided by their religion alone, as this was often not the case.

Jesuits

The Jesuit order played an important role in the Counter-Reformation and eventually succeeded in converting millions around the world to Catholicism. The Jesuit movement was founded by Ignatius de Loyola, a Spanish soldier turned priest, in August 1534. The first Jesuits--Ignatius and six of his students--took vows of poverty and chastity and made plans to work for the conversion of Muslims. The Jesuit society demands four vows of its members: poverty, chastity, obedience to Christ, and obedience to the Pope.

Little Ice Age

The Little Ice Age is a period between about 1300 and 1870 during which Europe and North America were subjected to much colder winters than during the 20th century. Less nomadic lifestyle and agricultural revolutions. The period was characterized by the expansion of European trade and the formation of European sea born Empires. This was directly linked to advances in technology harnessing more of nature's power and towards the end of the period fossil fueled power. These two hundred years also saw the specialization of agricultural regions, which produced specific products for local and international markets. Negatively transformed American cultures - worse than Europe's effects.

Artisan

The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe almost entirely rejected the existing tradition of Catholic art, and very often destroyed as much of it as it could reach. A new artistic tradition developed, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed Protestant agendas and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and the humanist art produced during the High Renaissance. In turn, the Catholic Counter-Reformation both reacted against and responded to Protestant criticisms of art in Roman Catholicism to produce a more stringent style of Catholic art. Protestant religious art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, but the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting, landscape painting, portrait painting and still life. o Profound changes in the aristocracy - social and economic that drive flourishing of art o Due to explosion of artistic patronage

Reformations

The Protestant Reformation was the 16th-century religious, political, intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the structures and beliefs that would define the continent in the modern era. In northern and central Europe, reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin and Henry VIII challenged papal authority and questioned the Catholic Church's ability to define Christian practice. They argued for a religious and political redistribution of power into the hands of Bible- and pamphlet-reading pastors and princes. The disruption triggered wars, persecutions and the so-called Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church's delayed but forceful response to the Protestants. Historians usually date the start of the Protestant Reformation to the 1517 publication of Martin Luther's "95 Theses." Its ending can be placed anywhere from the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, which allowed for the coexistence of Catholicism and Lutheranism in Germany, to the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War. The key ideas of the Reformation—a call to purify the church and a belief that the Bible, not tradition, should be the sole source of spiritual authority—were not themselves novel. However, Luther and the other reformers became the first to skillfully use the power of the printing press to give their ideas a wide audience.

Al-Andalus

The Reconquista (reconquering) was in an area called Al-Andalus. Political and military conflict for the landmass of peninsula between Muslims and Christians. It maintained religious diversity and toleration in relative peace. No where else in Europe in the Middle Ages accomplished this. The name applied to the portions of the Iberian Peninsula under Moorish control between the years 711 and 1492, especially the region corresponding roughly with present-day Andalusia in southern Spain. During the period of Moorish rule, al-Andalus experienced a cultural flowering, contributing significantly to the scientific and artistic development of medieval Europe.

Aristotle and 'natural slaves'

The idea that it was moral to enslave certain people because they were naturally suited for slavery. It was not okay to enslave everyone, just those built for manual labor.

Primogeniture

The process of all inheritance going to the oldest son in the family. It has importance social implications because it let to family dynamics of potentially very negative interactions. It was importance in understanding gender relations and familial stratification. Leaves other children impoverished. Value of family land and wealth maintained well because the land was not divided. System of inheritance in which all property goes to the oldest son, as opposed to impartible inheritance. Vs. Partible Inheritance

Self-fashioning

The process of constructing one's identity and public persona according to a set of socially acceptable standards. Process in the Renaissance era where a noble man was instructed to dress in the finest clothing he could afford, to be well versed and educated in art, literature, sports, and other culturally determined noble exercises, and to generally compose himself in a carefully intended manner. Additionally, the relationship between self-fashioning and the aesthetic mediums was a reciprocal one. Just as the art of creating oneself was highly influenced by the art and literature of the time, such as conduct books and religious iconography, such a concern for one's outwardly projected image was reflected in the portraiture of the time. 1. Actual clothing and trends - influence who you are and can be changed to suit different social situations Indicator of class/social status Supposed to communicate your specific taste/style/individualism 2. To fashion something - clothes as a metaphor for the larger process of making yourself

Usufruct

The rights, held by all individuals in a designated community to certain things living or growing on common land. Pasture. Right to pasture cattle, horses, sheep or other animals on the common land. The most widespread right. Piscary. Right to fish. Turbary. Right to take sods of turf for fuel. Common of marl. Right to take sand and gravel. Mast or pannage. Right to turn out pigs for a period in autumn to eat mast (beech mast, acorns and other nuts). Estovers. Right to take sufficient wood for the commoner's house or holding; usually limited to smaller trees, bushes (such as gorse) and fallen branches.

Human/Animal Relations and Disease

They practiced a form of animal care that did not involve living in close proximity so they were protected from many diseases for years. This changed when Europeans brought domesticated animals and let them roam freely - closer contact and more exposure. Showed an interesting hypocritical and double sided perception of primitiveness. Natives judged civilization differently, often through cleanliness. Europeans judged Indians on primitiveness because of Little Ice Age, Columbian Exchange and regimes of land use.

Leonardo da Vinci

Wasn't just talented, he had the ability to acquire patronage Patrons: The Medici (Florence), Ludovico Sforza (Duke of Milan), Cesare Borgia (son of Pope Alexander VI), Pope Leo X, Francis I (Kind of France) He highlights the political importance he has to many of these patrons I.e. military fortifications