East Asia

Manchukuo

(Great Manchu Nation) By the end of 1932, the Japanese had invaded all of Manchuria and Henry Puyi (the last Qing Emperor) had been declared emperor of the "independent" state of Manchukuo. • The adjoining Chinese province of Jehol was invaded in 1933. The Mukden Incident of 1931. Mukden is now commonly identified by its Chinese name, Shenyang. Emperor Puyi • Puyi was invited to become chief executive of the Great Manchu Nation in 1932. Changchun was designated as the new capital. • Puyi was declared emperor of in 1934 with the era name of Kang De. He held that title until 1945. • Sadly Puyi was nothing more than a puppet ruler of a puppet state. The U.S., Britain and Nationalist China never recognized the government of Manchukuo. "Henry" Puyi (1906-1967)

Economic development of the Southern Song

A gradual population shift to the south had taken place during the Tang and 5 Dynasties period due constant warfare, flooding of the Yellow River and the Little Ice Age, which caused the temperature on the North China Plain to drop by 1.5 degrees Celsius. • Even before the fall of Kaifeng, 70% of China's population of 101 million lived in the South. • The fragmented/hilly geography encouraged local specialization in production and long distance trade. - Certain regions became grain centers, or specialized in tea or sericulture (silk). - Silk and cotton textile production concentrated in the Jiangnam region at the mouth of the Yangzi. - A huge ceramics industry was developed at Jingdezhen in Jiangxi province on the Grand Canal. - Trade in ceramics (China) and other products reached the entire Islamic world plus the Mediterranean. Social Tension • The economic explosion led to the growth of a wealthy and powerful merchant class. - Confucian values barred members of merchant families admission to the examination system and political office. • The resolution came through: - Silent commercial investment by the literati leading to a convergence of interests. - Patronage and granting of prestigious honorary titles. - Acquisition of large estates which over a minimum of three generations led to eligibility to take the government exams. The Song printed the first paper money in 1023.

Xian

After the Han capital was burned in 190 CE by the warlord, Dong Zhou. Cao Cao (a Han general) offered Emperor Xian refuge in his capital at Xuchang. • The emperor soon became Cao Cao's puppet. • When Cao Cao died, his son Cao Pei, accepted the emperor's abdication in 220 CE and established the Wei Dynasty.

Yue Fei

Althoug the army fled south, Prince Kang (Zhao Gou), the remaining heir, was saved by Yue Fei, who proved to be a great general and patriot. • Prince Kang became Emperor Gaozong. • Yue Fei suppressed a rebellion in the South and regained much of the North. He was a hero and prepared to launch a major offensive against the Jurchen. Statue of General Yue Fei Southern Song Peace • Gaozong and his minister, Qin Guei, feared Yue Fei would succeed, resulting in Yue Fei becoming politically powerful. They imprisoned him on false charges and poisoned him.

Japan's Capital Cities

Asuka, Yamato Fujiwara-kyō Fukuhara-kyō Heian-kyō Heijō-kyō Kōryō, Nara Kuni-kyō Kyōtanabe, Kyoto Kyoto Nagaoka-kyō Naniwa Nagara-Toyosaki Palace Naniwa-kyō Sakurai, Nara Shigaraki Palace Tenri, Nara

The Taiping Rebellion

At the time of the Arrow War, China was facing a major rebellion. At its high point, 100 million Chinese (1/4th population) supported the rebellion. Its suppression led to the deaths of 20 million. • The leader of the rebellion believed that he was the younger brother of Christ sent to found the Taiping Tianguo (The Great Peaceful Heavenly Dynasty). • Hong Xiuquan was, in fact, a failed examination candidate. Hong Xiuquan (1814-64) God's Chinese Son • After failing the civil service exam for a third time in 1837 at the age of 23, Hong Xiuquan became ill and delirious for 40 days. He saw visions that were very real to him and sought their meaning. • When Hong's cousin found a Christian tract that Hong had been given while in Canton, he read it (possibly for a second time) and was convinced that he had seen God, met Jesus and been given the divine mission to save mankind and exterminate demons. • Hong also believed that he was the source of new revelation. God's Chinese Son (cont'd) • Hong became an itinerant preacher among the Hakka charcoal burners of Guangxi. • Hong's beliefs emphasized the Old Testament and the 10 Commandments. • The ranks of his followers quickly grew. He preached strict morality, including monogamy and the prohibition of foot binding. • His social message included equality of men and women, communalism and the redistribution of land according to the Rites of Zhou. • His military organization included both male and female units. The Rebellion • The demons that Hong sought to exterminate were the Manchu. Hong's followers cut their queues and stopped shaving their foreheads to show defiance. • By 1850, they were fighting government forces. In 1853, their numbers reached over a 100 million and they had taken Nanjing as their capital. Thereafter, momentum was lost and internal dissension began. • Continued advances brought a small force of 7,000 to within 20 miles to Tianjin before it was defeated. Larger forces advanced west until 1856, when they were defeated. What Went Wrong? • The Taipings refused to recognize the treaty rights of the western powers, who ostensibly remained neutral. The claim of new revelation didn't help. • Their ideals while anti-Manchu were also antiConfucian; hence, considered subversive to the social order by the scholar-official/gentry class. • Their behavior did not conform to their creed. • Severe treatment of conquered people alienated the masses. • Hong became largely a figurehead. Internal dissension led to the purging of thousands of followers. Hong Rengan came to prominence, but too late. Zeng Guofan & the Hunan Army • Government forces had been far from effective against the Taiping rebellion. • Zeng, a scholar-official, conceived of a new model army while visiting Hunan for his mother's funeral in 1851. He stayed to build a regional militia based on Confucian values. His militia successfully fought Taiping forces and retook Nanjing. • His success inspired Li Hongzhang's Anhui Army and Zuo Zongtang's "Chu" Army. Zeng Guofan (1811-72)

Taotie

Bronzes were eventually used primarily for ceremonial and commemorative purposes. They were frequently used as alter pieces in the worship of ancestors. • The Taotie dragon pattern is a recurrent decorative theme. The dragon guards the gates of heaven.

PuYi

By the end of 1932, the Japanese had invaded all of Manchuria and Henry Puyi (the last Qing Emperor) had been declared emperor of the "independent" state of Manchukuo. • The adjoining Chinese province of Jehol was invaded in 1933. The Mukden Incident of 1931. Mukden is now commonly identified by its Chinese name, Shenyang. Emperor Puyi • Puyi was invited to become chief executive of the Great Manchu Nation in 1932. Changchun was designated as the new capital. • Puyi was declared emperor of in 1934 with the era name of Kang De. He held that title until 1945. • Sadly Puyi was nothing more than a puppet ruler of a puppet state. The U.S., Britain and Nationalist China never recognized the government of Manchukuo. "Henry" Puyi (1906-1967)

Cao Cao

Cao Cao and the Warlords • After the Han capital was burned in 190 CE by the warlord, Dong Zhou. Cao Cao (a Han general) offered Emperor Xian refuge in his capital at Xuchang. • The emperor soon became Cao Cao's puppet. • When Cao Cao died, his son Cao Pei, accepted the emperor's abdication in 220 CE and established the Wei Dynasty. Wei was carved out by Cao Cao. He had been sent to subdue the nomadic tribes of the area. He fought the Yellow Turbans and defeated the Five Pecks of Rice

The Flying Tigers

Chennault with the help of T.V. Soong convinced the U.S. to send 100 P-40s to China and allow him to recruit American military pilots. The results echoed the Ever Victorious Army. • The group was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group after the U.S. entered the war. The Flying Tigers were credited with destroying 300 enemy fighters (1/3 of the Japanese fighter force in China) while only suffering the loss of 14 of their own.

Haniwa

Clay figures & objects that were placed around tombs, possibly to guard against trespassers in ancient Japan.

Rectification of Names

Confucian expressed the importance of relationships through the Rectification of Names. Titles should fit reality and the converse.

Daoism

Dao/Tao means "the way" or path of the universe. • Both its philosophical and religious forms exist based on two texts, titled the Laozi and Zhuangzi. The religious form is associated with cosmology, feng shui, (a system of geomancy) alchemy, magic, fortune telling, secret societies, etc.. • The Daoism is attributed to Laozi (Master Lao), a putative figure. Zhuangzi (the philosopher) elaborated on his ideas. Taiji, the Yin-Yang symbol. The Yellow Emperor said ''The principle of Yin and Yang is the foundation of the entire universe." Daoism (Cont'd) • The ideal Daoist society would be one in which the people live in primal simplicity and ignorance. • The ideal Daoist human is one who functions intuitively and is not bothered by artificial concepts of good & evil. • Daoist anecdotes convey a sense of perspective, such as portrayed in Zhuangzi and the Butterfly. Was Zhuangzi a man who was dreaming he was a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming he was a man? Daoism (Cont'd) • Daoism asserts people are good in their natural state. They should be left alone to live in harmony with nature. (Akin to "noble savages.") • Daoism is iconoclastic. It challenges conventional morality and the values of Confucianism, Moism and (later)Buddhism. • As related to government, Daoism advocates mitigated anarchy. Government acts by non-acting, doing as little as possible and not disturbing the people's Wa. Confucius, Buddha & Laozi tasting the vinegar. Laozi saw life as fundamentally good. I Ching/Jing or Book of Changes • The I Ching is a book of numerology which is primarily associated with Daoism.

Dragon/Oracle Bones

Dragon/Oracle Bones During the Shang Dynasty (1523-1028 BC), tortes shell and scapula were used by shamans for divination. Thousands have been recovered. Early Writing During the Shang Dynasty written symbols were largely pictographic and recorded on bamboo strips, which may account for characters being arranged vertically. They later became ideographic and acquired an additional phonetic usage. The Power of the Written Word • The written word was part of the shaman's magic. The aura of magic continued to surround the written word through much of China's history. Example: the Memorial to the Crocodiles. • Dragon/Oracle Bones: - Deal with war, planting, weather, hunts, journeys, etc.

CiXi

Empress Dowager Cixi • Cixi's rule as regent from "behind the curtain" was symbolic of the problems faced by China. • She was committed to maintaining her power at any expense. - She manipulated the succession of three child emperors. - She and those around her were totally corrupt, e.g., building the marble pavilion with funds intended for the navy. • Nevertheless, provincial governors such as Li Hongzhang remained loyal to the dynasty. Cixi (1835-1908)

Opium Wars

First Opium War • In June 1840, the British appeared with 16 warships, four armed steamers, 27 transports and 4,000 troops. • The Pearl and the Yangtze rivers were blockaded. A • The Pearl and the Yangtze rivers were blockaded. A force proceeded to Tianjin with a letter from Prime Minister Palmerston. • Manchu Prince Qishan replaced Lin and negotiations began in Canton. The First Opium War lasted from 1840 to 1844 Treaty of Nanjing • After a brief period of negotiations, hostilities resumed in 1841. A treaty had been negotiated, but neither government was satisfied with it. • British forces reached 10,000, Canton was besieged and British guns threatened Nanjing. • Two treaties resulted: the Treaty of Nanjing (1842) and the Treaty of the Bogue (1843), an island in the Pearl River. • China signed similar treaties with the U.S. and France in 1844. • These treaties set the pattern of relations between the west and China for the next century. Treaty Provisions • The Cohong was abolished. • The Island of Hong Kong was ceded to the British in perpetuity. • Five ports were opened for trade: Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai. • The British could appoint consular officers at treaty ports. Canton is just inland of Hong Kong. Ningpo is just south of Shanghai. Foochow is across from Taiwan. Treaty Provision (Cont'd) • China was to pay an indemnity of $21 million: $6 million for the confiscated opium, $3million to cover debts owed by Cohong merchants and $12 million to cover the cost of the war. • Letters, memos, etc., between the British and Chinese officials were to be called "communications," not petitions. • An average tariff was set at 5% for all imports with an individual maximum of 14%. • Treaty of the Bogue (1843) included "extraterritoriality" and "most favored nation" provisions. Arrow War • The Arrow War or Second Opium War (1856-60) was prompted by the seizure of the lorcha Arrow. • The Arrow was flying a British flag used for safe conduct between Canton and Hong Kong. Although released by the Chinese, an appropriate apology was not given. • The incident, together with the "judicial murder" of a priest, was considered a convenient opportunity for treaty revision. It was a common practice to provide Chinese ships servicing Hong Kong with a British flag to protect them from piracy. The pirates soon picked up on the idea. The Conflict • The British attacked Canton, but had to wait for reinforcements until the end of the Indian Mutiny. They captured Canton in 1857 and ruled it for three years. • When the Chinese responded to British and French demands for treaty revision with unsatisfactory representation, the British attacked the fort at Taku and sailed up the Peiho River to Tianjin. The Treaty of Tianjin was negotiated and signed in this room in a Buddhist Temple. Treaty of Tianjin • The treaty powers were granted the following rights plus a 6 million Tael indemnity. - To maintain resident legations in Beijing. - To travel in all parts of the interior with passport. - To trade in ten additional ports, four of which were to be on the Yangtze River. - To trade in ten additional ports, four of which were to be on the Yangtze River. - For missionaries to travel anywhere in China. • Additional negotiations in Shanghai legalized the opium trade and revised the tariff schedule. • To become effective, ratified copies of the treaty were required to be exchanged in Beijing. • The Chinese attempted to preclude the exchange. Peiho River The Chinese attempted to block the British from sailing up the Peiho River to Tianjin enroute to Beijing, where ratified copies of the treaties were to be exchanged. Entering Beijing • The Chinese attempted to block the British and French from sailing to Tianjin at Taku. The fort was reinforced and the Peiho River blocked. • The British stormed the fort after reinforcements arrived in 1860. • An advanced party of 39 was sent to Beijing only to be captured and held as hostages. Twenty were killed. Lord Elgin burned the Summer Palace in reprisal. The Manchu Bannermen fought to the death defending the fort at Taku. (Actual photograph.) Convention of Beijing • The convention was signed in 1860 following the entry of foreign forces into Beijing. The foreign parties to the convention were Britain, France and Russia. The convention: - Ceded part of the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island to the British. - Ceded parts of outer Manchuria to Russia plus the Maritime Province east of the Ussuri River which included the warm water port of Vladivostok. • The convention represented a major achievement of Russian ambitions in the Far East begun with the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 and the Treaty of Aigun in 1858. Hong Kong & Macau The Convention added the New Territories (Kowloon) and Stone Cutter Island to Hong Kong.

"The Hump"

Flying the "Hump" • Lend-Lease supplies were the key to keeping Nationalist China in the war. • When the Japanese cut the Burma Road in March 1942, the last land route into China was closed. • The U.S. then resorted to flying supplies over the "Hump" into China from India with C-47's and C-46's. The distance was 500 miles over the 15,000 ft. hi foothills of the Himalayas. • The Burma Road was reopened to truck traffic in January 1945. The airlift started in July, 1942. In December, 800 tons were moved. By July, 1945, the rate had reached 71,000 tons per month. Flying the "Hump" Japan's Inland Corridor As American naval power began to dominate the waters of East Asia, Japan was no longer able to transport vital materials from Southeast Asia to its home islands by sea. The result was a major campaign to gain control a corridor in the South through which materials could be safely transported north and then transshipped over safer waters to the home islands.

Foot Binding

Foot-binding Foot-binding was a fetish that became popular during the Song Dynasty as a mark of status. It remained more common in the South. . A plaster casting of a foot (above). Especially designed shoes for bound feet.

Legalism

Founded by Han Feizi (280-233 BCE) and Li Si in the late Warring States period. Han Fei was the theoretician; Li Si was the politician. • Han Fei was a prince of Han. He wrote a book (55 chapters) to compensate for stuttering. It provided a philosophical underpinning to Legalist administration. • Li Si (280 - 208 BCE) was from Chu. He was Chancellor of Qin from 246-208 BCE and responsible for its policies after unifying China. School of Law Legalism (Cont'd) • Three principles are central to Legalism. - Law: Laws must be written, publicized and equally applied to all, regardless of rank or circumstances, as immutably as the laws of nature.

Huang Chao

Huang Chao Rebellion • During the 870s northern and central China suffered sever drought and famine leading to peasant rebellions, among them Huang Chao's . • Huang Chao, a salt merchant, raised a bandit force in 875 and joined another bandit leader, Wang Xianshi. He succeeded Wang in 878, calling himself the "heaven storming generalissimo." • As Huang marched south, the ranks of his forces swelled. He took Canton, killing 120,000 and then marched north to capture Louyang and Chang'an with a force of 600,000. • He proclaimed the Great Qi Dynasty, but was unable to obtain sufficient food supplies to feed his army. The solution was to resort to cannibalism, killing a thousand citizens a day for two years. • His forces were driven from Chang'an by loyalist forces in 883. He retreated to Henan and then Shandong, where he was killed or committed suicide in 884. Final Collapse • The throne was usurped by Zhu Wen, who established the Later Liang Dynasty in 907. This was the first of Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms that separate the Tang and Song Dynasties by 53 years. • Zhu Wen had been a general in Huang Chao's army, defected in 882 and drove Huang Chao forces into the Tai Shan Mountains. • He was awarded a regional military governorship which he expanded to the point of forcing the imperial government to move to Louyang.

The 21 Demands

It believed Woodrow Wilsons assertions about self-determination of colonial people. - It found a new champion in the Bolshevik Revolution and Communism when it lost faith in the west,. May 4th Movement (1919) • China had sent 140,000 laborers to France to support the Allies during WWI. The Japanese had done nothing but seize German lease holds and islands and issue the 21 Demands. • The Chinese expected their contribution to be recognized. It was not. Instead, Japanese control of the former lease holds, islands and concessions made to the 21 Demands were confirmed. On the afternoon of May 4th, 1919, over 3000 students of Peking University and 13 other schools gathered together in Tiananmen Square and held a demonstration. The demonstration was a reaction the provisions of the Versailles Treaty. Riots and protests followed.

The Grand Canal

Its greatest accomplishment was the construction of the Grand Canal (684-689). The canal is 1,115 miles long, roughly the distance from Washington, DC to New Orleans. It links Tientsin on the Yellow River with and Hangzhou on the Yangzi River. Sui Accomplishments (Cont'd) • The Grand Canal became necessary due to climate change. The North-West had become warmer and dryer and food production could no longer support the population. • The shifting of China's "breadbasket" from the wheat and millet producing regions of the north to the rice fields of the south prompted Sui Dynasty emperors in the 6th century to construct the canal linking this productive southern region to the northern capitals Grand Canal

Unification of Japan

Japan's middle ages combine two periods: the Ashikaga/Muramachi (1330 to 1568) classical period and the Azuchi/Momoyama (1568 to 1603) unification of Japan. • The Ashikaga shogunate in Muramachi, a suburb of Kyoto, replaced the Minamoto/Hojo bakufu at Kamakura. • The Muramachi shogunate adopted a lavish lifestyle, imitating the imperial court. • Commerce and the arts flourish. • The central government's loss of control over the countryside led to the rise of daimyo, the Onin War and finally the Nation at War. • Japan is reunited (1568-1603) through the successive conquests of Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu. Kemmu Restoration • The Kemmu Restoration (the period of 1333- 1336) began when Emperor Go-Daigo tried to reassert imperial control by rebelling against the Kamakura Shogunate. • Go-Daigo's immediate objective was to break an agreement to alternate the selection of emperors between the two branches (Northern and Southern) of the Yamato family.

Rape of Nanjing

Japanese troops entered Nanjing on December 13, 1937 after a two-day bombardment. - A total of 300,000 persons were executed and/or murdered in the next six weeks. - Over 20 thousand women were raped and mutilated. - Approximately 12,000 were killed in mass executions at the "TenThousand Corpse Ditch." • The occupation of Nanjing was documented in a 16mm film taken by John Magee, an American missionary. General Iwani Matsui entering Nanjing. The general had been "given" an art collection worth two million dollars that had belonged to a Shanghai banker.

The Burma Road

Lend-Lease supplies were the key to keeping Nationalist China in the war. • When the Japanese cut the Burma Road in March 1942, the last land route into China was closed. • The U.S. then resorted to flying supplies over the "Hump" into China from India with C-47's and C-46's. The distance was 500 miles over the 15,000 ft. hi foothills of the Himalayas. • The Burma Road was reopened to truck traffic in January 1945.

Mencius

Mencius was born in Zhou and is considered to be the Second Sage of Confucianism. • He believed man was innately good. Society or environment was responsible for bad moral character. As evidence he cited the Four Sprouts or Beginnings: - a. Alarm and distress. - b. Commiseration. - c. Deference and compliance. - d. Realization of right and wrong. Meng Tzu/Mengke/ko (372-289 BCE, almost 200 years after Confucius' death. Mencius/Mengzi (Cont'd) • His view of the Mandate of Heaven was essentially that of a social contract. The right of revolt was implicit. • The king should rule thru the power of his goodness which would transform society. • The duty of government/society was to nurture goodness, thereby transforming the individual. • His model sage was Shun, a man of lowly birth who attained such virtue and wisdom that King Yao abdicated in his favor.

Marco Polo

Mongol rule opened trade routes between the West and China. • The Polos, as Venetian traders, took advantage of this opportunity making two trips to China, one in 1264 and the other in 1271. Marco was on the second trip. • Marco's account of his travels and his 17 years in China was published in The Description of the World in 1295. It was a sensation, inspiring interest in the East and even a poem by Coleridge, Kubla Khan. Marco Polo(1215-1294), aka, Il Milione, the man of a million tales. The Kubla Khan • Samuel Taylor Coleridge published the poem, Kubla Khan, in 1798, inspired by Marco Polo's account of his travels. It romanticized the East.

Kwantung Army

Mukden Incident (1931) • In 1931, the Japanese Kwantung army seized Mukden. The provocation for the seizure was an explosion on the South Manchurian RR track. The Japanese claimed that the explosion was Chinese sabotage. It was later established that the Japanese had set the explosion themselves. • By the end of 1932, the Japanese had invaded all of Manchuria and Henry Puyi (the last Qing Emperor) had been declared emperor of the "independent" state of Manchukuo.

Wang Anshi

Near the end of the Northern Song during the reign of Emperor Shenzong, China faced a financial crises. Tax income was no longer sufficient to meet the expenditures. Recurring budget deficits were accompanied by widespread inflation. • The principal culprit was tax evasion by large estates that was common during the Northern Song. The tax burden increasingly shifted to the peasantry. • Emperor Shenzong sought the advice of Wang Anshi. Wang Anshi (1021-1086) was a Chinese economist, statesman, chancellor and poet who attempted major socioeconomic reforms. Wang's Economic Reforms • Wang's ideas were the "New Deal" of his day. An improved economy and greater efficiency would produce a stronger state and greater taxes. His policies were initiated between 1062 and 1073. Among the more prominent ones were: • The Green Sprouts Act. Offered farmers two loans a year at a 20% interest rate. The private rate was 70%. The program was financed through the Ever -Normal Granaries. • Militia Act. Intended to more efficiently use the existing levies by organizing households into military units which would be trained and equipped by the government to reduce reliance on costly fulltime units. Also provided mutual surveillance. • Service Exemption Act. Converted corvee labor obligations into two cash payments calculated on a graduated scale. • Land Survey. Initiated surveys to rectify tax registers. Wang's Other Reforms • Expanded the Civil Service. - Professional status for local functionaries. - Recognizing Specialties. • Public Schools. -National University. - Local Schools. • Military Reform Dilemma. - Centralization vs. Local Militias. -Weapons and the Iron Industry.

Nurhaci

Nurhaci was the founder of the Jurchen state and Khan of the Later Jin. He: - Established his capital at Shenyang (Mukden). - Developed a script with which to write the Jurchen language. - Gained his spurs fighting the Japanese. - Established the banner system. - Wrote the Seven Vexations. - Declared war on the Ming in 1616 and conquered Liaodong in 1626. • Nurhaci died in 1626 from wounds suffered in a defeat by Ming forces equipped with Portuguese cannon. • He was succeeded as Khan by his 8th son, Hong Taiji (aka. Abahai) who declared the Qing Dynasty in 1636 and completed the conquest. He became the first Qing emperor. Nurhaci (1558- 1626) The Banner System • Nurhaci established the first four banners in 1601. They became the model for the organization of his army and Manchu society. • The basic unit was a company of 300 men.

Boxers

Rebellion lasted from 1899 to 1901. It was an antiforeign and anti-Christian rebellion supported by the Qing government. The legation compound in Peking was held under siege for 55 days. Impact of the Rebellion • The rebellion resulted in the death of 400 foreigners, missionaries, priest and nuns plus thousands of Chinese Christians. • The legation quarter was attacked on June 20. It held out against of 80,000 Boxers and 70,000 Chinese troops with a 453-man combined legation guard force until August 14. • The relief force arrived just in time to save the legations. The Boxer Rebellion was the media event of 1900. The siege of the legation and rumored massacre of foreign diplomats sold newspapers. International Boxer Settlement • The settlement was embodied in the Peace Protocol of September, 1901. - The Chinese court with Cixi as regent continued to exist. Some advisors were allowed to commit suicide. - Imposed an indemnity of 450 million Taels ($333 million). - Required the fortifications at Taku and along the route to Peking to be destroyed. Permitted foreign troops to be stationed along the route. - Redefined the legation quarter and permitted foreign troops to be stationed in it. - The Civil Service examinations were suspended for five years. (They were never resumed.)

Unified Silla

Rise of Unified Silla • Koguryo became engaged in repeated warfare with the Sui and Tang dynasties beginning 598. Fifty years of war followed during which Koguryo proved to be an intractable foe sheltering the peninsula from Chinese dominance. • The expenditure of men and wealth contributed to the collapse of the Sui. • Seeking an alternate approach to its conflict with Koguryo, the new Tang dynasty accepted a proposed alliance with Silla. The combined forces conquered Paekche in 660. Koguryo (weakened by internal strife) fell in 668. Silla Government & Society • Aristocracy was supported by a Bone Rank (caste) system of Sacred Bones, True Bones and six head ranks. • Established - Post stations. - A Board of Confucian academicians. - Specialists in medicine, law, math, etc. • The capital of Kyongju mirrored Chang'an. • Established five provincial capitals. • Used Chinese characters and Idu words. • The families of local clerks stationed at provincial capitals were held as hostages. • The army was composed of nine Oath Banners. "Flower Youth" groups served as a cadet corps for future True Bone officers. Kyongju was the principal capital of Silla. It was laid out in checker board fashion to mirror Chang'an. Traditions & Customs • While the Koreans sought to emulate the Chinese in many respects (while resisting them politically), notable variations in customs and practices still existed at that time.

Night of the Long Knives

Shanghai Massacre • The success of Communist labor elements under Zhou Enlai in seizing Shanghai as part of the Northern Expedition led to alarm among business interests. The "Green Gang" decided to directly back Chiang, freeing him from the need for Communist support. Troops from the foreign concessions as well as a number of underworld groups were brought into play. • The Shanghai Massacre of April 12, 1927 (also called the "Night of the Long Knives") was the beginning of the Chinese civil war. Chiang's forces executed between 5, 000 and 6, 000 persons in Shanghai and other cities in the suppression of the Communist labor movement.

Sacred Bones

Silla Government & Society • Aristocracy was supported by a Bone Rank (caste) system of Sacred Bones, True Bones and six head ranks. • Established - Post stations. - A Board of Confucian academicians. - Specialists in medicine, law, math, etc.

Confucianism in Korea

Tang model political, legal and economic institutions continued to be employed and the Confucian educated elite from the old Silla capital were welcomed into the government. - Buddhism effectively became the national religion of Koryo, although Confucianism was also patronized. Centralization of Power

The Occupation of Japan

The Allied occupation of Japan at the end of World War II was led by Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, with support from the British Commonwealth. Unlike the occupation of Germany, the Soviet Union was allowed little to no influence over Japan. This foreign presence marked the first time in its history that the nation had been occupied by a foreign power.[1] It transformed the country into a democracy that recalled American "New Deal" priorities of the 1930s politics by Roosevelt.[2] The occupation, codenamed Operation Blacklist,[3] was ended by the San Francisco Peace Treaty, signed on September 8, 1951 and effective from April 28, 1952, after which Japan's independence - with the exception, until 1972, of the Ryukyu Islands - was restored.

Wa

The Chinese Book of Han, 57CE, relates that - The country of Wa (Japan) was divided among more than 100 warring tribes. - The Wa kingdom of Na sent an emissary to pay tribute and receive a golden seal.

The Duke of Zhou

The Duke of Zhou • King Wu (Wu Wang) died 3 years after he conquered the Shang, leaving a 13 year old heir, King Cheng. • King Wu's younger brother, the Duke of Zhou, declared himself regent and ruled in King Cheng's place. • The eastern states gravitated to the Shang remnant and revolted. The Duke fought a lengthy war to defeat the rebels and consolidate the kingdom. • When King Cheng turned 17, the Duke returned the united kingdom to him and retired. Zhou is the "junzi" or ideal model for statesmen.

The Fujiwara Family

The Fujiwara clan dominated Japanese politics during the late Asuka and Heian periods. • The Fujiwara clan rose to power through a coup in 645 led by Nakatomi no Kamatari. By 858, Fujiwara Yoshifusa was able to place his grandson on the throne and rule first as regent to a minor (sessho) and later as regent to an adult (kampaku). • The clan's greatest power occurred under Fujiwara Michinaga (966-1027), who enthroned and dethroned emperors at will. Nevertheless, one emperor, Daigo, ruled directly (897-930). Rank System • The Japanese aristocracy consisted of about 20, 000 men and women. During the Fujiwara period, a nine rank system was applied to the aristocracy by the royal court. - Ranks 1 thru 3. About 20 families controlled the bulk of the land and wealth and were involved in setting policy. - Ranks 4 and 5. Composed of Provincial governors and junior officials who might advance in rank. - Ranks 6 thru 9. The professional class composed of doctors, lawyers, astronomers and scholars. Patronage • Patronage-client relationships were a factor in awarding rank. • Individuals with the right background (birth) often sought positions of service as officials in high ranking households in return for recommendations for court rank. • Court rank carried with it protection in disputes and from tax collections. • Patronage could also lead to advancement in rank. Clientage tended to become hereditary. Retired Emperors • The opportunity to challenge the Fujiwara regency came when Go-Sanjo's brother's Fujiwara empress was childless. This allowed Go-Sanjo to become emperor as a mature adult (r. 1068-1072). After a four year reign, he abdicated in favor of his son, Shirakawa, thereby establishing the precedent of government by retired emperors. It lasted for approximately a century through the reign of three emperors. • The system was called insei and functioned much like the Fujiwara regency. It freed the retired emperor of ceremonial duties, allowing him to establish administrative offices within his households from which he effectively ruled Japan as regent for his son. • Retired emperors are sometimes called Cloistered Emperors since they took Buddhist orders Shoen (Private Estates) • Enforcement of the equal field system (Taika) began to deteriorate during the 8th Century.

The Han Synthesis

The Han Synthesis produced Imperial Confucianism, a blending of: - Legalism as a vehicle for exercising power and control. - Confucianism as a theoretical underpinning which softened and tempered Legalism with mercy and provided a professional corps of conscientious administrators. - Daoism in the form of cosmology as an explanation for the relationship between heaven and earth and the source of legitimizing rituals.

The Hundred Schools of Thought

The Hundred Schools of Philosophy emerged. The Hundred Schools of Philosophy • The period of the Eastern Zhou/Warring States period was the time of the "Hundred Schools." An explosion of ideas, each competing to alleviate the turmoil into which the Zhou empire had fallen. • A class of administrators arose, the Shi. They were literate and knowledgeable of past practices. Their number may have eventually reached 4 or 5%. Their professional status gave them mobility to move from one state to another, seeking employment. (Comparable to Journeymen.) • Four major schools of thought dominated the period: Confucianism (Ru=classical tradition), Mohism, Daoism and Legalism. Legalism was the winner in the short term; it quickly demonstrated measurable results.

Japanese Royal Regalia

The Imperial Regalia of Japan , also known as the Three Sacred Treasures of Japan, consist of the sword Kusanagi, the mirror Yata no Kagami , and the jewel Yasakani no Magatama . The regalia represent the three primary virtues: valor (the sword), wisdom (the mirror), and benevolence (the jewel).

First Japanese Embassy to the US

The Japanese Embassy to the United States was dispatched in 1860 by the Tokugawa shogunate (bakufu). Its objective was to ratify the new Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation between the United States and Japan, in addition to being Japan's first diplomatic mission to the United States since the 1854 opening of Japan by Commodore Matthew Perry. Another significant facet of the mission was the bakufu's dispatch of a Japanese warship, the Kanrin Maru, to accompany the delegation across the Pacific and thereby demonstrate the degree to which Japan had mastered Western navigation techniques and ship technologies barely six years after ending its isolation policy of nearly 250 years.

Hangul

The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul in South Korea and as Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea and China, is the alphabet that has been used to write the Korean language since the 15th century.[1] It was created during the Joseon Dynasty in 1443, and is now the official script of both South Korea and North Korea, and co-official in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of China's Jilin Province. In South Korea, Hangul is occasionally augmented by Chinese characters called Hanja; whereas in North Korea, Hanja are virtually nonexistent. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 consonant and vowel letters.

The Long March

The Long March October, 1934 and began an 8,000 mile march to Shaanxi. • 115 thousand persons started the Long March. Only 10% reached the new base of Yanan in October, 1935. • During the March, Mao assumed control of the Red Army. The red-colored areas are Communist enclaves. Three armies participated in the Long March.

Mandate of Heaven

The Mandate of Heaven (Chinese: 天命; pinyin: tiānmìng; literally: "heaven decree") is an ancient Chinese belief and philosophical idea that tiān (heaven) granted emperors the right to rule based on their ability to govern well and fairly. According to this belief, heaven bestows its mandate to a just ruler, the Son of Heaven. The Mandate of Heaven depends on whether an emperor is sufficiently virtuous to rule; if he does not fulfill his obligations as emperor, then he loses the Mandate and thus the right to be emperor. The Mandate of Heaven would then transfer to those who would rule best. The fact that a ruler was overthrown was taken by itself as an indication that the ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven. In addition, it was also common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were other signs of heaven's displeasure with the current ruler, so there would often be revolts following major environmental events as citizens saw these as signs of heaven's displeasure.[1]

Muromachi

The Muromachi period (室町時代 Muromachi jidai?, also known as the Muromachi era, the Ashikaga era, or the Ashikaga period) is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate (Muromachi bakufu or Ashikaga bakufu), which was officially established in 1338 by the first Muromachi shogun, Ashikaga Takauji, two years after the brief Kemmu Restoration (1333-36) of imperial rule was brought to a close. The period ended in 1573 when the 15th and last shogun of this line, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, was driven out of the capital in Kyoto by Oda Nobunaga. From a cultural perspective, the period can be divided into the Kitayama and Higashiyama periods (later 15th - early 16th). The early years from 1336 to 1392 of the Muromachi period are known as the Nanboku-chō or Northern and Southern Court period. This period is marked by the continued resistance of the supporters of Emperor Go-Daigo, the emperor behind the Kenmu Restoration. The years from 1465 to the end of the Muromachi period are also known as the Sengoku period or Warring States period.

Chongqing

The Nationalist government had retreated to Chongqing. • Nationalist sought to conserve their forces and assumed a defensive posture against the Japanese.Chongqing, the Nationalist capital since 1938, was defenseless against air attack. The primary task of the of the group was to defend Chongqing. • Chennault with the help of T.V. Soong convinced the U.S. to send 100 P-40s to China and allow him to recruit American military pilots. Mao and Chiang met in Chongqing in Aug-Oct, 1945 during the peace negotiations, but the alliance was short lived.

Rituals defining the life cycle

The Neo-Confucian philosopher, Zhu Xi recognized four rituals that defined the cycle of life and male lineage. By the time of the Ming, they were almost universally accepted rites of passage. - Capping marked the boy's passage into puberty and his capacity to reproduce. (Caps/hats were a sign of status. The poor were not permitted to wear hats, only sweat bands.) - The Wedding which gave the boy a bride, thereby facilitating reproduction. - The Funeral which served as an occasion for celebrating the ritual unity of the lineage and marked the passing of property, wealth and status from one generation to the next. - Ancestor worship "which recognized the position of the deceased within the ancestral line and provided the comfort of sacrifice without which the deceased would suffer in the afterlife as a hungry ghost."

China Trade

The Old China Trade refers to the early commerce between the Qing Empire and the United States under the Canton System, spanning from shortly after the end of the American Revolutionary War in 1783 to the Treaty of Wanghsia in 1844. The Old China Trade represented the beginning of relations between the United States and East Asia, including eventually U.S.-China relations. The Maritime Fur Trade was a major aspect of the Old China Trade.

The Soga Clan

The Soga clan rose to power thru its Paekche origins & patronage of Buddhism, which was a vehicle for cultural transmission. • The Soga acted as regents, marrying daughters into the Yamato clan and manipulating the succession. • Increased centralization enhanced the power of both the Soga and Yamato clans. • Queen Suiko and her consort Prince Shotoku Taishi were models of the new monarchy. Horyuji is a 122 ft hi pagoda, built in 607 by Prince Shotoku. It is a UNESCO World Heritage site and possibly the oldest remaining wooden building in the world. Shotoku Taishi's Injunctions • Prince Shotoku Taishi issued a set of Seventeen Injunctions/Articles in 604. They represented a new vision of ethical and political order. - The articles urged the observation of Confucian and Buddhist virtues. - Elevated the Yamato clan above all other lineages. - Emphasized harmony between classes thru complementary relationships. The inferior is to obey; the superior is to observe proper decorum. - Contained an appeal for justice for inferiors in law suits. - Cautioned against excessive exactions by governors and chieftains in taxing the people. - Warned against gluttony, covetousness, flattery, patronage, anger, neglect of office, & envy.

The Spring and Autumn Annals

The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chinese: 春秋; pinyin: Chūnqiū) is an ancient Chinese chronicle that has been one of the core Chinese classics since ancient times. The Annals is the official chronicle of the State of Lu, and covers a 241-year period from 722 to 481 BC. It is the earliest surviving Chinese historical text to be arranged in annals form.[1] Because it was traditionally regarded as having been compiled by Confucius (after a claim to this effect by Mencius), it was included as one of the Five Classics of Chinese literature. The Annals records main events that occurred in Lu during each year, such as the accessions, marriages, deaths, and funerals of rulers, battles fought, sacrificial rituals observed, celestial phenomena considered ritually important, and natural disasters.[1] The entries are tersely written, averaging only 10 characters per entry, and contain no elaboration on events or recording of speeches.[1] During the Warring States period, a number of commentaries to the Annals were created that attempted to elaborate on or find deeper meaning in the brief entries in the Annals. The Commentary of Zuo (Zuozhuan 左傳), the best known of these commentaries, became a classic in its own right, and is the source of more Chinese sayings and idioms than any other classical work.[1]

Sun Yatsen's Three Principles

The Three Principles of the People, also translated as Three People's Principles, San-min Doctrine, or Tridemism is a political philosophy developed by Sun Yat-sen as part of a philosophy to make China a free, prosperous, and powerful nation. The three principles are often translated into and summarized as nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people. Its influence and legacy of implementation is most apparent in the governmental organization of the Republic of China (ROC), which currently administers Taiwan, Penghu, Quemoy, and Matsu Islands. This philosophy has been claimed as the cornerstone of the Republic of China's policy as carried by the Kuomintang (KMT). The principles also appear in the first line of the National Anthem of the Republic of China.

The Tokugawa Shogunate

The Tokugawa Shogunate was a military dictatorship that lasted 267 years. Part of its longevity was based on isolating Japan from outside influences, especially from the Christian west.

Inner Asian Tribal Groups and Nations

The Xin became embroiled in constant and costly warfare with tribal groups on its Inner Asian borders. The Xiongnu were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes. They lived on the Mongolian Plateau between the 3rd century BC the 460s AD, their territories including modern day Mongolia, southern Siberia, western Manchuria, and the modern Chinese provinces of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, and Xinjiang. The Xiongnu was the first unified empire of nomadic peoples. Relations between early Chinese dynasties and the Xiongnu were complicated and included military conflict, exchanges of tribute and trade, and marriage treaties. They were considered so dangerous and disruptive that the Qin Dynasty ordered the construction of the Great Wall to protect China from Xiongnu attacks. The Xianbei state or Xianbei confederation was a nomadic empire which existed in modern-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern Xinjiang, Northeast China, Gansu, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, Irkutsk Oblast, Tuva, Altai Republic and eastern Kazakhstan from 156-234 AD. Like most ancient peoples known through Chinese historiography, the ethnic makeup of the Xianbei is unclear.[13] The Xianbei were a northern branch of the earlier Donghu and it is likely at least some were proto-Mongols. The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes from the Steppes of Central Asia. Appearing from beyond the Volga River some years after the middle of the 4th century, they conquered all of eastern Europe, ending up at the border of the Roman Empire in the south, and advancing far into modern day Germany in the north. Their appearance in Europe brought with it great ethnic and political upheaval and may have stimulated the Great Migration. The empire reached its largest size under Attila between 447 and 453. The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in history at its peak, with an estimated population of over 100 million people. The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, and at its height, it encompassed the majority of the territories from Southeast Asia to Eastern Europe. After unifying the Mongol-Turkic tribes, the Empire expanded through conquests throughout continental Eurasia. During its existence, the Pax Mongolica facilitated cultural exchange and trade on the Silk Route between the East, West, and the Middle East in the period of the 13th and 14th centuries. It had significantly eased communication and commerce across Asia during its height.[16][17] After the death of Möngke Khan in 1259, the empire split into four parts (Yuan dynasty, Ilkhanate, Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde), each of which was ruled by its own Khan, though the Yuan rulers had nominal title of Khagan. After the disintegration of the western khanates and the fall of the Yuan dynasty in China in 1368, the empire finally broke up.

Red Eyebrows

The Xiongnu and other tribal groups revolted. • Numerous secret Societies like Mother Lu's Red Eyebrows, the Yellow Turbans and the Celestial Masters became focal points for peasant insurrection. The Red Eyebrows painted their faces to appear demonic. Fall of the Xin Dynasty.

Division of Korea

The division of Korea into South Korea and North Korea was the result of the 1945 Allied victory in World War II, ending the Empire of Japan's 35-year colonial rule of Korea by General Order No. 1. The United States and the Soviet Union agreed to temporarily occupy the country as a trusteeship with the zone of control along the 38th parallel. The purpose of this trusteeship was to establish a Korean provisional government which would become "free and independent in due course",as set forth in the Cairo Conference.

Jiangnan

The economic power house of the Ming dynasty was Jiangnan, a region in the Yangzi River delta defined by three corners: Nanjing, Shanghai and Hangzhou with Lake Tai in the center. Jaingnan Economic Area Jiangnan is encompassed by Nanjing, Shanghai and Hangzhou with Lake Tai in the center Ming Economy #2 • This expansion was made possible through: - Major improvements in the infrastructure through the establishment of network of secure postal roads that were also channels of commerce. - Regional specialization that had begun under the Song and continued to increase in scope and productivity. - The rise of financial markets and banking. - The expansion of international trade, although the government remained aloof and in some cases hostile. Theoretically, the only legalized trade prior to opening of Canton in 1509, was through tribute missions.

Foundation Day

The first Korean kingdom was Ko Choson. (Land of Morning Calm.) • It was centered on Korea Bay. It covered the area of southern Manchuria and extended across Liaodong into the Korean Peninsula. • According to legend, Ko Choson was established in Pyongyang in 2333 BCE by Tan-gun and lasted 1500 years. • National Foundation Day, October 3, celebrates the occasion.

Buddhism

The historical Buddha: - Guatama Sakyamuni (Siddhartha of the Shakya clan, a Kshatriya of Mongolian extraction.) - Born a prince in Nepal in 563,died 483 B.C.E - Married at age of 16; had one son, Rahula. - At age 29 his life was changed by four visions: An old man, a sick man, a corpse & a holy man. - He renounced his throne & abandoned his family. Buddhism (Cont'd) • Siddhartha became an ascetic recluse for 6 years. - Sought the wisest teachers. - Practiced extremes of asceticism and self-mortification. - Achieved enlightenment while under the Bodhi tree. • The four noble truths: 1. All life is suffering. 2. Suffering comes from yearning/selfish desire. 3. Freedom from suffering lies in the cessation of yearning/selfish desire. The cessation of yearning/selfish desire is the end of the cycle of rebirth and suffering, Nirvana. Buddhism (Cont'd) 4. There is a path to freedom from suffering, the eightfold path of RIGHT: - knowledge (Dharma) - intention (to resist evil) - speech (harmless) - livelihood (harmless) - effort (respect life) - mindfulness (free of evil) - thoughts (control feelings) - meditation (internal quietness) Buddhism (Cont'd) • The three pillars of Buddhism: - The Buddha - enlightened one. - Dharma - Knowledge of middle way. - The Sangha - community or monastery. • Spread after adoption by King Ashoka of India, 218 years after Guatama's death. • Major schools: - Theravada/Hinayana - Montrayana - Mahayana - Zen/Chan - Nichiren • Bodhisattvas belong to the Mahayana school. Buddhism Today • There between 300,000 and 500,000 confessing Buddhist in the world. There were many more before China adopted Communism. • Buddhism is staging a come-back in China. • Apparent parallels between popular Christianity and Buddhism. - View of human existence as one of suffering. - Attainment of nirvana/heaven as the goal of life - The existence of an end times - Inoffensiveness/Pacifism - Salvation through personal faith (Some sects) - Importance of a religious epiphany, enlightenment or spiritual rebirth. - Rewards and punishments in the "after-life." - The role of monasticism

White Lotus

The homeless and dispossessed were attracted to brotherhoods and secret societies such as the Triad and White Lotus. - The White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804) was followed by the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) and similar events . White Lotus Rebellion • The rebellion (1796-1804) affected Sichuan, Hubei, Henan, Gansu, Shaanxi and Shandong. • White Lotus believers held that Maitreya's return was imminent, the Ming would be restored and the people would be rescued from their suffering. • The White Lotus rebellion began a process of eroding Qing strength and credibility that finally ended in the dynasty's fall in 1911. The Taiping (1851-64) and Boxer Rebellion (1900) were major stops along the way. The White Lotus was the symbol of the movement. The rebellion evolved from Amida Buddhism into such practices as talismanic magic, prognostication, exorcism and Maitriya devotion.

Amaterasu

The legend of Amaterasu suggests female rulers may have been common and may have ruled from a cloister. Amaterasu Omikami from whom the Yamato descended. • Shinto contains the story of the Yamato's divine ancestry (Amaterasu) & creation (Izanagi & Izanami). Both support Yamato preeminence. • Emphasizes ritual purity and cleanliness. • Is expressed thru shrines and rituals. • Is imbedded in the culture. • Formalized in the Kojiki (712) & Nihon Shoki (720). The principal shrine at Ise is dedicated to the goddess Amaterasu-omikami. It was founded by Emperor Temmu (678- 686) & rebuilt by Jito Sumo Wrestling The first Japanese Sumo match occurred in 453 CE between Chinese envoys at a royal funeral.

Jesuit Missionaries In China and Japan

The missionary players were: - Jesuits (Society of Jesus). - Dominicans. - Franciscans. Ignatius Loyola, principal • The Pope: Line of Demarcation. founder of the Jesuits Dividing the World The Spanish and the Portuguese traded Brazil for the Philippines.Jesuits in Japan • Francis Xavier landed on Kagoshima Island in 1549 during the late Muromachi period. The reception was warm. He was tall (5'1"), blue eyed and martial in his bearing. He was immediately impressed with the character and appearance of the Japanese. • Xavier learned the language and customs quickly, including bathing. The Japanese were receptive to the Christian message, although they may have initially thought it was a form of Buddhism. Saint Francis Xavier Jesuit Success. • By 1614, the Jesuits had achieved 300,000 converts. • Xavier met Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, who were favorably impressed. Hideyoshi even wore a Rosary. He saw Christianity as a way to combat Buddhism and increase trade. • Tokugawa Ieyasu initially favored Christianity, as well. • Western clothing became a fad. • The Japanese loved the trade. The Jesuits even administered the port of Nagasaki for seven years. Organizational support for Jesuit missions was provided by Alessandro Valignano. Valignano advocated establishing native was provided by Alessandro Valignano. Valignano advocated establishing native clergy. That clergy kept Christianity alive in Japan for 250 years after it had been banned. • Valignano established St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau and prepared the way for Matteo Ricci's entry into China by inviting Michele Ruggieri to Macao to begin studying Chinese in 1579. Matteo Ricci arrived in 1582 after training in Goa and Malacca. Ruggieri and Ricci became a missionary team. Alessandro Valignano Matteo Ricci • Ricci arrived in China in 1582 during the late Ming Dynasty. He was the first Westerner to master Chinese script and classical Chinese. • He styled himself a "Western Confucian." His amazing gift with languages, astounding memory and knowledge of mathematics, astronomy and cartography gained him the opportunity to proselytize to the elite. • He was presented at the court of Wanli in 1601 and is buried in Beijing. Thru their correspondence, Ricci and his associates significantly influenced Europe and possibly the Enlightenment. • The Jesuits continued their mission in China during the Qing Dynasty. Matteo Ricci (1552- 1610) with Paul Xu Paul Xu • Paul Xu was one of Matteo Ricci's more influential converts. He sought to convince the dynasty to teach its gunners geometry and have the Portuguese train them in its application, a politically delicate maneuver. • He brought a contingent of Portuguese gunners to Beijing in 1630. However, 12 Portuguese soldiers were killed in a revolt in Shandong in 1632, ending the program. • His efforts were not totally wasted. Nurhaci died of wounds from a Portuguese cannon. Paul Xu helped Matteo Ricci translate the first six books of Euclid's Elements into Chinese. The Rites Controversy • The Matteo Ricci gained a privileged place for the Jesuits in the Chinese imperial court. His position gave the Jesuits sufficient influence to achieve the conversion of 200 thousand Chinese to Christianity. • The controversy involved the Dominicans, who accused the Jesuits of compromising the Christian message. Three questions emerged. - Was Confucianism a religion or a philosophy? - Could one participate in court rituals and not be participating in a religious ceremony? - Should the word "Tien" or "Shang ti" be used for God?

The Confucian classics

The proper moral order of society was revealed to Confucius in the Five Classics of the Zhou Dynasty (1100- 256 BCE). - The Book of Changes. A handbook used in divination. Extensive commentaries add meaning. - The Book of Poems (Songs or Odes). Contains 305 poems/songs, selected from over a 1,000, written during the 500 years from the beginning of Western Zhou to the middle of the Spring and Autumn Annals. - The Book of History (Documents). A collection of speeches, announcements and other documents attributed to great figures of the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. - The Book of Rites. Contains discourses on ritual, rites and leaning to include the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean. - The Spring and Autumn Annals. A terse history of events in Confucius' home state of Lu from 722 to 481 BCE. - The Book of Music is sometimes added as the sixth classic.

The Chinese Manchu Queue

The queue was a specific male hairstyle worn by the Manchu people from central Manchuria and later imposed on the Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty.[3][4][5] The hairstyle consisted of the hair on the front of the head being shaved off above the temples every ten days and the rest of the hair braided into a long ponytail.[6] The Manchu hairstyle was forcefully introduced to Han Chinese in the early 17th century during the Manchu conquest of China. Nurhaci of the Aisin Gioro clan declared the establishment of the Later Jin dynasty, later becoming the Qing dynasty of China, after Ming dynasty forces in Liaodong defected to his side. The Ming General of Fushun, Li Yongfang, defected to Nurhaci after Nurhaci promised him rewards, titles, and Nurhaci's own granddaughter in marriage. Other Han Chinese Generals in Liaodong proceeded to defect with their armies to Nurhaci and were given women from the Aisin Gioro family in marriage. Once firmly in power, Nurhaci commanded all men in the areas he conquered to adopt the Manchu hairstyle. The Manchu hairstyle was significant because it was a symbol of Han submission to Qing rule. The queue also aided the Manchus in identifying those Han who refused to accept Qing dynasty domination. The hairstyle was compulsory for all males and the penalty for not complying was execution for treason. In the early 1910s, after the fall of the Qing dynasty, the Chinese no longer had to wear it. Some, such as Zhang Xun, still did as a tradition, but most of them abandoned it after the last Emperor of China, Puyi, cut his queue in 1922.[7]

Koryo Wall

The royal tombs are scattered around southwestern North Hwanghae Province, with most of them located within 20 kilometers of Kaesong, the Koryo capital. Most tombs are located in Kaepung County, which borders Kaesong to the west, though there are also a significant number in Changpung county, which borders Kaesong to the east. Some tombs, all unidentified, are also located within Kaesong itself. Koryo-era royal tombs followed the guidelines outlined in Chinese Confucian texts, such as the Book of Rites (Li Ji) and the Rites of Zhou (Zhou Li). Many factors went into consideration when deciding the location of a tomb, such as the distance from Kaesong, the distance in relation to other royal tombs, the accessibility of the location, and the tradition of Feng Shui (known as 'pungsu' in Korean). The tomb construction also took into account traditional burial rituals of Korea and the natural environment.

Wanyan Aguda

Wanyan Aguda united the Jin in 1115. The Song encouraged and supported the Jin with the goal of destroying the Liao, which they did in 1125. The Jin capital became Yen (Beijing).

Examination System

Was in theory open to all; hence, permitted some social mobility. • The system produced a well trained, dedicated civil service, loyal to the central government. The examination system was the new key to status and power. • It replaced the Tang nine-rank system as the most important method of gaining office. • Song exams were conducted at the provincial, regional and imperial level every three years. Almost any male (98%) could compete, regardless of social status. • The ultimate degree was the Jinshi. Only 1 in 300 +/- passed at the imperial level and entered the meritocracy. The first Song examinations were conducted in the palace under the Emperor Taizu's personal supervision. Tang Empress Wu Zetian is the first monarch known to have held palace exams. The exam system dates back to the Han.

Shinto

Way of the Gods • Began about 500 BCE as an amorphous mix of nature worship, fertility cults, divination and shamanism. It became formalized thru contact with Buddhism and Taoism. • At heart, Shinto is Kami (spirit) worship, a form of animism. • The founding ancestors of the various Uji (clan or kinship groups) were worshipped as Kami. • The legend of Amaterasu suggests female rulers may have been common and may have ruled from a cloister. Amaterasu Omikami from whom the Yamato descended. Shinto (Cont'd) • Shinto contains the story of the Yamato's divine ancestry (Amaterasu) & creation (Izanagi & Izanami). Both support Yamato preeminence. • Emphasizes ritual purity and cleanliness. • Is expressed thru shrines and rituals. • Is imbedded in the culture. • Formalized in the Kojiki (712) & Nihon Shoki (720). The principal shrine at Ise is dedicated to the goddess Amaterasu-omikami. It was founded by Emperor Temmu (678- 686) & rebuilt by Jito Sumo Wrestling The first Japanese Sumo match occurred in 453 CE between Chinese envoys at a royal funeral.

Xunzi

Xunzi (Xun Kuang) is one of the three great Confucian philosophers. He lived during the Warring States period, studied and taught in the Jixia academy in Qi and later held office in the Chu. • His most famous students were Han Feizi and Li Si, who opposed Chu and were instrumental in the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty. Xunzi was born in Zhao in 312 BCE. Lived until 220BCE. Xunzi (Cont'd) • Xunzi advocated the Way (Dao) of the sages, of good government and proper behavior. The Way is taught through ritual. • He did not believe in Heaven's intervention; nevertheless, recommended ritual prayer and sacrifices. Why? • He believed that man instinctively makes bad choices and is morally blind, i.e., he is bad. His physical desires lead to competition and conflict. • The role of education is to transform man by changing his basic instincts.

Yasukini Shrine

Yasukuni Shrine is a Shinto shrine in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. It was founded by Emperor Meiji and commemorates anyone who had died in service of the Empire of Japan, which existed from the Meiji Restoration of 1868 until the nation was renamed during the Allied occupation in 1947. The shrine's purpose has been expanded over the years to include those who died in the wars involving Japan spanning from the entire Meiji and Taishō period, and lesser part of the Shōwa period.

Zhu Xi

became the most influential Song advocate of "The Learning of the Way" (Daoxue), called NeoConfucianism. • Zhu received the Jinshi at age 18. • He held several official positions, but his principal interest was in teaching. He headed the White Deer Grotto Academy and wrote Reflections on Things at Hand plus commentaries on the Analects, The Mencius, The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean. • Zhu Xi presented his ideas as a return to the wisdom of antiquity. Zhu Xi (1130-!200) The Great Learning • The Great Learning (Daoxue) was central to Zhu Xi's philosophy. • Zhu Xi believed that the gentleman (junzi) should learn from the writings of antiquity, but more importantly from direct observation of the world. • Direct observation was the "investigation of things" through which he would come to understand li, the natural order, pattern or principle. • He believed that individual moral cultivation and public service were inseparable. Zhu Xi's Philosophy • Zhu Xi believed that li operated as benevolence and that man was both good and incorruptible. • Man's true nature could be obscured by turgid qi, but qi could be refined. The sages were born with perfect li and qi. • Self-cultivation(li)is the root of social and political order; moral power is superior to coercion. • Natural calamities were the result of disturbances in the natural order (li), not divine wrath. • In 1237, his commentaries were officially recognized as texts for the examination system.

Liu Bei

courtesy name Xuande, was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Despite having a later start than his rivals and lacking both the material resources and social status they commanded, Liu Bei overcame his many defeats to carve out his own realm. Culturally, due to the popularity of the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong, Liu Bei is widely known as an ideal benevolent, humane ruler who cared for his people and selected good advisers for his government. His fictional counterpart in the novel was a salutary example of a ruler who adhered to the Confucian set of moral values, such as loyalty and compassion. Historically, Liu Bei was a brilliant politician and leader whose skill was a remarkable demonstration of a Legalist. His political philosophy can best be described by the Chinese idiom "Confucian in appearance but Legalist in substance" ,a style of governing which had become the norm after the founding of the Han dynasty.[3]

Song Gentry

landowners who had passed the bureaucratic examinations) replaced the Tang nobility as the dominate social group. • Gentry status depended on a combination of education, holding government office and ownership of land, although anomalies existed. • Social mobility existed as ancestry was no longer the sole basis for determining status. • Local gentry frequently did not hold office, but did exercise leadership in such areas as public works (bridges, waterways, etc.), social welfare, temple building and defense.

The Boxer Rebellion

lasted from 1899 to 1901. It was an antiforeign and anti-Christian rebellion supported by the Qing government. The legation compound in Peking was held under siege for 55 days. Impact of the Rebellion • The rebellion resulted in the death of 400 foreigners, missionaries, priest and nuns plus thousands of Chinese Christians. • The legation quarter was attacked on June 20. It held out against of 80,000 Boxers and 70,000 Chinese troops with a 453-man combined legation guard force until August 14. • The relief force arrived just in time to save the legations. The Boxer Rebellion was the media event of 1900. The siege of the legation and rumored massacre of foreign diplomats sold newspapers. International Boxer Settlement • The settlement was embodied in the Peace Protocol of September, 1901. - The Chinese court with Cixi as regent continued to exist. Some advisors were allowed to commit suicide. - Imposed an indemnity of 450 million Taels ($333 million). - Required the fortifications at Taku and along the route to Peking to be destroyed. Permitted foreign troops to be stationed along the route. - Redefined the legation quarter and permitted foreign troops to be stationed in it. - The Civil Service examinations were suspended for five years. (They were never resumed.)

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

of 1937 began WWII in China. Chiang Kaishek saw the incident as an attempt by Japan to separate the northern provinces from Chinese control and incorporate them into the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. • He believed that China had no alternative but to fight. He chose Shanghai as the place. It was the location of his best trained and equipped troops. • Beijing, Shanghai and Nanjing fell to the Japanese despite the heroic efforts of Chinese forces. The Marco Polo Bridge is just north of Beijing. The incident began when shots were fired between Chinese and Japanese forces who "accidentally" encountered each other while on night maneuvers.

Nixon's Visit to China

some consider Mao's impact on China to be short lived. From the U.S. perspective, the reorientation in foreign relations marked by President Richard Nixon's visit in 1972 may be the event of most long lasting significance. President Richard Nixon's visit to China culminated a period of reapproachment marked by "PingPong" diplomacy (Forrest Gump style) and protracted negotiations conducted by Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger.

The Cultural Revolution

the Cultural Revolution became a hallmark of Mao's Communism. This concept in its broader application was incompatible with Khrushchev's Peaceful Coexistence. The Cultural Revolution • After the failure of the Great Leap Forward, Liu Shaoqui replaced Mao as head of state in 1959, and with the help of Chen Yun, Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping began to revive the economy. • Mao concluded that revisionism was taking over the party as it had in the Soviet Union. • Mao initiated The Cultural Revolution in 1966 with a denunciation of the mayor of Beijing for allowing the staging of a play that was construed to be critical of him. The play was The Dismissal of Hai Rui from Office by Wu Han. Cultural Revolution art. Destroy the old world; create the new world. Cultural Revolution (Cont'd) • Demonstrations began to spread after a radical professor at Peking University, Nie Yuanzi, wrote a wall poster attacking the school's administration. • Mao claimed that Nie's poster was equivalent to the spark that ignited the Paris Commune of 1871. He encouraged the growing revolution by standing atop the Tiananmen gate and reviewing gigantic parades of chanting Red Guards, all waving the little red book. • Schools and colleges were shutdown; millions of students were sent out into the country to destroy the "four old" elements within Chinese society: old customs, old habits, old culture and old thinking. A victim of the Red Guards is being held in the painful "Airplane" position. Cultural Revolution (Cont'd) • Euphoria, fear, excitement and tension gripped the country as violence spread. Radical groups struggled with each other and the party leadership. The Shanghai Commune was briefly hailed as the revolutionary model. • In late 1967, even Mao knew that the revolution was out of control. The PLA was called upon to restore order. The new local and regional model became the "Revolutionary Committee" in which the PLA was the dominant voice. • With PLA's new role, Lin Biao became Mao's heir apparent until his defection in 1971. Lin Biao standing beside Mao. The little red book was Lin's idea. It was originally compiled to be used by the military. When Lin began to lose Mao's support, he plotted Mao's assassination. The plot was discovered and Lin attempted to flee to Russia. His airplane "crashed."

The Great Leap Forward

was a product of Mao's philosophy of "Continuing Revolution." The heart of the Great Leap was the creation of gigantic agricultural communes starting in late 1957. The goal was to increase rural productivity to support industrial growth. • The largest commune was in Henan Province. It was composed of 9, 369 households. The average was 4,615 households. • Communes were organized like military institutions. The happy dragon of prosperity. The increased use of women in agricultural freed manpower to be mobilized for new water control and irrigation projects. 100 million peasants opened 27 million acres of land. The same principle of mass organization was applied to industry and Backyard Steel Furnaces. The Great Leap Flops • Between 1959 and 1962, a documented 35-40 million persons died of starvation. The average amount of grain per a persons in the countryside dropped from 205 kilos in in 1957 to 154 in 1961. • Production was grossly over reported; officials feared to tell the truth. • A 43.4 % increase in China's industrial investment was made based on false figures. Payment for the investment was made in grain leaving the peasants to starve. • Peng Dehuai tried to warn Mao in 1959 and was denounced and dismissed. The legacy of the Hundred Flowers kept cadres from reporting failures. Cowed by the mass hunts for dissidents and rightist, local peasants dared not dispute even the most fanciful claims for higher agricultural production.

Guanyin

was adopted by the Chinese from India and transformed into a female goddess who accompanies the Amitabha. Her role was guide all who cry out "Blessed be the Amitabha Buddha" to the Western Paradise. • Maitreya, the Buddha yet-to-come, also became quite popular as a jovial figure. Guanyin commonly appears as a female figure, but on occasion is portrayed as a male.

Taiho, Taiko and Ritsuryo

• The legal system was called ritsuryo and involved two codes: ritsu was penal; ry(o) was administrative. Taiho Code • The Taiho (Ritsyuryo) Code (701) was written at the direction of Fujiwara no Fuhito (Kamatari's son). • The Code further refined the administration of the provinces (66) & districts (592) and established the form of the central bureaucracy. • The top tier of the central government was composed of a Council of State and a Department of Religion. • The Council of State included a chancellor and ministers of the left and right. The minister of the left was essentially the deputy chancellor. The minister of the right oversaw the subordinate ministries. Map of Provinces in 701 Taiho Code (Cont'd) • The ministries were responsible for executing the decisions of the Council of State. - Central Office - Ceremonies - Civil Affairs - Public Works - War - Justice - Treasury - Imperial Household • The system copied the Tang government in form but ignored two key underlying factors. - Mandate of Heaven - Aristocracy of Learning.