Earth Sci midterm wk5-13

Abundance of Culturally Significant Metals

-base metals in weight of continental crust Copper 0.0055 % Nickel 0.0075 % Zinc 0.0070 % Lead 0.00125 % Tin 0.00020 % Precious metals """" Silver 0.000007 % Gold 0.0000004 % Platinum 0.0000005 %

soil and wine

A similar "stressing" of plants is important for grape-growing (the basis for winemaking). Most of the major wine regions of the world (e.g. France, Italy, California) are established on well-drained, sandy soils. If grape plants are healthy, but are somewhat reduced in their water uptake, the resulting grapes are concentrated in sugar(necessary for producing ethanol by later fermentation) and flavour (in part, related to essential oil content). So the resulting wine is very flavourful !

Erosion process: Wind

Flowing air, much like flowing water, also plucks grains that are loosened by weathering, and can produce similar effects of erosion. The plucking of sediment grains by wind is called deflation. As a result of deflation, and selective removal of light/fine sediment grains (a form of sorting) many desert areas are covered by a pavement of pebbles and boulders (not all deserts are sandy !)

Doomsday Staring us in the face: Interactions in the Earth System?

Increase in human population Wanting more stuff/stuff increase Demand of resources are increasing= more people means more stuff Bigger impact on environment

Native metals

The metals used by humans were undoubtedly in pure elemental or native form -of great value therefore native metal deposits are rare

whats the rock cycle? 3 factors...

any 3 rock classes can be changed into another rock class due to 1. heat 2. pressure 3. erosion/depositional conditions

slab pull model

as lithosphere calls and thickens the density increases causing edge of plate to sink slab of scum (lithosphere) pulled by sinking leading to edge of plate- subjected when meats adjacent slab trench marks the areas where plate decants beneath adjacent plate

Sediment transport away from river mouth

if wave action strong= deposited at a river mouth can be transported along coastline instead of forming a well-defined delta -wave movements help this transportation: waves move toward the shore at a slight angle consequently the uprush of water (swash) from each breaking wave is oblique

mineral food additives: salt

important in the preservation and manipulation of food products. For example, remember that the first preservative used by human, common salt (halite) is a mineral precipitated from seawater. Direct evaporation of seawater supplies us with sea salt, but the majority of the salt we use comes from salt deposits deposited in ancient seas (salt mined in Ontario is over 400 million years old). other additives 1. petroleum wax used in candy making, packaging, matches 2. plastics gives gum chewiness 3. Aspartame and saccharin products

Common misconception: river speed

winnie the pooh: when was a stream was faster closer to destination , now a river is slower bc it is far fro destination misconception: streams are faster closer to their source than far from their source

convergent plate boundaries (2)

• Zones where lithospheric plates move towards one another and where oceanic lithosphere is consumed back into the mantle (subduction) Process ensures that earth retains a constant volume (otherwise earth= expanding)

Importance if Enrichment

Metals do not occur in uniform abundance throughout the crust -there are certain geological circumstances in which culturally valuable metals occur in higher concentrations knowledge of the geological processes that lead to enrichment of metals/ geological environment are essential to discovery of metal-rich deposits .. geologists can impact your life!

Lustre in Nacre (2)

The quality of lustre in nacre is a function of two major things: 1. Quality of surface reflection: Aragonite tablets behave as mirrors. The ability of the surface layer to reflect light determines the brilliance of the lustre. 2. Quality of internal reflection: Aragonite tablets also behave like windows - they transmit some of the incoming light. Light can be reflected off crystal surfaces, giving nacre a warm internal glow.

implications of plate tectonics on oceanic lithosphere

Oceanic lithosphere is constantly being created at divergent plate boundaries and destroyed at convergent plate boundaries and offset at transform plate boundaries

Evidence of K-T Mass extinction: Soot Particles

These particles (mixtures of burnt organic matter and glass) indicate intense heating of both materials. From wildfires ignited by the heat of the impact?

Sediment from coastal erosion

=characterized by exposed bedrock and strong wave activity are important suppliers of beach sediment -minerals of beach sediment derived from eroded rocks along coast match those of the source sock

Soil

=combination of mineral and organic matter, water, air -portion of the regolith (rock and mineral fragments produced by weathering) supports growth of plants

Mother of Pearl

=common term for lustrous, iridescent material forming inner surface of seashells material is called nacre widespread production among mollusca (invertebrate group include bivalves-clams/mussels)

Tempering

=effective method of altering the properties of is tempering =quenching (sudden cooling) of hot metals in water (to increase hardness) and reheating (reduce brittleness) -development of tempering involved lots of trial and error to produce strong but slight elastic metal! Japanese famous for tempered steel swords

Ammolite: fossil Nacre

=gemstone, recently entered market -rare because under normal preservational circumstances, aragonite either dissolves or is recrystallized to the more stable form of calcium carbonate, calcite. As you will recall, ammonites are extinct relatives of the Nautilus, squids, octopuses and cuttlefishes. Like Nautilus, ammonites had a chambered shell filled with gas and liquid for buoyancy regulation.

Free pearls

=less readily than blister pearls bc the irritant must be completely surrounded by nacre-secreting epithelial cells of the mantle and held away from nacreous shell formed by intrusion of a parasite movement of parasite stimulates an invagination of the epithelium epithelial tissue completely surrounds the invader forming a pearl sac in deeper level of mantle nacre is secreted on all sides of invader forming free pearl -> formed deep in mantle tissue/gonad (if epithelial cells are moved by invading parasite)

offshore

=lies below fair-weather wave base and is therefore unaffected by normal waves -normally only receives fine sediment that settles from suspension (but can receive coaster grained sediment during storms when wave base is lowered)

Precious metals

=metals of high economic value (often used to make coins/jewellery) ex. silver, gold, platinum -many of these metals are desirable for the manufacture of electrical components due to their resistance to corrosion/oxidation (except silver)

blister pearls

=most common type of pearls (pearls adhering to the nacreous layer of the shell). form: when an irritant (parasite) becomes trapped between the shell and the mantle tissue the oyster (or mother mollusc) simply covers the irritant w nacre forming a blister

Mabe pearls

=new type cultured pearl- technically blistered pearl -to produce: plastic domes inserted in the space between the mantle and the nacreous layer of pearl osyter shell oyster secretes nacre on these domes -yr/less later the babes are cut from oyster shell and plastic domes removed hollow interior of each pearl is filled w wax (sometimes colour to tint pearl) disc of mother of pearl is glued to bottom used in jewellery same basic method of blister pearling bivalves was used by the Chinese as early as the 5th century A.D. Carved pieces of ivory, ceramic and shell were inserted in freshwater clams to "pearlize" the object. Elaborate blister pearls are still being made in China today.

Disturbance of volcanoes

=occur along plate boundaries exception are hotspot volcanoes which occur w in plates (due to magma generation associated w stationary mantle plumes)

Ornithischians

=plant eaters, diverse in appearance/specialized lifestyles ex. some dinos headset thinker hollow created a noise Ornithopods-> hadrosaurs: duck-billed dinos Stegosaurs ("Plated" dinos) certatopsians (horned dinos) Anklosaurs (armoured dinmos) pachycephalosaurs (bone-headed dinos)

Reefs

=prominent feature of shallow marine settings is the reef -reefs are natural structures of rock formed by marine animals -reeds made by coral, but in geological past have been constructed via sponges and clams -reef-buildiing organisms build skeletons of calcium carbonate in the form of aragonite/calcite -algae that live in tissues of reef builders remove the carbon dioxide from tissues decreasing the acidity of the water

Hoodoos of Alberta

=small scale pillar shaped features produced by erosion of layered rocks w differing characteristics of weathering -formed primarily by water-related erosion but wind influenced their development as well -soft layers of shale at the base of Hoodoos weather and erode more quickly than the more strongly cemented sandstone layers that cap Hoodoos result= mushroom shape

Atoll/how formed

=special kind of reef that is ring shaped and has central lagoon (protected from strong waves) was set in partially formed atoll -formed first as a reef that fringes a volcanic island as island sinks (after volcanic activity has ceased and crust could becoming denser) the reef continues to build upward eventually ending up as a ring shaped structure

What are the risks of a big impact?

As seen in this graph, frequency and size of impacts are inversely proportional. In other words, the frequency of a very large impact is less than that of a small impact

mimetoliths: Concretion

Concretions are commonly formed in marine sediment with abundant organic matter. In the process of eating the organic matter (containing carbon), certain bacteria release bicarbonate into the pores of the sediment This bicarbonate combines with dissolved calcium in the porewater, to form crystals of calcite (calcium carbonate), which cement the sediment grains together. This cementation is often localized around a nucleaus, such as a fossil, forming discrete bodies of cemented sediment.

3 processes of erosion process due to liquid water 2. Plucking action (scouring)

Differential weathering and the gentle scouring of grains loosened by weathering has resulted in a "billowy" appearance in this jointed granite (Joshua Tree National Monument, California) Material locally weathered along joints by hydrolysis and oxidation has been gently removed by water.

Cretaceous-Tertiary ("K-T") Boundary at gubbio, Italy

Here, the boundary is marked by a band of clay that forms a visible break between in an otherwise fairly continuous series of limestone beds. This break not only indicates an abrupt interruption in the sedimentation rate of bioclastic limestone but also a dramatic change in the nature of the contained fossils. Marine fossils below and above the K-T boundary do indeed show a dramatic change in size and diversity and suggest that a biological crisis occurred at this time This marks the same time the dinosaurs went extinct on land. a dramatic increase in a platinum-group element called iridium (the so-called "Iridium Spike") at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary This Iridium anomaly has since been detected worldwide

Apocalyptic imagery in Science Fiction (7, etc)

In most science fiction novels, humanity experiences near-annihilation, with a few hangers-on to save the human race. many ways of disasters 1. Alien invasion: e.g., War of the Worlds (H.G. Wells, 1898) 2. Plague: e.g., The Last Man (Mary Shelley, 1826) 3. Overpopulation: e.g., Logan's Run (W. F. Nolan and G.C.Johnson, 1967) 4. Global warming/sea level rise 5. Earth on Collision course (object of your choice) 6. War 7. Technology Gone Amok etc

Strange Happenings: Killer Lakes

In the middle of the night on August 26, 1986, 1,700 people and thousands of animals living in the valley below Lake Nyos, Cameroon mysteriously died in their sleep. After the disaster, it was noted that Lake Nyos developed a strange orange colour.

4 different erosion processes

Many different forms of erosion can be observed on Earth, three major erosional agents are: Liquid water Wind Ice Gravity

STRESSED OUT FOR FLAVAH

Many edible plants (and plant products) are prized for their pleasant aroma and flavour. This is particularly true for culinary herbs. Culinary herbs contain distinctively scented, "volatile" or "essential" oils (now very popular for aromatherapy). The intensity of flavour relies heavily on the concentration of essential oils. The key to doing this is to provide enough nutrition to the plant that it remains healthy, but to prevent the plant from becoming too lush.

idealized soil profile (O-horizon A-horizon E-horizon B-Horizon C-horizon) OAEBC

O-horizon: mostly loose, partly decayed ORGANIC MATTER A-horizon: mixture of humus (decayed organic amatter) and and MINERAL matter. E-horizon (not always present): zone of leaching (removal of soluble organic and mineral matter, and clays, by water percolating from above). B-horizon: zone of ACCUMULATION of clays and ions transported from above. C-horizon: partly altered parent material (solid rock or loose sediment).

Chemical weathering: Dissolution

The process in which a material is dissolved in a liquid (e.g. salt in water). Halite in water (one of few minerals that can chemical bonds weaken bc of water molecules attaching themselves-eventually plucked away and remain in solution bc of water molecules

Tambora Eruption (1815)

The sulphur dioxide changes into sulphate aerosols, which are liquid particles that reflect sunlight and keep some of the warmth from reaching Earth's surface. The biggest eruption recorded in historical times was that of f the Indonesian volcano Tambora (island of Sumbawa, Indonesia) in 1815. The eruption blew 100 cubic km of ash into the atmosphere (blocking 10% of incoming sunlight), lowering global temperatures (up to 5 degrees) and causing nasty weather everywhere.

A time-travel graph is used to find the distance to the epicentre

The time elapsed between the first arrivals of P and S waves can be scaled to an equivalent distance from the recording station and the earthquake epicentre. Note that the longer the time difference between the first arrival of P waves and first arrival of S waves, the greater the distance

Beach drift

ZIGZAG the direction of swash is oblique backwash runs back to the water at right angle sediment particles are therefore transported in a zig-zag pattern along the beach this 'beach-drift' can carry sand and pebbles hundreds-1000s of metres a day

Locating the epicentre of an earthquake

a circle w a radius equal to the distance to the epicentre is drawn around each station the point where all 3 circles intersect is the earthquake epicentre

What causes mass extinctions? (3)

a natural apocalypse ex. Cretaceous tertiary the dinos extinction during this period 3 primary factors 1. Asteroid impact 2. volcanism 3. sea level change

Beaches and culture

beach represents a major natural gathering place for humans Dr. Williams Komblum (sociologist) mill. of trips to the beach each summer= "one of the great mammalian migratory patterns" -comfort -fun -zen factor-belong to something bigger -appreciate the power of nature -feel vulnerable to natural processes (but in safety of land) -explore wonders of nature sociological factors -beach provides humans opportunities to strip inhibitions that they would normallyy have in urban environment (dress code) -reveal primal behaviour of adult humans (need to display bodies for purposes of attracting possible mates/intimating 'competitors'

back shore

beyond foreshore of some beaches= back shore characterized by dunes constructed by windblown sediment transported from the foreshore sediment can be transported to back shore during storms when big waves reach far inland (storm beach face can be seen well away from normal beach face)

Chemical weathering?

breakdown or decomposition of minerals due to chemical reaction of minerals with water or gases in the air. Three main processes are responsible for chemical weathering: Dissolution Oxidation Hydrolysis

Rip currents

breaking waves approaching the beach carry water towards the beach the water can't just pile up there: it has to escape back out to sea somehow various "paths of least resistance" (ex. low areas along sandbars) if caught in a rip current swim parallel to shore!

major discovery in copper age

copper could be annealed when heated (reducing areas of weakness w in the implements produced by pounding) permitted stronger tools made although such tools were still "status items" of the rich This situation changed with the discovery that copper could be smelted (separated) from mineral compounds by heating. The first copper mineral to be smelted was probably malachite.

Production of Tofu

extracted proteins (soy milk) strained from ground soybeans soy milk cooked and reacted w "nigari" (magnesium chloride) or gypsum (calcium sulphate) dissolved in water. Cam uses epsom salts (magnesium sulphate)- it's easier to get. Magnesium and calcium salts react with the proteins to coagulate them into a curd. The curd is then pressed into blocks. Note that all of these salts occur in evaporite deposits.

How old is the Sphinx?

geological observations suggest the sphinx may have existed b4 the time of Khafire the controversy concerns erosion features observed on sphinx's body Giza bone-dry since 2500 BC and yet Sphinx body/walls enclosure bear a gullied surface that is typical or erosion by running water (badland topography) paws and head of sphinx lack these gullies (carved from harder limestone that was used to build the pyramids) lower levels of sphinx have been covered by sand for significant periods of time shortens the time available for significant erosion observed by Napoleon in 1798 climate of Egypt is known to have much water between 5000-8000 BC is it possible the sphinx significantly predates pyramids?

Khufu Pyramid -and khafre and menkaure

largest of egyptian pyramid (140 metres tall) =khufu located on Giza plateau 2589-2566 BC. -100,000 labourers about 20 yrs to build- 2.3 million blocks each block= 2.5 tonnes

deposits associated w sedimentary processes

some metallic mineral deposits can form by simple sedimentary processes -in some cases, mineral eroded from pre-existing can be concentrated via physical transportation and sorting -these are basically contained in clastic sediment deposits -some metals of interest can also be concentrated in chemical sediments

Mimetolith

people see familiar shapes in natural geologic features. A mimetolith= a natural topographic feature, rock outcrop, rock specimen, mineral specimen, or loose stone with the shape of something else (e.g., animal, plant, or manufactured item.

Ridge-push model

plates pushed from sites of spreading as liquid soup (magma) injected and plates slide down mid-ocean ridges w help of gravity ridge is formed at site of spreading bc new solidified material still warm and floats higher than old cold material further away from site of spreading=ridge push

Offshore and shoreface

portions of the coastal profile are permanently submerged in water, below the low tide mark feature that separates offshore from shore face zones is fair-weather wave base- the depth at which water is affected by wave movement under normal weather conditions

which clays are used for ceramics

potters do not use a single source as a working day most ceramic clays are blend of materials from diff. sources experience has taught that better results are obtained when several diff. clays blended together= clay body by blending potters can vary the texture and colour of their clays a material called grog (crushed quartz or pre-baked clay) is also added to some clay bodies

Soil TEXTURE

primarily controlled by the grain size of mineral matter is another important factor in the growing of crops. Clay-rich soils retain lots of water and tend to contain lots of nutrients (e.g. ions of iron, potassium, sodium and calcium). However, such soil is extremely sticky when wet and can feel as hard as cement when dry. Therefore clay-rich soils are generally not good for farming equipment ! At the opposite extreme, gravel- and sand-rich soils drain very quickly (so nutrients are quickly lost) and lack cohesion (so erode quickly). So these soils are not generally desired. most crops, the most desired type of soils is loam - a mixture of clay, silt and sand. Loam provides adequate water and nutrient retention while allowing sufficient drainage, so is a happy medium. Still, there can be variations in the relative proportions of clay, sand, and silt that are favoured by certain crops.

panning

size of gold particles can range from dust-sized (gold dust) or pea-sized or larger (nuggets) the practice of panning uses the same principle as placer formation (sediment and water are agitated in the pan and the suspended sediment is decanted with the water) the "pay dirt" is left behind largest gold nugget in the world= 78.4 kg "welcome stranger- AUS

The bronze age

-the deliberate addition of impurities (especially arsenic) could control the properties of the metal -arsenic later replaced by tin (result of high incidence of death among early bronze workers) -added bonus: tin lowers melting point of copper which made easier for metal to be smelted =attractive and easy to work w harder than pure copper therefore more useful for tools bronze= 90% copper/ 10% tin and 10x harder than copper!

meandering stream: the middle of river is not the fastest helical flow?

-the path of highest flow velocity (called thalweg) veers towards outer bank of a meander -creates an area of high water pressure at the outer bend -innder bend is zone of slowest rep. area of low water pressure producing a helical flow

Roadrunner-Coyote Scenery: Colorado Plateau Southwestern U.S.A

-throughout the US southwest are towering structures mesas and cute that stand high above flat terrain mesa (spanish for table)= isolated, table shaped plateau w a flat top and steep sides Butte (french for hill)= like a mesa but smaller in dimensions and often pinnacle shaped

2 main types of clay minerals

1. Primary clays (China clays/Kaolin) 2. Secondary clays (sedimentary clays)

3 types of clay bodies

1. earthenware 2. stoneware 3. porcelain

Mobility of the Saurischians: Theropods and sauropods

1. theorpods (meat eaters) =bipedal 2. Sauropods (plant eaters) =quadripedal

Stream characteristics: types of flow (2)

1. turbulent (on-linear) flow dominates near the bottom and sides of a stream channel where swirling eddies are generated around elements of surface roughness 2. laminar (linear) flow dominates water that is our of reach of turbulent eddies

how rare are natural pearls?

1/10000-15000 will produce a free pearl most lack desired spherical shape but large irregular pearls are $ = baroque -> term means bizarre/strange

oldest known dino

228 million yrs old mid-triassic rocks in Argentina meat eating saurichian =THEORPODS sauropods later (plant eating saurichians)

stonehenge 3

2300 BC "sarsen stones" (blocks of hard sandstone) installed one set as a horseshoe and another set forming a 33m diameter ring (sarsen circle) surrounding bluestone circle sarsen stoens capped by horizontal lintels (3 structures= trilithons) additional blocks added at various location beyond the main stone arrangement bluestones rearranged at this point a bluestone oval was constructed w in the sarsen horseshoe bluestone circle ws constructed between the sarsen and sarsen circle Stonehenge 3 modified= 1600 BC 2 rings of pits were dug around stone arrangement (function unknown)

Stonehedge 2

2500BC 4 tonne "bluestones" installed at the centre of stonehenge -bluestones= diff. stone steps-rhyolite (fells volcanic rock) and dolerite (mafic plutonic rock) -transported from Wales, or boulders transported to sites near stonehenge from glaciers during last ice age

The Big Five (ordered from youngest-oldest, numbered according to severity)

5. Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction (65 Ma) victims: 47 % marine genera 4. Triassic-Jurassic extinction (199 - 214 Ma) victims: 52 % of marine genera. 1. Permian-Triassic extinction (251 Ma) victims: 84 % marine genera and 95 % marine species 3. Late Devonian extinction (364 Ma) victims: 57 % of marine genera. 2. Ordovician-Silurian extinction (439 Ma) victims: 60 % percent of marine genera.

Earthquake belts

95% of energy released by earthquakes is focussed along plate boundaries plates slide against one another

What is concrete?

=mixture of cement/sand/rock/water/small amounts of additives concrete and cement ar not the same!

Foreshore (lower part of a beach)

AREA AFFECTED BY SWASH ZONE -once a wave breaks its water moves as a sheet upslope as swash and falls back towards the sea as backwash the narrow area in which this occurs is called swashzone -the location of swash zone shifts due to the rising and falling water levels associated w tides -the area affected by the swash zone on a daily basis is called the foreshore (between low and high tide marks) -as flow of swash slows/stops in its upper reaches some sediment carried by water can be deposited -much of the sediment is returned back to the upper shore face due to back wash

Tums

Active ingredient: calcite (calcium carbonate) neutralizes stomach acid also makes you burp (due to production of ?? as a reaction product)

The bride of Frankenstein= natural cameo

An eroded biotite gneiss cobble found in a back country stream NW side of Mt. Mitchell, North Carolina, U.S.A. The white "image" is a quartz-rich foliation band. Showing through in patches is an underlying band rich in biotite.

Felled Trees

An expedition led by Professor Leonid Kulik of the Soviet Academy of Science travelled to the impact site in 1930. Even 22 years after the event the devastation was immense. Within 30-40 kilometres of ground zero almost all of the trees had been uprooted, burnt, blown flat, forming a radial pattern away from the blast site.

nuclear crisis from Japan Earthquake/tsunami damage

Breakdown of cooling systems led to drying out of spent fuel pools (leading to overheating of spent fuel rods). A significant amount of radioactive steam has already escaped from at least one of the reactor buildings. Thankfully, the surrounding area was evacuated early in the crisis (over 140,000 residents). Situation appears to have stabilized, but long-term effects of radiation contamination from air, water and soil remains to be assessed.

Disturbance &Volcanic connection to Lake Nyros

Carbon dioxide accumulated to the point that it could no longer be contained at the bottom of the lake, and rapidly Escaped to the surface. The concentrated carbon dioxide being denser than air, flowed close to the ground as a plume and suffocated victims up to 25 km away from the crater. Along with the carbon dioxide came lots of lake floor water containing dissolved reduced iron. It was the oxidation of this iron that gave the lake the orange colour.

Air Drying

Ceramic piece is air-dried to a "greenware" state b4 it is fired wet clay contains at least 25% water, when dries water evaporates this happens the clay particles are drawn together resulting in shrinkage if drying (therefore shrinking) is uneven stresses are produced in the clay, forming cracks/warped areas this is why it is important to ensure that the piece is of fairly uniform thickness

Differences in Firing Temperatures

Clays vitrify at various temps. depending upon the clay minerals present/amount of impurities (iron oxides) present in the clay body primary clays (used in porcelain) vitrify at v high temps (1250-1400 C) bc the clay body (almost pure kaolinite) has a v high melting point secondary clays (used in earthenware) vitrify at lower temps (700-1200C) iron oxides in such clays can contribute to lowering the avg. melting point of the clay bodies porosity (tiny holes for air/liquid) also diffs between primary and secondary clays primary= lower porosity than secondary clays

Differential Erosion w mimetoliths- Concretion

Concretions are more resistant to weathering and erosion than their host sedimentary rocks within which they grew. When the host rock is eroded away, the concretions appear strewn over the eroded surface. Delusional people like to think these concretions are fossils or signs from gods or extraterrestrials !

Explosion of Toba (73500 B.C)

Evidence supporting this explosive event includes an enormous caldera 100 km in diameter, and an ash layer with a thickness of 15 cm at distances over 1000 km away from the crater. Based on current estimates, a huge volume of volcanic ash, equivalent to 2,800 km2 of solid rock was injected up to 30 km into the atmosphere. Computer models of atmosphere response to the eruption suggest that the ash and aerosols were of sufficient volume to drive tropical temperatures to the freezing point for days to weeks and to produce abnormally cool temperatures for as long as a decade. Such temperatures would have been detrimental to any humans, and it has been speculated that humans may have even teetered on the edge of extinction!

volcanoes and the atmosphere

Explosive eruptions emit huge quantities of gases and fine-grained debris into the atmosphere which filter out and reflect a portion of the incoming Solar radiation. volcanism affecting climate= Krakatau Indonesia 1883

Over Impact of Tunguska

From observations on devastation and from eyewitness accounts, it was later determined to have been caused by the breakup of a large meteorite (about 50 metres in diameter) at an altitude roughly six kilometres in the atmosphere. Energy released was equivalent to 1000 Hiroshima bombs. Particles analyzed from tree resin are consistent with the composition of a stony meteorite (and rich in iridium). Note that a crater did not form due to the explosion of the object in the atmosphere.

Cave Deposits (speleothems)

Groundwater can dissolve large quantities carbonate bedrock. Dissolution is initially focussed along cracks (e.g. joints) and other planes of weakness. Over long periods of time, continued dissolution can produce large underground tunnels. Tunnels are drained of water if the water table is lowered- this leaves behind an empty, air-filled space that we call a cave.

Growing your herbs: tip from Cam

Growing flavourful herbs is daunting to many people. However, herbs such as sage and thyme are among the easiest plants to grow. Plant your herbs in the poorest sandy soil in your garden (basil is an exception), then neglect them. Water them enough to keep them alive, but don't fertilize them ! The flavour will be noticeably intense (this is because the essential oils are more concentrated in a stressed plant).

The Bad news of the K-T Extinction

Humans are also causing another mass extinction that might actually prove similar to the magnitude of the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction (a "big 6th"). Consider some environmental problems today: 1. Atmospheric particulate pollution (from fossil fuel use) 2. Decreased habitat diversity (from deforestation and monoculture) 3. Ozone depletion (from CFC use) 4. Sea level change (from fossil fuel use- in our case, sea level is rising) 5. Acid precipitation (from fossil fuel use). 6. Epidemics of disease (air travel- our land bridges) Similarities with the Cretaceous-Tertiary scenario are striking Can we learn from the past?

Chemical weathering: Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis occurs when minerals react with water to form other products. Alteration of the rock's minerals (and the release of ions in solution) result in the weakening of rock.

effects of lithospheric thickness

ISOSTASY= "equal standing" -think of a ship w cargo-the more cargo the lower it will sink and vice versa -

Erosion process: ice

Ice is also a very important erosional agent. Like water and wind flowing glacial ice can plucks loose sediment grains from the ground. In turn, the plucked fragments of rock can abrade rock beneath the ice. Erosion by glaciers produce spectacular features such as U-shaped valleys

longer range consequences of Japan Earthquakes

Japan's government said the cost of the earthquake and tsunami that devastated the northeast could reach $309 billion. Potentially, the world's most expensive natural disaster on record. One of the most serious concerns remaining is the damage to Fukushima nuclear facility.

tsunami

Japanese tsu=harbour nami=wave destructive waves result from vertical displacement along a fault located on the ocean floor a large undersea landslide triggered by an earthquake/ other disturbances (merit impact) open ocean=wave height 1M shallower coaster water piles up that exceed 30 m (friction on seafloor) wave breaks when can no longer support itself

Erosion process: Gravity

Lastly, gravity is also very important in erosion. Material weakened by even gentle weathering can fail and be transported downslope. The rapid downslope movement of materials due to gravity is called mass-wasting. ex. rockslides

Erosion process: liquid water

Liquid water is one of Earth's most potent agents of erosion because: 1. It can transport dissolved substances released by chemical weathering. 2. Flowing water (as generated by the interaction of waves and currents with underlying rock) can loosen and pluck particles (process of scouring). 3. These particles, in turn, can impact underlying rock and abrade it.

Stalacpipe organ-largest musical instrument in world!

Located in the Luray Caverns of Virginia. Stalactites covering 1.5 acres of the caverns produce mellow tones when electronically tapped by rubber-tipped mallets. The instrument was invented in 1954 by Mr. LeIand W. Sprinkle, a Virginian mathematician and electronic scientist at the Pentagon (makes one wonder what people do at the Pentagon). The project took 3 years to complete. The initial stage involved searching the cavern chambers for stalactites with tones that matched each note of the musical scale . Mallets were wired throughout the caverns and connected to a large four-manual console. When a key is depressed, a tone occurs as the rubber-tipped plunger strikes the stalactite tuned to concert pitch.

Chemical weathering: Acid Dissolution

Most minerals (with the exception of a few such as halite) are, for practical purposes, insoluble in pure water, However, the presence of acids in the natural environment greatly increases the corrosive action of water.

Runoff?

Move over the surface in a think continuous sheet (sheet flow) but eventually becomes confined to tiny channels called rills rills merge into large more permanent stream channels.. which are tributaries of even large rivers (a river is a stream w several tributaries)

Connecting geology and the CN Tower

Next time you look at CN tower.. looking at minerals from Paeleozoic bedrock of ON (linestone, sandstone, shale) and aggregate (sand and gravel) deposited during the last ice age iron in support rods

Air-filled cave

Once emptied (at least partially) of water, caves can begin to fill up with sedimentary material: faeces of cave animals, clastic sediment washed in from openings at the surface, and chemical sediment (usually travertine). Cavern features produced by the minerals precipitated from dripping water are called speleothems (spelaion = cave, them = put or deposit).

Recording Seimic Waves

P waves arrive first followed by S waves Followed by L waves Differences in the arrival times of these waves (time between P and S waves) @ diff. recording stations permits one to determine the distance between the recording station and earthquakes epicentre

Transform plate boundaries

PLATES SLIDING PAST EACHOTHER-move along each other • More common in oceanic litho. of ocean basins (offset segments of divergent plate boundaries) Sometimes occur in continental continental litho. (san Andreas fault) ex. two plates formed at diff locations found along side each other look very diff: -diff thicknesses of sediment -younger one will be higher in elevation -cliff between them (line runs outward from the active transform falls) and creates a feature scar/zones= ragged edges of a single plate

Can Earthquakes (& tsunami's) be predicted

Short-range predictions = no reliable method exists long-range forecasts =probability of certain magnitude earthquakes occurring on a time scale of 20-100 yrs or more important step to reduce damage from tsunami is installation of warning systems (take hrs for tsunami to reach distant shoes) technology in tsunami prone areas is lacking

Chemical weathering of minerals

Simple salts (e.g. halite) most easily weathered Form of chemical weathering: simple dissolution. Occurrence: sedimentary rocks. Carbonate minerals (e.g. calcite) Form of chemical weathering: acid dissolution Occurrence: sedimentary rocks (e.g. limestone), metamorphic rocks (e.g. marble). Silicate minerals (e.g. ferromagnesian minerals, feldspars, quartz) Forms of chemical weathering: hydrolysis, oxidation, acid dissolution Occurrence: igneous, metamorphic, clastic sedimentary rocks

the correct model which controls tectonic plate movements

Slab pull: convection/ridge-push not strong enough on their own to move entire plates but to minor degree contribute

3 processes of erosion process due to liquid water: 3. Abrasion (plus scouring)

The erosive action of water is enhanced by the impact of suspended sediment particles with rock. Stream erosion (plucking of grains and abrasion by sediment particles in running water) Shoreline erosion (plucking of grains and abrasion by sediment particles in wave-swept environments)

success rate of pearl culture

The ratio of pearls per number of oysters is higher in cultured oysters than wild oysters, but the yield is still surprisingly low. Under the best circumstances, out of every 1,000 oysters grown at a Japanese pearl farm: 500 die during the culturing period 250 produce poor-quality pearls 200 produce saleable pearls of low to medium quality 50 produce top-grade, gem-quality pearls (so 1 out of 20 oysters). It takes about 2 years to produce a marketable pearl with a layer of nacre about 0.4 millimetres thick (pearl size varies according to the size of the nucleation bead inserted in the oyster). The average diameter of Japanese pearls is about 7 millimetres.

3 processes of erosion process due to liquid water 1. Transport of dissolved substances

This exposed surface of jointed limestone (in Malham Cove, Yorkshire) the effect of differential weathering plus erosion. In this case, acid dissolution has been focussed along joints in the limestone. Erosion has occurred due to the removal of the dissolved material. In turn, drainage of water into the deep cracks has allowed further dissolution of the limestone in smaller feeder channels The removal of readily dissolved material is also obvious in limestone headstones (note how the granite headstone, which is resistant to dissolution retains its detail, but the limestone headstone does not).

Bunyan's burger North Coyote Buttes (northern Arizona)

This large concretion (about 3 m wide, 1.5 m high) has been exposed by erosion of the softer sedimentary rock within which it grew. It has split and has been preferentially eroded along the bedding planes of cemented strata.

Mechanical weathering: Unloading

This occurs when an igneous rock body (e.g. a pluton) expands as overlying rock is removed by erosion. Outer layers of the intrusion expand more than the rock below and separate like layers of an onion.

Mechanical weathering: Root Wedging?

This occurs when roots of plants (e.g. trees) penetrate into small cracks. As the root increases in size, it increases the size of the crack until pieces of the rock break apart.

Mechanical weathering: Frost wedging?

This occurs when water flows and penetrates cracks within a rock and freezes. Water expands when it converted to ice, widening the cracks. With repeated cycles of water penetration and freezing, cracks get increasingly large, ultimately resulting in the breakup of the material.

Lake Nyros danger- Preventative measures for the future

To prevent future disasters, a lakewater piping system has been installed. This allows long-term release of small amounts of carbon dioxide from the lake bottom (thus reducing the rate of carbon dioxide build-up)

deposits associated w weathering

chemical weathering can lead to economically significant metal deposits ex. bauxite (aluminum ore) -AL is v abundant in continental crust but is generally so tightly bonded w in silicate minerals that is v difficult to extract -intense chemcical weathering over long periods of time removes aluminum from feldspar and mica and combines it w water to form the mineral gibbsite -gibbsite is heated to drive off the water and further heated to separate pure aluminum metal from bonded oxygen

Hydrothermal Processes

deposits formed from hydrothermal (hot water) solutions -solutions: left-over fluids of cooled magma, warming of groundwater/seawater that seeps into rock below surface -hot water ability to dissolve metals appears to be its saltiness= brine solutions containing dissolved salts are able to dissolve better than pure water -the higher the water temp. the greater amount of stuff (including metals) the water can hold in solutions warm brine containing lots of dissolved metals drops its metals when cooled forming a metallic mineral deposit

3 types of strange concretion shapes

due to diff. rates of calcite precipitation sediment type and other factors, concretion assumes some unusual shapes 1. Fertility figure-bunch of small concretions that have grown into one another 2. Fossil figure= weather rind of concretion partially flaked off 3. Turtle stone= calcite filled cracks of the concretion

Differential Weathering and erosion: Ship rock, New Mexico

famous ship rock (volcanic neck) high above surrounding terrain bc the intrusive volcanic material of volcanic neck weathers less readily than overlying pyroclastic rock and surrounding sedimentary rock

Djosers step pyramid

first tomb constructed entirely of stone that Pharaoh Djoser (dozer) builts 2800 BC in Saqqara -elaboration of mastabas (step pyramid= several mastabas stacked atop one another) -early pyramid (step pyramid) made of limestone represents prototype of more streamlined pyramid designs that came later

Floodplain deposition

floods are important events that deposit beyond rivers channel important in lower courses where gradient is very low during a flood water spills over rivers bank the sudden reduction in the speed of the water allows sediment to be deposited on the flood plain

Stone arch, arches national park, utah

formed when tin walls of freestanding sandstone erode on each side and eventually a 'window' or hole in the rock appears w continued erosion, arch eventually collapses

Dino Nesting Behaviours

fossil nests indicate dinos were good parents: built nest/tended to their young ex. Maiasaura (good mother lizard) oviraptor (egg stealer or caring mother)

Primary Clays?

found close to their original site of formation (site of weathering) due to little or no transport of clay particles consist mostly of the clay mineral kaoline

Glaze, colour, and opacity

impurities can alter the colour natural minerals, small amount of certain substances can be added to glaze to produce different colours common glaze additives and resulting colours 1. copper oxide: green and blues 2. cobalt oxide: blues anf violent 3. iron oxide: yellow, orange, red 4. manganese dioxide: deep purple additives are also used to increase the opacity of glazes common ones are titanium/tin oxide

uses of nacre

in many applications popular practice collectors remove prismatic layer of a shell to veal the more attractive nacreous layer popular material for jewellery musical instruments and various other ornamental applications making buttons

DEvils tower, Wyoming

in northeastern Wyoming is another example of volcanic neck that has resisted erosion better than the rock that formerly surrounded it odd characteristic: the columnar jointing pattern w in the andesitic igneous rock (contradiction as the rock cooled) in steven Spielbergs close encounters movie- alien mother ship

Ceramic?

in visual arts, clay is used i the fashioning of ceramic items a ceramic can be loosely defined as hard, brittle, nonmetallic material made from clay and other earth materials and hardened by firing at high temp-it contains minute silicate crystals suspended in a glassy placement unlike glass, ceramic has a crystalline structure

Properties of pearls

lustre, colour and orient. As for mother of pearl, high reflectivity and internal reflection determine the lustre of pearls. The basic colour of a pearl (colour body) is dependent on pigments in conchiolin (dark pearls tend to have thick layers of dark-coloured conchiolin, whereas white pearls have thin layers of light-coloured conchiolin). Conchiolin colour varies among various species of pearl oysters. As in mother of pearl, the orient (iridescence) in a pearl is caused by the breakup of white light into colours of the spectrum by surface relief and the refractive/reflective properties of aragonite crystals.

ocean lithosphere vs. continental lithosphere

mantle part of lithosphere= (upper mantle+ crust) is uniform in composition (ultramafic rock) BUT the crust part of lithosphere varies in composition-2 types 1. oceanic crust= mafic crust unlying ocean 2. continental crust= felsic crust underlying continents

placer deposits

many rock fragments eroded from rocks are effected by running water -particles of gold and other heavy minerals can be concentrated in areas affected by stream current (remember light particles are preferentially washed away, leaving heavy particles behind) -good prospect areas include point bars, waterfalls, and potholes in the stream bed where fast moving water slows suddenly

Concept of the Apocalypse

most powerful subjects in art= "the end of our time" -apocalypse in every area of the fine arts w exception architecture -all cultures have some form of apocalyptic imagery in their myths and art apocalypse= uncover/reveal (greek) purest form, apocalyptic snerios emphasize enlightenment of the human race/dawning of a new age- hope for the oppressed underdog modern times= doomsday/end of the world

Shoreface zone (upper part)

near the top of the shore face one the base of a wave is slowed down due to friction w the seabed -the wave is oversteepened and breaks losing much of its energy -due to loss of energy some sediment can be deposited in sandbars

Pyramid interiors

not solid structures- contains chambers and connecting tunnels chambers presumably designed to contain bodies of the phased/queen/their possessions function of internal structures is still unknown

creation and destruction of the lithosphere.. how can you tell divergent/convergent??

ocean floor features show sites of divergence and convergence divergent boundaries are represented by mid-ocean ridges (east pacific rise/mid-atlantic ridge) convergent boundaries shown by trenches (Peru-Chile trench)

Nacre Orient: influence of Surface Relief

one contributor to orient= splitting of light waves (distraction) into individuals colours of the spectrum due to regular arrangement of grooves and ridges on a surface at certain angles of viewing waves of certain colour (each reflected at specific angle) are reinforced making those colours more brilliant =constrictive interface same principle applies to surface of a compact disc (alternating lines of pits and ridges)

Explanation of Strange Rock Behaviour: Racetrack Basin

orientation of the furrows indicate that the boulders generally move in a northward direction (this is consistent with the prevailing wind direction). A plausible explanation for boulder movement: Brief rainstorms wet the clay-rich lakebed surface. The wetted clay becomes sufficiently slick that friction is overcome by forces exerted by moderate to high winds (these get up to 70 km/hr in this area). Thus, large boulders are moved by windpower!

Helical flow- how produced

outerbend= cut bank innerbend= point bar -stong flow erodes the outer bend producing steeply sloping cut bank -weak flow on inner bend deposit sediment -the net result is that the meander moves laterally in the direction of the cut bank (to the left) ex. St Mary's River

internal structure of a shell Prismatic vs. Nacreous

prismatic and nacreous layers have diff. optical properties due to difference in crystal habit 1. prismatic layer (composed mostly of blocky prisms of calcite/aragonite)=weakly translucent to opaque 2. nacreous layer (composed of mostly plate-like tablets of aragonite) is shiny, translucent, often colourful smooth surface of nacreous layer allows mantle tissue to slide against shell w out being damaged

convection cells

produces convection currents in mesosphere where heat is delivered to shallower layers of earth

Hydrothermal processes: convergent boundaries

recall that magma generated at convergent boundaries (by hydration melting)= intermediate to fells in composition only a little bit of fluid can exist in a magma chamber when most of silica has crystallized into minerals fluid is v salty and highly concentrated in heavier metal ions that cannot be easily incorporated into the common rock forming minerals this fluid can penetrate cracks around igneous intrusions once cooled metals are dropped out of solutions in the form of mineral compounds or native metals

skam

red chalcocite (copper sulphide) crystals in marble skarn scariness can also host some unusual silicate minerals due to reaction of hot fluids w the rock into which the intrusion was emplaced

magnitude scale

ritcher magnitude/scale based on amplitude (wave height) or the largest seismic waves recorded accounts for the decrease in wave amplitude w increased distance magnitudes >2 are not felt by humans each unit of richter magnitude increase corresponds to a tenfold increase in wave amplitude and 32 fold energy increase largest earthquake in Chile may 22, 1960 9.5 magnitude

Differential weathering and Erosion

rocks generally show differential weathering (i.e. they weather in a non-uniform manner). Weathering tends to be concentrated at intersections of cracks. The cracks may develop along cracks (e.g. joints produced by stresses within the rock). Erosion preferentially removes material from the most-weathered areas, leaving behind rounded edges.

Search for the "smoking gun" =Chicxulub

searching for a crater of the right age and size of that envisioned to have produced the global K-T catastrophe, it was "discovered" by Canadian Geologist Alan Hildebrand in 1991 The Chicxulub crater is immense: at least 180 km in diameter. It is buried beneath Cenozoic sediments, and can only be mapped by geophysical surveys.

Clays ability to be shaped

shape of clay mineral grains influences the behaviour of the clay clay grains are thin and broad clay minerals have a platy habit and also have perfect basal cleavage, thus both intact and broken clay mineral grains tend to be flat and wide (like plates) under weak stress the plates slide past one another allowing the mass of clay to deform readily (especially when lubricated by water)

Evidence of K-T Mass extinction: shocked Quartz

shocked quartz in K-T Boundary clay indicates shock metamorphism structures in quartz grains have only been observed at meteorite impact sits and nuclear test sites

Significance of the levees: 6 degrees of separation

significant steps in the evolution of rock and roll were made in Louisiana where it emerged as fusion of many diff. styles of music (which in turn can be traced to Louisiana's cultural diversity) 1. fusion of sound linked to diversity of culture which related to the importance of the Mississippi as a transportation route (waves of immigration in area) 2. African American Slaves-contributed their spiritual songs later become rhythm and blues many individuals worked in cotton fields of south which depended on fertile soils derived from ancient flood plain sediments of Mississippi river 3. the cajuns who lived in poorly drained back swamps of Mississippi floodplains added their attitude to the mixture 4. bluegrass- hank williams song reference to the bayou- slowly moving yazoo swamp streams separated from the Mississippi by levees

Stream Characteristics: load (2)

streams carry clastic sedimentary particles in 2 ways 1. bedload large/dense particles that remain on bed of stream most of time but can move by tumbling and saltation (turbulent layer) 2. suspended load, small/light particles that suspend in water most of time (turbulent and laminar layers) in general- volume and sediment grain size of both bedload and suspended load decrease downstream (w increasing distance from primary sediment source)

surface waves

surface/love- L waves =complex motion cause greatest destruction

Levees

the coarsest sediment (sand and silt) is deposited to the closest channel forming ridges called levees (these are exposed when the river returns to its normal water

Stream characterisitics: Gradient

the gradient (slope) tends to be higher at the upper reaches of a stream (headwaters) than its lower reaches (close to its mouth)

Orient of Nacre

the iridescent play of colours in nacre= orient The intensity of orient is dependent on similar factors as those that \ produce lustre: the reflection of light off surfaces and the behaviour of light within the nacre.

Mississippi river drainage basin

the majority of rivers in the US drain into the Mississippi river. the lower part of river transports a huge amount of watering fine-grained sediment (fine sand and silt as bedlam and mud as suspended load) produced the muddiness of Mississippi- ex. Mississippi mud pie

secondary clays?

transported from original site of formation (site of weathering) found far away from their original site of weathering can contain kaolinite but also generally contains other clay minerals- quartz, iron oxides, and organic matter

construction of Moai (easter island structures)

-900 Mao in various stages of construction have been found on easter island unfinished moai have been found in cliffs of volcanic crater indicating carved at this site topknots red topknots preserved on some of the statues were quarried from iron-rich, porous balsaltic rock called scoria (red colouration due to presence of hematite-weathering product) at puna pao. tools used for moai carving- axes made of non-porous basalt

Volcanic connection to Lake Nyros

-> Lake Nyos occupies a crater of a dormant volcano in a failed rift arm that developed during the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The 1986 disaster was not accompanied by the eruption of any lava or pyroclastic debris. The lake, only about 1 km wide, is exceptionally deep (200 m). The upper 50 metres is fresh water- below this level, the water is salty (due to emanation of sodium-rich volcanic fluids that from the underlying magma chamber). Also quietly accumulating at the bottom of the lake are large quantities of carbon dioxide (again fed from an underlying magma chamber). As long as the lake is undisturbed, the carbon dioxide is confined to the bottom of the lake.

Flaws in the Core

-A vessel strong enough to withstand the intense pressures and temperatures of Earth's interior -Giant, amenthyst-lined cavities in the mantle (under pressures 50,000 times the atmospheric pressure at sea level) -if you could travel to the Earth's interior, why start your descent at the Marianas Trench (at a subduction zone), where the lithosphere is thick and rocks are in a state of compression? An easier route would be down a mid-ocean ridge (at a divergent boundary) where the lithosphere is thinnest and in a state of tension. -The terranauts decide to return to the surface at Hawaii (which is claimed to lie between two tectonic plates) Hawaii is actually situated within a plate (volcanism here is due to Hawaii's position over a stationary mantle hotspot) -If earths magnetic field did shut off we would not be fried by microwaves! -> microwaves= too diffuse in space to do any damage -> earths magnetic field doesn't block microwaves (the atmo. does) -> cell phones would be disabled -> migratory animals be affected

Thermohaline circulation

-Atmospheric circulation is influenced to some degree by ocean currents that flow to contrast in temp and salinity ex. warm seawater in Atlantic flows northward along North America (gulf stream) cools in the North Atlantic (becoming more dense) and flows southward climate of western EU and Scandinavia is warmed by the northward-flowing Atlantic Current

Who were the Islanders of Easter Island?

-Based on genetic evidence: Polynesian people from the West -Easter Island first settled 700 AD.. -isolated paradise w distinct culture for 100s of yrs, -islanders created skillfully carved terraces and small statues about 1200 AD islanders built ceremonial stone platforms called ahu which famous giant stone statues Moai were erected largest- 80 tonnes

Stone Statues (Moai)

-Easter Island was constructed by basaltic lava and pyroclastic debris (volcanic ash) sourced from mafic mantle material -most famous features found on easter island are huge statues (Moai) carved from volcanic ash most stand about 5 metres tall and weigh 20-40 tonnes

Orient in Ammolite

-For reasons still unanswered, the play of colours in ammonite nacre from the Bearpaw Shale have been greatly enhanced in intensity (this might have to do with slight deformation of aragonite crystals within the nacreous layers). Ammolite is somewhat difficult to work with because it readily splits apart along planes between aragonite sheets. It is also quite soft and is prone to scratching. The ammolite must therefore be processed in a different way than most gemstones. Sheets of ammolite are ground and polished, attached to a backing (either pieces of the original matrix or harder material), and capped with a cabochon of quartz or spinel

K-T Mass Extinction contributors: Sea Level Change

-The Cretaceous Period was characterized by a relatively warm climate worldwide (note that there were no ice caps to speak of) Large areas of continents were covered by shallow seas. A major drop in sea level started near the end of the Cretaceous Period and continued into the beginning of the Tertiary Period (Paleogene Period). This removed lots of shallow marine habitat (shallow seas now drained), and exposed continental shelf areas. Less shallow sea = extinction of some shallow marine organisms Also... Land areas more arid = extinction of land organisms requiring large expanses of wetland Bc continents were family close together: *Lower sea level creation of land bridges migration across bridges Means increased competition and spread of disease among land animals

Construction of MT. Rushmore

-a granite cliff on Mt. Harney in the core of black hills was chosen as the site for the carvings -400 local miners in the 6.5 years of work (1927-1941) invested in the project -90% of the 450,00 tons of granite removed from mt. were taken out w dynamite-producingg egg-shaped protrusions that became heads -honeycombing= finer detail carving, drilling holes to the certain depths and removing intervening rock w hammers and chisels -smoothing the surface= pneumatic drill w a special bit to leave the surface s smooth as concrete sidewalk borglum died in 41-shortly after completion of carving project

Half dome, Yosemite Valley, CA

-exfoliation dome -dome part of larger igneous body glacier action has carved a curved surface into lower part of dome (v-shaped valley formed by river modified into U-shaped valley by glacier) -sheer cliff at top of dome produced by collapse of rock along a vertical joint (collapsed material later transported away by glacier)

Volcanic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits

-at midocean ridge, salty seawater flows down into faults and other cracks of the ocean floor -as it is warmed, it resolves sulphide ions and metal ions (including iron, copper, lead, and gold) -the heated water now concentrated in metal ions rises to the surface along fractures and escapes through volcanic vents called "black smoker" -when the solution hits cold water, the metals precipitate as sulphide minerals (native form in the case of gold) -fine crystals of metallic that emanate from black smoker accumulate in pods at the surface below *black smoke is actually fine-grained metal sulphide crystals that are precipitated from hot vent water resulting p deposit= Volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposit (bc their formation associated w the seafloor volcanism and the orebody is not well defined in shape)

Coastal System

-beach is a part of costal system -includes several zones defined by their proximity to shore and the dominant processes that occur w in them

different ore deposit types of metallic minerals

-can be loosely categorized according to their main processes of formation but each ha unique features

Mount rushmore

-carved from a granite batholith intruded into mica schist in the early proterozoic about 1.7 billion yrs ago -60/70 mill yrs ago, batholith was uplifted the black hills may have been twice as tall as they are now -erosion reduced the black hills to their present height -mt. rushmore is 5725 ft. above sea level- created by Doane Robinson in 1923 hoped giant structure carved from granite core of black hills would stimulate tourism-orginally envisioned a series of statues depicting famous western figures original site="the needles" -deemed unsuitable due to severe jointing

deposits associated w metamorphism

-chemical sedimentary affected by contact metamorphism can host deposits called skarns -ex. intrusion of magma into sedimentary rock layers has metamorphosed limestone to marble -injection of acidic fluids into dissolves cavities in the marble and metallic minerals can form in these cavities

addition of aggregates in cement

-concrete also contains inexpensive aggregates (sand and gravel) to extend the amount of cement used -most concrete contains gravel plus some sand -ontario has large amounts of essential ingredients for cement production (limestone/sandstone/aggregate) in southern ON-large deposits of sand/gravel were deposited when continental glaciers of last ice age melted sedimentary particles contained in glacial ice transported and dumped in economically important qualities in outwash plans/sub glacier river deposits

How was the CN tower designed

-concrete shaft has 3 cross sections- consisting of a hexagonal core w 3 curved support arms design allowed the delivery of utilities in central core and installation of elevators on sides 338 concrete shaft was "slip formed" in 8 months under winter conditions- pouring concrete into massive mold as concrete hardened the slipform supported by a ring of climbing jacks powered by hydraulic pressure moved upwards gradually decreasing in size to produce the CN towers gracefully tapered contour

The copper age (4,500 BC)

-copper next metal used by humans -native copper (copper pure in form) which occurs in large masses was "cold-worked" to make delicate objects: hooks/needles-which were difficult to make from stone and bone -luxury items-copper weapons more for show than use as tools -limitation of cold-worked copper= brittleness -softness of metal (couldn't hold sharp edge for long) native silver and iron nickel alloy (meoteorites) were used this age

metals: Economic (4)

-cultural aspect in determining the feasibility of extracting any given metal is the cost of extraction -a mineral body that can be mined at a profit is called ore factors qualifying it to be an ore: 1. concentration of the metal(s) 2. size of orebody 3. costs associated w infrastructure (ex. cost of mining and transportation) 4. market value of the metal(s) of interest

War on Easter island: demise of non sustainable society

-demise of easter island population linked to poor resource management -22kn x 11km-small, resources were limited to begin w -1600 AD trees were primary source of material for fuel and building of homes/boats/tools for fishing-became scarce -soil erosion resulted from lack of trees made farming difficult =cannibalism Final Blow: in 1862, Peruvian slave traders took 1500 islanders (1/3 surviving population) w one year all but 15 died survivors returned to Eastern Island brought back smallpox which killed 111 people on island

What the CN tower represented

-demonstrate the strength of the CA industry by building a tower taller than any other in the world -solving communication problems stimulated toronto tourist industry (2 mill visited tower annually)

iron age (1200 BC)

-discovery of iron came by accident (in Turkey) -in a kiln, smelted iron would not= liquid droplets (iron has higher melting point than copper) -instead material formed spongey solid mass= "Bloom" -copper metal naturally separated as heavy liquid from lighter silicate rich slag, the solid iron bloom retained pockets of impurities (slag) -some point-it was discovered that slag bodies w in iron bloom could be pounding the bloom on anvil when hot bloom was pounded, slag simply squirted out from the mass purification of the metal was accomplished by repeated heating/pounding of the bloom

Contributor to K-T mass extinction: volcanism

-end of cretaceous period a large plume of mafic magma from ample breached surface in India -4 million cubic km of lava erupted over about 2 million years. -Sulphur dioxide from these eruptions would have cooled global climate significantly (perhaps leading to the sea level drop). -This would have been followed by a longer period of greenhouse warming from the carbon dioxide that accumulated in the atmosphere

Stream characterisitics: ability to downcut

-erode downward in an effort to reach base level (sea level) -the greater the elevation above sea level the greater the rate of downcutting -thus, erosion tends to dominate at the headwaters (highest elevation above base level).

Vein (lode) deposits

-fluids super concentrated in metals can penetrate larger fractures forming mineral-filled veins -native gold and silver can be found in the spaces between quartz crystals -vein deposits= lode deposits mother lode= belt of quartz veins in cali that was source of famous gold in CA gold rush of 1800s

limestone from Giza

-fossiliferous limestone quarried for the purpose of pyramid-building is particularly interesting bc it consists almost entirely of nummulites =chambered shells of extinct forms of marine amoeba-alike organisms= foraminifera that accumulated in high quantities during early cenozoic -foraminifera still live in deca today but none reach sizes attained by nummulites

Sources of stone in Giza Pyramids

-fossiliferous limestone/most of the stone in Giza Praids was quarried on the Giza plateau itself white fine-grained limestone casing brought across the Nile from Tura pyramidion and interior room casing (walls and floors) of pyramids were made of granite from Aswan (near by places)

Casting

-in China artisans developed effective furnaces that were capable of melting iron -iron could be poured into moulds -the cast iron then reheated to drive off the excess carbon making the product more elastic and malleable for final use

Metal compounds

-increased usage of metals necessitated the development of smelting methods to separate metals from impure forms -many metals mined today are derived from metal-bearing mineral compounds (most combined w sulphur/oxygen)

Nacre Orient: influence of Refraction and Reflection

-individual crystals of aragonite can also act as tiny prisms refracting light and dispersing it into the colours of the rainbow -effect is further enhanced by interaction of outgoing light waves that bounced off multiple crystal surfaces w in the sheets of nacre (constructive interference)

banded iron formation continued 2, why banded iron does not form today

-interlayed w the bands of iron oxide are bands of chert which was also precipitated as chemical sediment bandeded iron formation does not form today bc 1. the oxygen in the atmo rusts iron on land (so precipitated b4 it can reach the sea) 2. most silica dissolved in the sea is taken up by some organism (sponges) redbands=hematite white bands= chert

banded iron formation

-iron mined today comes from a deposit type called banded iron formation -during the proterozoic iron was dissolved from rocks on continents -iron remained dissolved in river water due to the absence of oxygen in the atmo (and river water) transported to the sea -oxygen liberated by bacteria in the sea reached sufficient levels to allow iron oxides (as magnetite or hematite) to precipitate as a chemical sediment

lowest part of a rivers coarse

-it is this area where it is deprived of coarse sediment but still carries lots of fine-grained sediment as bedload and suspended load -also reached its highest discharge (the volume of water passing a given point in a given period of time) this is bc it is receiving water from a great many tributaries -high discharge of a river its lowest course can be appreciated when 1 considers the total amount of water received by Mississippi river

Dinos and myths

-its is very possible that dragon myths were spawned in part by early discoveries of dino remains -superficially dragons look like dinos dragon are depicted as large reptilian beings (added accessories-wings/ability to breathe) dragon mythology widely distributed over diff. cultures=widespread distribution of dragon remains (found on all continents)

Closer look at Nacre Composition of mother of parks (3)

-largely composed of aragonite crystals films of organic matter (specifically as the substance conchiolin) and water are also present general composition of the mother of pearls 1. Aragonite (82-86%) form the framework of nacre 2. Conchiolin (10-14%) complex organic substance made of complex sugars and protein fibres 3. Water (2-4%) occurs in the conchiolin layers

Shoreface zone (lower part)

-lies above fair-weather wave base and is constantly affected by normal waves -gentle gradient of the lower shore face results from the smoothing of sediment associated w the back and forth movement of the waves

Stonehedge construction of stone head 1

-located salisbury plain-west london, one of 200 odd installations of standing stone in EU -the function if these standing stones remains mystery -stonehead is believed to have been built in 3 separate stages 1. 3000 BC- consisted of a ditch and adjacent banks surrounding ring of 56 small pits called Audrey holes possible that wooden posts were installed in these holes

Hydrothermal processes: divergent boundaries

-magma generated at convergent boundaries (by decompression melting)= mafic in composition -metallic mineral deposit in divergent boundary settings tend to be associated w mafic igneous rocks -as in convergent settings metal bearing brines left over from cooling of magma can penetrate cracks in the crust and form metal deposits -most important contributor to the concentration of metals is the interaction of seawater w oceanic crust

Function of the mantle

-mantle secretes prisms of calcium carbonate (aragonite or calcite) -the mantle covers the prismatic layer w tablets of aragonite nacre (this is mother of pearl layer observed on the shell interior) *when shell secretion is not taking place the mantle separates from shell -on top of prismatic layer: organic material called periotracum is deposited (providing protection from dissolution/camouflage) -drab exterior of the pearl oyster (other molluscs) conceals the beauty w in

Classification of metals (2)

-metals are unified by having high electrical conductivity, cluster, and malleability ability of atoms to lose electrons to form positive ions (cations) -the term "metal"="fusible metals"- metals of moderate hardness that can be fused w other metals to form alloys=metal mixture fusible metals: 1. precious metals 2. base metals

the CN tower

-modern significance- largely made of cement- modern material of choice for construction -553 metres, worlds 2nd tallest freestanding structure (behind Burji Dubai) -as soon as skyscrapers begun to be built in the 60s the tall buildings cause communication problems bc sign bounced off the buildings (poor TV and radio reception) w receptors as high as 553m these problems relieved

conditions necessary for reef development (3)

1. little clastic sediment occurs (sediment particles smother reef builders) 2. nutrient levels are low 3. water is shallow

The Great Sphinx

-monument bearing body of a lion and face of a human -sphinx represents the pharoh khafre in the leonine form of the sun god ra-horakhty builders of sphinx left no writing to its purpose 73 metres long and 20 metres tall slightly below ground level surrounded by trench body of the sphinx was carved in place from readily eroded native limestone bedrock difference in weathering rates of limestone layers reflected in the undulation on the the front/sides of the sphinx age=under debate, about 2520-2494 BC limestone plaque between paws of sphinx bears the name hare but context unknown (much of the limestone surface has been flaked off) plaque was installed by plaque was installed by pharaoh thutmosis IV to commemorate the removal of sands from Sphinx's enclosure in 1400 BC scholars believe that face of sphinx is that of Khafire himself-disagreement on this

The real beginnings of smelting

-more likely : first smelted ore was produced in a pottery kiln -the production of pottery preceded the smelting of metal by 1000 yrs -high temps. achieved in a kiln (due to prevention of heat loss to open air and increased temp. accomplished by forcing air into the kiln finance) primitive pottery kilns coud generate temps over 1400C) -special kilns-later developed for smelting (pieces of ore put in direct contact w charcoal to ensure highest temps. and prevent oxidation of ore) ' allowed metal to be separated in pure form presence of fluxes used to lower melting point of minerals w in the pottery could have lowered the melting point of metals inadvertently smelted

Pyramids of Egypt

-most famous-97 pyramids in total -most people: pyramids of Giza plateau are most familiar burial traditions -earliest Egyptians buried their dead in pits along w possessions to accompany them to afterlife -later on, fancier mud-brick coves (mastabas) we constructed to cover the graves of members of nobility

Abundance elements in earth's crust

-most metals (except iron and AL) useful to society occur in low abundances in earth's crust relative to other elements -98.5 of earths crust (weight) accounted for by 8 of the 92 elements 46.6% Oxygen (O) 27.7% Silicon (Si) 8.1% Aluminum (Al) 5.0% Iron (Fe) 3.6% Calcium (Ca) 2.8% Sodium (Na) 2.6% Potassium (K) 2.1% Magnesium (Mg) All other elements: 1.5 % *majority of familiar metals used in society are NOT on this list

Dino Ancestry

-most primitive reptile group (1st appeared in carboniferous period) = stem reptiles small lizard-like forms that evolved amphibians

Sediments from rivers

-most sediment supplied to beaches along continental coastlines is delivered to coast from rivers -when river enters a large body of water (ocean) flow rapidly decreases resulting in deposition of sediment at the river mouth -sediment deposit= delta

fossil pearls

-nacreous layer of shells can sometimes be preserved in the fossil record so can pearls (rare) -fossil pearls of pen shells from eocene they retain their nacreous lustre due to exceptional conditions of preservation (most importantly, lack of dissolution)

erosional shoreline area vs depositional shoreline area

-not all shorelines alike -erosional shoreline= material removed -depositional shoreline= material deposited

Tunguska Event (1908)

-not large enough to impact global population 7am june 30th a mysterious explosion occurred in skies over Siberia 1000 km away= seimic vibrations recorded by sensitive instruments as much as from ground zero 400-500km= "deafening angs'/fiery cloud on the horizon 170km= object seen-sunlike fireball-thunderous noises 60km= people thrown to the ground/knocked unconscious windows broken 30km= people blown into air/trees/unconscious/one man died

How did ore minerals end up in pottery kiln

-one might beautify pottery by adding attractive minerals to clay ex. using green mineral malachite (copper ore) or galena (lead ore) -beads of molten metal that were produced upon being would have decreased the beauty of the article but an astute potter would noted that these beads could be collected and further purified to produce larger bodies of metal -copper minerals (malachite-copper carbonate) became scarce it became necessary for copper to be obtained by sulphide minerals -copper sulphide (chalocopyrite) generally occur w sulphides of other metals (arsenic) smelted copper w impurities of arsenic formed the first metal alloy used by humans=bronze

The culture pearl industry: Oyster Surgery 101

-oysters raised in cages/nets to prevent predation by other animals are anaesthetized so that the oysters relax their adductor muscle and open their shell now ready for tissue implant epithelial mantle tissue of donor are cut into small strips each recipient oyster a slice of mantle tissue plus nucleation (generally made from nacre of freshwater clams) is inserted into the gonad (far removed from nacreous layer of shell) A pearl sac forms in the gonad. The epithelial mantle tissue continues to secrete nacre and, if all goes well, covers the bead with nacre to form a free pearl. Natural pearls generally have a large amount of nacre, relative to the diameter of the nucleus. Cultured pearls only have a thin rind of nacre surrounding a larger nucleus (the thickness of the nacreous rind must be at least 15 % of the total diameter of the pearl to be worth selling).

Which critters make pearls?

-peals can also be made by other bivalves (mussels)/gastropods (conchs) even cephalopods (nautilus) -any mollusc that secretes a shell is capable of producing a pearl but high in nacreous pearls are limited to molluscs w a nacreous layer the conch and blue mussels do not secrete nacre so their peals not nacreous

How Roadrunner-coyote scenery is produces

-plateau is locally dissected by deep stream valleys -deep dissection is due to the efforts of rivers to cut down to base level (sea level) -separating the deep valley systems are broad flat regions -w further erosion, stream valleys widen leaving small remnants of the original plateau "stranded" well away from valley walls until terrain looks completely flat w towering buttes and mesas *erosion is further enhanced in these arid areas due to lack of vegetation

Why was stonehenge an ancient observatory?

-popular interpretation= arrangement of standing stoned constructed to mark positions of the moon and sun during diff. times of the year ex. horseshoe of sarsen stones point in direction od sunrise during summer solstice explain why the direction of sunrise lies slightly off the position of the heel stone that remains today

Gutzon Borglum

=artist, french student, commissioned to carve mammoth figures insisted the carvings be national in character the 4 great presidents would be carved 1. George Washington 2. Thomas Jefferson 3. Abraham Lincoln 4. Theodore Roosevelt

Cultured Pearl Industry 3 advantages

-practice of perliculture increased availability of peals to consumers -wild pearl oysters-nearly drive to extiction in Hawaii/Tahiti Oyster cultivation is a good think! wild pearls threatened by pollution Perliculture include 1. Better pearl count to oyster ration 2. some control over pearl shape 3. control over pearl size labour-intensive industry

Pearls vs. Edible Oysters

-precious pearls made by pearl oysters are diff. from common edible oysters -edible oysters can also produce pearls these are not nacreous (edible oysters do not not concrete nacre)

Disseminated deposits

-pressure from intrusion of igneous body can generated lots of microscopic cracks into which residual fluid can penetrate and cool minerals containing copper, molybdenum, gold and silver are distributed throughout the fractured rock in low concentrations (disseminated). Although disseminated ore deposits are very low in grade(concentration), they are immense in scale and can be mined at a profit.

The Stone Age

-prior to the use of metals, humans relied on materials such as obsidian, chert, and quartzite for fashioning of tools -increased sophistication of toolmaking is apparent in tool types found at archeological sites from simple tools w cutting edge to sophisticated spear points

Uplift of Colorado Plateau

-recent geological history much of US southwest was gently upward into a broad plateau due to regional upwelling of magma (why extensive laval slows in places Arizona) -possibly related to disrupted mantle flow associated w detachment of shallow subjected slab

reef zones

-reef builders are zoned in a reef according to their form (encrusting forms tend to dominate the reef crest where wave action is strongest while more delicate branching forms are confined to deeper water zones where water action is more gentle)

The Black Hills- South Dakota USA

-represent a upwarped structure underlain by Micha Schist -centre of the structure is granite intrusion -flanking the structure are sedimentary strata of Palaeozoic-> cenozoic age

Valleys?

-river channels are bounded on either side by valleys -valleys reflect the erosive action of streams, which undercut and destabilize their banks -destabilized material tumbles down into the stream channel providing sediment particles for the stream to transport as bedload or suspended load -valleys at headwater (high above base level) tend to be deep and v-shaped due to rapid downcutting valleys= lower part of streams course (slightly above base level) and broad due to little downcutting and greater lateral movement meandering pattern more pronounced flatness of valley floor accentuated by deposition of sediment during floods areas adjacent to the channel that are built up by sediments during floods= floodplains

Eskers and subglacial rivers

-rivers that run under the retreating glacial ice produced tunnels w in which sand and gravel deposited -these deposits form snake-like landforms= eskers, which are important sources of gravel in ON

Earthquake: storage of energy?

-rocks on both sides of existing fault (other planar feature) deformed by tectonic forces -rocks bend and store elastic energy (bulding strain)

Igneous process: magmatic cooling

-some metals, (iron and chrome) can be concentrated by simple gravitational settling of heavy minerals from cooling magma w in an intrusive body -these heavy metals are formed during earliest stages of cooling and sink to bottom of magma chamber

Late Stone age: early uses of native metals

-some point, humans during stone age discovered that native gold was sufficiently soft and malleable to be fashioned into artistic objects of beauty -it is likely that nuggets of placer gold were used for this purpose -the rarity of native gold made objects valuable -resistance of gold to corrosion and oxidation makes it more valuable

Evidence of K-T Mass extinction: Tektites

-spheres of glass (tektites) are also found at the K-T boundary worldwide -believed to represent rock that was melted from he immense heat of the impact, flung into the atmo as droplets and quickly cooled in the atmo to form beads

Stenm Reptiles: Changes in Posture

-success of dinos attributed to development of upright posture Stem reptiles (and lizards) have a CANT RUN AND BREATHE AT SAME TIME sprawling posture that limits mobility and breathing (body is deformed during walking). Thecodonts attained a semi-upright posture that allowed for better mobility. Later forms developed a nearly full upright posture. Dinosaurs attained full upright posture (with legs positioned directly beneath the body, allowing for maximum mobility) =posture evolved a change in body composition so lungs could work while limbs were moving

Steeling

-the addition of carbon to ron increased the hardness of iron metal -this iron-carbon alloy (containing >1.7% carbon)= steel -carbon 1st introduced to iron from carbon monoxide generated in the furnace/from carbon in furnace fuel -steel making continued to develop introducing many varieties of steel (each w diff properties) -steel in combination w increased use of coal as fuel= backbone of the industrial revolution and 1 of the most important metals in society

The belief of the beginning of smelting (2)

-the art of smelting began accidentally "cooking" of metal ores in campfire unlikely bc 2 main reasons: 1. the heat generated in a campfire is unlikely to reached temp necessary to allow metals such as copper to separate from the ore (melting point ^1000C) 2. the presence of large amounts of oxygen in a campfire would have readily oxidize any metal that was produced by melting (metal oxide are brittle and cannot be worked)

another possibility/belief of the construction of the sphinx

-the body started as a quarry that ultimately proved unsuitable as a source of construction stone and abandoned -Giza was a perfect place to build pyramids the humo of limestone left from unfinished quarrying would have spoiled the view -the sphinx was a fancy dress-up to convert the ugly blemish into aesthetically attractive monument

What is the crust of oceanic lithosphere made out of?

-uppercrust= oceanic litho. is made of volcanic rock basalt (aphanitic mafic rock, cooled at surface) -Lower crust = oceanic litho. is made of plutonic rock gabbro (phaneritic mafic rock, cooled at depth)

less extreme version of erosion in arid land is badlands development

-valleys of rivers (southern Alberta) are deeply cut and bear deeply gullied "badlands" topography -results from rapid erosion of weakly cemented sedimentary strata by water runoff erosion also enhanced due to scarcity of vegetation -balands=french settlers, derived from french term meaning bad land to travel through badland in Ontario- Cheltenham Badlands-15kn northwest of Brampton due to improper farming practices: uncontrolled erosion has stepped away soil and penetrated into soft shales below

Dinos in modern pop culture

1. -original Godzilla-1954 400ft.. fire breathing dino wakes undersea hibernation from Japanese atomic bomb testing attacks Tokyo -1998 Godzilla irradiated lizard created by French atomic testing in South Pacific and goes to Manhattan 2. Jurassic Park (& sequels) made palaeontologists cool in the eyes of the public

Typical components in a soil that yields good plant growth

1. 45% mineral water Mineral matter provides the important inorganic nutrients for plant growth. In addition, it also provides a substratum for root growth and gives soil "structure." 2. 5% organic matter Organic matter is another source of nutrients. Addition of organic matter replenishes nutrients taken out of the soil by growing plants. 3. 25% water Water is the transport medium for nutrients (and air) to be taken up by plant roots. 4. 25% air Air, the fourth ingredient of soil, is taken up by plant roots and is also important in supporting important decomposers.

Clay? 3..

1. A member of a large group of fine-grained platy minerals related to micas 2. a mixture of minerals w clay-size particles (but generally dominated by clay minerals) 3. mass of minerals (primarily clay minerals) that behave plastically when wet

8 myths about dinos

1. Dinos were slow, tail dragging brutes= the tail had a purpose, to counterweight from mass 2. dinos had scale skin like lizards= dinos have pebbled textured skin unlike lizard bird skin 3. dinos were dumb= ranked low on intelligence (some brains size of walnut) smaller theropods (troodon) higher brain volume to body volume ratio- w in range of birds as intelligent s raccoon if K-T extinction didn't happen, dino's might mammalian intelligence ! 4. Pterosaurs (pterodactyls) were flying dinos= reptiles but belonged to a diff. group than true dinos 5. If Loch Ness Monster Exists, its a dino= nope! no dino's actively swam. If Nessie exists- marine reptile far removed from dino family tree 6. dinos cold blooded like lizards= no, dino's not like lizards (are lazy, conserve energy, effort only if prey comes along, sleep for several days, dinos more active) evidence of warm blooded dinos 7. Dinos dull-coloured= some brightly coloured/ some dull coloured 8. Dinos were unsuccessful (extinction)= walked earth for 160 million years-humans have been around for 5 mill. modern humans (homo sapiens) been around for 0.2 mill yrs dinos not unsuccessful

Evidence of Subduction (4)

1. Existence of ocean trenches (deepest areas of the ocean) a. Trench is the surface expression of subduction zone where oceanic litho. Begins its descent 2. Explosive volcanos (hydration melting produces thick, viscous intermediate or felsic magma) 3. Areas w most severe earthquakes (indicating severe compression and subsequent release of energy) -focal points of earthquakes are deeper inboard of trench 4. Rocks of oceanic origin found high and dry in the largest mountain ranges Marine rocks of former ocean basin become wedged between the colliding plates and are uplifted in mountain range

5 examples of Biblical Apocalyptic art

1. Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (albert Durer 1498)= in the book of revelation the 4 horsemen of the apocalypse are sent as harbinger of the end of world, (personify pestilence, war, famine, and death) 2. St. Michael Tramples the Devil (Raphael 1503)- God Triumph over evil 3. Last Judgement (Michelangelo sistine Chapel 1534) covers wall of chapel, busy painting but eye drawn to centre- christ on cloud raises right arm above mary to raise the bless and right arms holds out to damn the others for the oppressed apocalypse is a good thing 4. The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed in the sun (william Blake 1805)= based on rev 5. Revelation 5 (Gustav Dore 1880) and i looked and behold a pale horse and his name hat sat on him was death (rev 6:8)

4 common ingredients in your food

1. GYSUM (calcium sulphate): Used as a stiffening agent in baked products such as bread, cakes, and cake frostings. 2. Plagioclase feldspar (sodium aluminum silicate) Used as an anti-caking agent in powdered products such as coffee whiteners. 3. apatite (calcium phosphate) (anti-caking agent and acid regulator) 4.Nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate) Of course, used as a raising agent in baked goods.

Comparing River Characteristics: Channels

1. Headwaters small/shallow channels coarse bedlam turbulent flow dominant overall velocity often low bc drag affects most of water column 2. Lower coarse large/deep/wide channels fine bedload laminar flow dominant overall velocity high bc drag is confined near stream bed (well below the surface)

Early evidence of seafloor spreading (3)

1. Jigsaw puzzle fit continents (first noted by Alfred Wegner in 1915) Suggest the former existence of the supercontinent Pangaea (later determined to existed in Permian period) 2. Fossil evidence (also by Alfred Wegner) Fossil of land organisms (of Permian-triassic periods) such as the lizard Mesosaurus and the ferm .. Distributed over multiple continents: how did they get to one continent to another?? 3. Distribution of old Mountain belts Old moutain belts (Appalachians and Caledonides) now separated but if continents fit together mountain forms a ____ belt

Stem Reptiles of the Permian Period (3 groups)

1. Mammal-like reptiles (evolved into mammals) 2. MArine reptiles (ex. icthyosaurs and plsiosaurs) 3. All other reptiles w two subgroups a. The squamates (lizards and snakes) b. archosaurs (the codonts, crocodiles, dinos and birds) *Reptiles are more related to birds than humans are to other mammels

Types of convergent plate boundaries

1. OCEANIC-OCEANIC CONVERGENCE ○ Subduction of oceanic lithosphere under another plate of oceanic litho. ○ Magma produced by hydration melting rises to surface to produce volcanic island arc (ex. Japan) 2. OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE ○ Subduction of oceanic litho. under a plate of continental litho. ○ Magma produced by hydration melting rises to surface to form continental volcanic arc 3. CONTINENT-CONTINENT COLLSION ○ Where 2 pieces of continental litho. meet (intervening ocean becomes completely closed) ○ Continental lithosphere cant be sub ducted so basically collides, shortens and thickens ○ Earth highest mountain belts produces this way (Himalayas)

can both types of lithospheres be destroyed and reformed?

1. Oceanic litho. Constantly formed/destroyed (by seafloor spreading and subduction) Therefore ocean basin are temporary features 2. Continental litho is too buoyant to be destroyed by subduction- in effect plates of continental lithosphere "go along for a ride" as oceanic lithosphere is created/destroyed Therefore continents are permeant features (although can change configuration)

Types of Seismic Waves: Body Waves (2)

1. Primary (P) Waves -> Push-pull (compress and expand) motion changing the volume of intervening material 2. Secondary (S) waves --> Shake motion at right angles to their direction of travel take longer to travel than P waves

Two major groups of Dino's

1. Saurichian (lizard hipped) backward facing ischium and forward facing pubis both meat/plant eaters 2. Omithischian (bird hipped) dino has backward facing ischium and pubis plant eaters, backward pubis allowed for bigger stomach

RECENT EVIDENCE OF SEAFLOOR SPREADING 2

1. Symmetry of magnetic _____ (defined by polarity of magnetic basaltic rock of seafloor) Symmetrical pattern of normal and reverse polarities on either side of divergent boundary can only be explained if magnetic polarity fluctuates as new crust is continually formed 2. Linear arrangement and relative heights of ____ volcanoes (volcanoes produced by movement of plate over stationary magma plumes from mantle) *Height of hotspot volcanoes are decreased w increasing distance from point of ctive volcanoes (due to cooling and sinking of litho. Material) *kinki in Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic island/seamount chain, indicating change in direction of plate movement

Apocalyptic literature (2)

1. The conversation of Eiros and Charmion (edgar Allan Poe 1839) =even in the destruction of the earth the human spirit can be redeemed (optimism) 2. The Second Coming (William Bulter Yeats, 1921) subtle in his treatment of the apocalyptic theme, but the notion of "loss of order" is very apparent

Other Impacts of Chicxulub (4)

1. Vaporization= of gypsum at impact site would have generated sulphur dioxide, lowering global temp. for several years 2. Reaction of sulphur dioxide w water in atmo= produced enough acid rain to make seawater as acidic as lemon juice 3. combustion of nitrogen in the atmo. (to form nitrogen oxides) would have further contributed to acid precipitation (as nitric acid) 4. consumption of atmo. oxygen by the blast significantly reduced ozone levels in atmo.

asthenosphere 3..

1. Weak= flows more readily 2. smaller convection cells 3. not quite a liquid but flows like one over long periods of time

Cool facts about the CN tower (5)

1. almost twice as tall as the Eiffel tower 2. took around 1500 workers-5 days/week/ 24/7 fro 40 months (1973-1976) 3. contains 40524 cubic metres of concrete= enough to build sidewalk curb from TO to kingston 4. 44 sediments of the antenna were lifted into place by helicopter 5. CN tower sways a bit in wind (1 metre from centre in 120 KM/hr winds)

lithospheric density and thickness 1. avg density 2. solidify of materials that make up lithosphere 3. age of lithospheres 4. effects of density

1. avg. density of lithospheric mantle= 3.3 g/cm^3 2. lithospheric mantle consists of hard brittle material which form the plates as magma/heat plumes rise and it breaks into plates 3. oceanic litho.=younger, 180 mill. yrs-heavy and thin continental litho.= 4 bill. yrs-light and thin 4. continental litho. blocks stand higher than blocks of oceanic litho who have same dimensions- due to isostasy/thickness

two types of plate boundaries

1. divergent= boundary between two plates that are moving apart (diverging) 2. Convergent= boundary between 2 plates moving towards each other (converging)- lithosphere can be destroyed at converging boundaries via subduction (trenches)

lithosphere

1. floats atop asthenosphere 2. hard and brittle 3. uppermost part of mantle/ contains most crust 4. broken into plates which shift/interact w each other- not a continuous sheet ex. scum on soup

Rock types used in Pyramids (Khafre ex.). 3

1. granite= make cap stone (pyramiding) and line internal chambers 2. limestone= white casing constructed of white fine-grained limestone 3. fossiliferous= bulk of pyramid made of buff-coloured fossiliferous limestone

3 types of mineral mimeotoliths

1. gypsum chrysanthemum 2. smithsonite (heart) 3. aragonite- petals and siderite (centre) daisy

3 rock classes

1. igneous 2. sedimentary 3. metamorphic

Porcelain

1. made from primary clays 2. suited for manufacture of very thin objects that are strong (dinnerware) 3. smooth texture (no grog) 4. produced early in 10th century in Asia-"China"= high-quality porcelain 5. bone is sometimes added to clay for more translucent appearance (bone china)

Stoneware?

1. made from primary clays 2. well suited for manufacture of vessels that are stronger than earthenware also used to made non-porous products-floor tiles/drainage pipes 3. coarse (rough/loose) in texture (contains grog) 4. colour=brown bc of iron oxides this allows for wider range of glaze effects like fine speckles

Earthenware? (5)

1. made from secondary clays 2. well suited for the manufacture of thick -walled articles (such as mugs, plates, and flower pots 3. cheapest to make (secondary clays more common) 4. colour can range from white to terra cotta 5. texture ranges from fine to rough depending on grog content

Karst topography in Guangxi Province (4)

1. near-surface dissolution of limestone (sinkholes developed due to collapse of near-surface caverns) 2. uplift increasing downcutting of streams and lowering of water table 3. further uplift, down cutting of streams and deep dissolution 4. pillars remaining between the caverns are left behind as the guano mountains

Factors contributing to soil formation (5)

1. parent material a. residual soil (parent material is the underlying bedrock) b. transported soil (forms in place on parent material that has been carried from elsewhere and deposited 2. Time -Important in all geologic processes -Amount of time for soil formation varies for different soils depending on geologic and climatic conditions 3. Climate -Most influential control of soil formation -Key factors are temperature and precipitation 4. Plants and animals -Organisms influence the soil's physical and chemical properties -Also furnish organic matter to the soil 5.Slope -Steep slopes often have poorly developed soils -Optimum terrain is a flat-to-undulating upland surface

Isolation of erosional remnant features

1. sedimentary strata deposited 2. sedimentary strata uplifted and exposed at surface 3. dissection of land by rivers 4. widening of valleys and isolation of mesas 5. further dissection and isolation of buttas

Behaviour of Volcanoes

1. typically associated w hotspot volcanoes and divergent plate boundaries -> mafic magmas have low viscosity (runny) due to low silica content (50%) high volatile content associated volcanoes tend to erupt relatively gently 2. *associated w convergent plate boundaries -> immediate to felsic magmas have high viscosity (stiff and gooey) due to high silica content (60-70%) hgih volatile content associated volcanoes tend to erupt explosively

Rapa Nui (easter Island)

3700km West of Chile in South Pacific island discovered by Dutch sea Voyager Jacob Roggeveen Apr. 5th 1722 (easter Sunday of that year) Easter Island located western end of Sala y Gomez seamount chain representing a chain of volcanoes produced by plate movement over stationary mantle hotspot (hawaii)

2011 Japan Earthquake and tsunami

9 magnitued offshore 130 km from Sendai Japan 375km from tokyo Tied for world's 4th largest earthquake since 1900 Depth of focus about 13.5 km below Earth's surface The earthquake triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to 23.6 m high that struck Japan as early as 15 minutes after the quake, in some cases traveling up to 10 km inland. Human impact: 11,004 deaths 2,778 injured 17,339 people missing over 125,000 buildings damaged or destroyed Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without water. The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency rated it as a "major tsunami" (at least 3 m high). The actual height predicted varied, the greatest being for Miyagi at 10 m The tsunami inundated a total area of approximately 470 square kilometers in Japan. The tsunami travelled across the Pacific to be directly observed along the North American coastline. Travelling at a speed of California at 500 km/hr, the tsunami waves reached California less than 12 hours after the main earthquake.

The Mantle: A Common Characteristic of Molluscs All molluscas processes

= A fleshy foot, a radula (rasping organ), a digestive system, and gills (labelled "ctenidium" here)... ...but most importantly, a mantle (a fleshy membrane of tissue that surrounds the visceral mass). key to shell construction serves to protect delicate internal tissue

Stream? why are streams important? (4)

= considered a body of water that carries rock particles and dissolved ions and flows down slope along clearly defined path called a channel important: 1. deliver water from land to sea 2. erode sediment particles and transport them to lower elevations (important to the formation of sediments and sedimentary rocks) 3. carry dissolved ions (weathered rocks on land) to the sea (why sea is salty) 4. major source of water and serve as transportation routes for humans most population centres located along streams

Sugarloaf (pao de acucar) Rio de Janeiro

= exfoliation dome the erosional remnant of igneous body weathered via unloaded

Largest Pearl

= from Indonesia (sumatra) comes from worlds largest clam it is not nacreous irregular brain shaped blister peak 23 cm 3.35 kg

Why built a pyramid?

= important religious statement for the Egyptians -edges of the pyramid symbolizing the slanting rays of the sun -others speculate the sloping sides intended to help soul of the king climb to the sky and join the gods -others argue that orientations of great Giza pyramids have some connection w 3 stars of belt of Orion

The good news of the K-T Mass extinction

= new age -demise of great reptiles (dino's ruled the land since Triassic period) Therefore= reconstruction of primitive jurassic mammal underdogs were no longer oppressed mammals by the dino's and evolved quickly to take din's place --> humans would not be here if it weren't for K-T extinction!

The first real-time observations of a significant body colliding w a planet in recorded history was

=Comet shoemaker Levy 9 Torn apart by tidal stresses on a close pass to Jupiter in 1992, the comet was discovered in 1993 before meeting a spectacular demise in July 1994 when over 20, kilometre-scale comet fragments crashed into the planet at 60 km/s The pieces of comet were like flies on a windshield Jupiter had earth-size scars took months to dissipate in its upper atmo.

Can the Thermohaline circulation be shut off?

=Yes! Global warming-decrease temps. differences between poles and the tropics making thermohaline much weaker freshwater from melting icecaps is less dense than regular seawater pooling of cold freshwater would prevent the descent of polar water effectively short-circuiting the thermohaline conveyor system result: areas normally warm by warm surface current (Eastern North America and Scandanavia) would become colder while tropics would become hotter Contrary to Day After tomorrow changes would take several decades (not few days)

what is Cement ?

=abbreviation of correct name- "portland cement" is fine grey powder that looks like gray flour raw materials 1. calcite (from limestone) 2. silica (from quartz-usually from sandstone) additives: -alumina (clay in shale) -iron oxide (from iron ore)

what do moai represent?

=statues constructed as guardians of the island people -moai were apparently constructed by ruling class of the island= "long ears" -fashioned in the likeness of the person buried beneath the ha upon which they stand -once the obsidian pupil was offed to the coral eye of statue the dead king was born again inside the statue -speculated the statues were cared w out legs to prevent the statues from walking around transported moan using log rollers

Earthquake?

=vibration of earth produced by rapid release of energy along faults in Earths crust -energy released as vibrations (seismic waves) radiates in all directions from its source, the focus the point on earths surface directly above the focus is the epicentre

Undertow

=when water cannot escape as a rip current -remember that water that is pushed towards the beach must return to sea somehow -if water cannot escape rip current it returns to sea by flowing underneath the waves -swimmers less likely to drown from undertow than in a rip current

Frankenstein

The year after the eruption (1816) was so cold in the US that it was called the year "Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death." With the lack of sunlight, many crops also failed and people were starving. And in the middle of summer that year, in the New England region, snow fell The same year was called "The year without a summer" in Europe. They challenged each other to write ghost stories, and Mary came up with Frankenstein

The Scream

Volcanism can be tied to one of the most famous icons of modern angst, The Scream, by Norwegian artist Edvard Munch. Munch's art (including The Scream is strongly infused with a sense of confusion and despair first version of The Scream was painted in 1893, as part of a series of paintings called "The Frieze of Life." Interestingly, Munch noted in a letter to a friend that this series of paintings had roots in his early bohemian days

Chemical AND mechanical weathering

Weathering processes are not mutually exclusive - work together to weaken and break down rock. Mechanical weathering increases the amount of exposed surface that can be acted upon by chemical weathering. As rocks are broken down into smaller and smaller fragments, the rate of chemical weathering increases.

Strange Rock Behaviour: Racetrack Basin

Within Death Valley, California is a dry desert lake bed, known as the Racetrack Playa. Resting on the lakebed are loose dolostone boulders weighing up to 320 kg. Some are associated with long furrows. Some of the rocks are located hundreds of metres from the edges of the lake, and some have moved up slight inclines on the lakebed surface (indicating that gravity is not the sole factor in moving these rocks). No-one has actually seen the rocks move.

Guangxi province southern china 7 factors make it this

a popular landscape depicted in Chinese art is the broadleaf-like round peaked high mountains of guangxi province of southern China 1. region is underlain by pure carbonate rocks (limestone and dolostone) which re readily dissolved 2. moist/warm climate 3. rocks are cut by joints along w weathering has been enhanced 4. sequence of carbonate rocks over 300 metres which allowing for deeps dissolution 5. dissolution of the bedrock has produced a maze of underground streams flowed collapse producing deep gulleys along which further dissolution were focused 6. the entire region has undergone gentle uplift enhancing the rate of stream downcutting

Explanation of cross bedding

a sedimentary structure produced by the migration of bedforms (Ripples and dunes) under the influence of a water or wind current. Sediment particles transported in a current come to rest on the downcurrent side of the bedforms, forming laminations at a high angle to the main bedding surfaces.

Faunal Change at Gubbio, Italy Above boundary below boundary

above= planktic foraminifera small, low in diversity (suggesting high biological stress) below= planktic foraminifera lage, very diverse (good living conditions)

clay: the big transformation

after all the free water is driven off (above 500C) the major transofrmations of the clay take place at this point the clay is irreversibly changes as hydrogen and oxygen of clay minerals are driven off as water the remaining solid material of the clay produces the minerals mullite and quartz

glazing

after ceramic completed- it is glazed to beautify and give it waterproof finish glaze=form of glass consisiting of 1. glass-forming minerals (silica/feldspar) 2. stiffeners (clay) 3. fluxes= lower the melting point of other glaze components (calcite and dolomite, common fluxes) a glass results from cooling this molton stuff

How Pearls form

characteristics of pearls, such as colour and lustre, match the characteristics of the nacreous layer in the molluscs that make them. Nacreous pearls, like mother of pearl, are composed of nacre and are built by the epithelial (surface) cells of mantle tissue. Any foreign body that irritates the mantle tissue and cannot be expelled by the mollusc can form the nucleus of a pearl (the mollusc reduces irritation by surrounding the irritating body with smooth layers of nacre). Rarely do grains of _sand form the nucleus of a pearl (oysters are quite efficient at expelling sediment particles)

Structure of Clay minerals (3)

clay minerals are made of 3 basic building blocks: 1. sheets of linked silica tetrahedra 2. sheets of linked alumina octahedra 3. plus assorted positive ions that bond these sheets together (mostly hydrogen, potassium, iron, and magnesium)

Where clays are made

clay minerals can be produced from weathering of other minerals, particularly feldspar (feldspar weathering to clay

Comet vs. Asteroid

comet= ice dust and rocky material, has tail of material being blasted off by solar wind asteroid= metal and rocky material

kiln drying?

complete drying doesn't take place until the piece is in the kiln this happens when the bioliing poiint of water has been reached water between play particles are cooked off this must happen slowly of the formation of stream w in the body of clay may cause it to burst

'04 boxing day Sumatra earthquake/tsunami

earthquake of 9.0 magnitude occurred west coast of Indonesia (4th largest) energy released by earthquake equivelent to detonation of a mill nuclear bomb occurred as result of the convergence of Indian and Asian techtonic plate moving app. northeast at 6cm/yr @ slippage along the interface between 2 plates generated the earthquake 8 hours to reach Somalia 15M in height along coastline of Sumatra near epicentre 4M in height along coasts of Sri Lanka/Thailand/Somalia hardest hit= NW coast of Sumatra, Aceh province, Indonesia 100km from epicentre, mx. height 15m, 80,000 deaths Total death toll: at least 173,324 people -most casualties than any other recorded!

20th century apocalyptic imagery

emphasis on: the nature of disasters the reaction of humans concept of "new hope" A common theme in 20th century apocalyptic imagery is the concept of human vulnerability- that despite our technological sophistication, we are "sitting ducks." EX. The invention of increasingly powerful weapons (especially the nuclear bomb), increased awareness of environmental degradation, outbreaks of illness, and widespread fear of communism all contributed greatly to paranoia in the western world.

Mass Extinctions: Apocalypse of the past what is a mass extinction

global scale disasters taken place throughout earths history one nearly wiped out all of earth -unrelated organisms go extinct w a geologically short period of time= mass extinction -5 severe mass extinctions have occurred= the big 5

Why add grog to clay bodies

grog= either sand or fired clay crushed and sized lacking microscopic size and shape of clay particles (also lacking water) grog adds stiffness to excessively soft clay grog does have beneficial effect on shrinkage bc grog does retain water as fresh clay does therefore its presence reduces the overall shrinkage rate of clay during drying process more grog=less shrinkage, vice vera

heat plumes

hot material in lower part of mantle (mesosphere) flow upward in plumes cold material flow downward

An Extraterrestrial Source for Iridium?

iridium= rare in earths crust but enriched in the mantle and meteorites ALvarezs deduced that a major impact by comet or asteroid= cause of cretaceous-tertiary mass extinction

Erosion?

is the physical removal of material by mobile agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity. In most cases, erosion is aided by weathering

Production process of cement

materials are measured into desired quantities and crushed into fine powder, which powder is fed into preheating tower and cooked to 900C fed through rotary kiln that heats the mixture further to 1500/1600C producing clinker (calcium silicate) clinker is cooled/ mixed w gypsum (regulates setting time) and milled into fine powder fine powder=cement, add water which forms crystals of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide which develop an interlocking network gives concrete strength for construction purposes

Base Metals

metals of low inherent value -most base metals oxidize (tarnish) in air (rust/loose colour) -base metals= iron, lead, copper, zinc, tin cultural significance of name= derived from the practice of alchemist attempt to make gold form less valuable metals

Violent Volcanic activity: calderas

most devastating eruptions are those so violent that the top of volcanoes cave in huge amounts of pyroclastic debris and gases released through ring fractures surrounding summit the crater produced by such collapse= caldera ex. Crater Lake (Oregon),

Stalacites and Stalagmites

most familiar speleothem features are stalactites and stalagmites. Stalactites= Over long periods of time, precipitation of calcite from dripping water produces icicle-shaped bodies of travertine Stalagmites= Calcite precipitation from water on the floor of a cave, produces upward-oriented mounds (stalagmos = dropping) Stalactites and stalagmites can eventually connect, forming columns. Walls of the cave can also be covered with sheets of travertine When mites crawl tights come down!

Bauxite

most of the readily dissolved ions are washed away from the soil leaving a residue rich gibbsite in effect bauxite just is highly weathered soil

Aphrodisiacs

notion that certain foods are aphrodisiacs might also relate to geology. A good example is the edible oyster. As in land-based organisms, marine organisms ultimately acquire nutrients from ions that are released into seawater from weathered rocks. Oysters just happen to concentrate zinc in their tissues. Men and women with zinc deficiencies suffer infertility and libido loss. when eating oysters= zinc boost ex. men take zinc supplements to increase sperm count

"Deep Impact" Launched by NASA

on jan. 12th 05 spacecraft began its 431 million km journey to comet Tempel 1 (whose orbit passes between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter). Part of the mission involved hitting the comet with a 370 kg mass composed mostly of copper. Aspects of the impact crater, the composition of the ejecta, and the behaviour of the comet resulting from impact were observed (but the impact was not strong enough to change the comet's course). The mission provided some indication of the composition of comets; this may ultimately provide clues to how a comet would behave if it impacted Earth.

Earthquake: Release of energy

once frictional forces along fault are overcome slippage occurs at the weakest point (the focus) vibrations (earthquakes) occur when deformed rock "springs back" to original shape (elastic rebound)

Biblical account of Apocalypse

stems from christian traditions most apparent in the book of revelation attributed to st. John the Apostle book about - dream like account of heaven and ultimate battle between good and evil (God triumphs) in events leading up to end of the world

rock face

stone provincial park southern Alberta produced by differential erosion of cross bedded sandstone slightly inclined orientation of laminations between bedding surfaces

Vitrifcation ?

the mineral components of the ceramic fuse together as they are partially molten to glass glass fills in spaces between the interlocking mullite crystals binding them together when cooled, the ceramic, now made of fused mineral components is hard and durable some shrinkage can occur at this point thus heating conditions must be carefully controlled

Igneous Processes: Immiscibility

the nickel-rich deposits of sudbury are the product of Immiscibility =seperation of metal-rich liquid from silicate-rich liquid (similar manner as oil separates from water) sudbury structure= meteorite impact crater (later compressed into an oval shape by tectonic forces) -heat from impact event melted rock down to mantle -as molten material rose to the surface metal rich liquid separated from the silicate liquid -the molten material was concentrated in cracks surrounding the impact crater (forming a nickel-rich sublayer) -the crater basin was later infilled w sediment

Variations in soil development due to topography

the soil profile -Soil forming processes operate from the surface downward -Vertical differences are called HORIZONS - zones or layers of soil

The effect of changing crystal structure

the strength of fired clay is increased by the formation of meshwork of needle-like mullite crystals mullite is an aluminum silicate mineral characterized by elongate crystals these lace the structure together giving it cohesion and strength

Kratatau (1883)

the volcano Krakatau exploded on August 27, 1883, at least roughly corresponding to the time Munch is believed to have witnessed the unusually fiery sunset.. The island of Krakatau was obliterated by the explosion, and tsunami travelled thousands of kilometres across the ocean, killing a total of at least 40,000 people. The sound of the explosion was heard 3,000 miles away. Barometers recorded Shock Waves from the explosion traversing the planet seven times. And a thick pall of ash and dust rose skyward, eventually encircling the globe. Sunlight reflecting off particles in the atmosphere tinges sunsets redder than normal - in the same way, smoke from wildfires can produce such spectacular sunsets. After Krakatau exploded, skywatchers began reporting Crimson skies appearing ever farther north as the ash and dust spread out. The intensity of the sunset sometime during this period obviously left an indelible mark on Munch's psyche. Other paintings such as "Angst" show the same sunset.

The Basic Idea behind the movie "The Core" (about failed military operation caused earths core to sop spinning=loss of magnetic field, electromagnetic disturbances are everywhere-microwaves going to fry planet)

thought that Earth's magnetic field is generated within Earth's iron-nickel, outer core. Convective flow of material in the outer core creates an electric current that, in turn, creates a magnetic field (similar to an electromagnet). the main idea of the movie is on par with current knowledge (although it is the flow of convention currents in the liquid outer core, not the core's spin that drives the magnetic field). It is also true that the Earth's magnetic field fluctuates in intensity and polarity. According to Earth's geologic record, our planet's magnetic field weakens and flips, on average, about once every 200,000 years. last time- 780,000 yrs ago

working w iron 3 undesirable qualities 2 advances in technology

undesirable qualities: 1. softer than bronze 2. too soft to hold sharp edge 3. iron tens to oxidize (rust) advances to tech. 1. steeling 2. tempering

convection model (how plates are moved/controlled from convection in asthenosphere)

upward flow of heat plumes from convention cells outward between plates, outermost plates destroyed/downward flow back into liquid soup (asthenosphere)

longshore drift

water in a shore face zone flows toward the shore at an angle and flows back at a right angle to the shore the net result is a current that flows parallel to the shore this is called a longshore current the movement of shore face sediment by a longshore current is called longshore drift

Origin of streams (3)

water that falls to group as precipitation can: 1. evaporate back into atmo. 2. soak into ground-becoming groundwater 3. remain at the surface as runoff

Weathering? Mechanical weathering?

weathering (the physical or chemical breakdown of materials at or near Earth's surface). Weathering enhances the ability of erosion processes to remove components of the material (either as solid particles or as dissolved ions). Mechanical weathering: physical breakup or disintegration of material (without changes in the composition of the material). Principal forms of mechanical weathering include: Frost Wedging Root Wedging Unloading

Oxbow lakes

when meander loops become more pronounced through time= cutoffs meander is isolated due to cutoff it can form arc-shaped lake called OXBOW

Chemical weathering: Oxidation

when oxygen combines with another element to form an oxide that can be subsequently removed by erosion. In nature, iron is particularly prone to oxidation, forming the mineral hematite (we call this rust). Oxidation is an important process in the decomposition of mafic (iron and magnesium rich) minerals. The rate of oxidation is accelerated when water is present (as most car owners can appreciate).

properties of clay: Cohesion

when slightly wetted, clay is also very cohesive (sticks together well) due to the high surface area of the mineral grains (broad/flat) small amounts of water cling to the particles surface tension produced by water film allows particles to stick together, like a deck of wet cards

Evidence of K-T Mass extinction: The Fern Spike

with the iridium anomaly in terrestrial (land) sediments that record the K-T boundary is a sharp depletion in tree pollen accompanied by an enrichment in fern spores This "fern spike" suggests recovery from devastation of forest vegetation. (Observations in modern ecosystems indicate that ferns are among the first plants to recolonize the land after catastrophic deforestation.) As with the occurrence of soot at the boundary, this inferred deforestation event has been attributed to global wildfires that resulted from asteroid impact.