ecol 3 and 4 lecture (4 and 5)- Adaptations to Terrestrial Environments Adaptations to Variable Environments

circ system adaptation for temp/warmth conservation in cold enviro

.Blood shunting: when specific blood vessels shut off so less of an animal's warm blood flows to cold extremities where heat would be lost. Shunting occurs at precapillary SPHINCTERS Countercurrent circulation also helps to conserve heat by positioning ARTERIES that carry warm blood away from the heart ALONGSIDE veins that carry chilled blood from the extremities back to the heart. -blood returned being warmed by artery In endotherms the shunt vessels dilate in response to cold, thereby cutting off the blood flow to the extremities and preventing heat loss.

Adaptations to Variable Environments

1. Ecological systems and processes vary in time and space. 2. Variable environments favor the evolution of variable phenotypes. VARIABLE ENVIRO VARY PHENOTYPE 3. Many organisms have evolved adaptations to variation in Enemies, Competitors, and Mates. ENEMIES COMPETITIOR MATE ADAPTATION 4. Organisms can evolve adaptations to variable ABIOTIC conditions. 5. MIGRATION, STORAGE, and DORMANCY are strategies to survive EXTREME environmental variation. 6. Variation in food QUALITY and WUANTITY is the basis of optimal foraging theory.

Light reaction steps (again in thylakoids of chloroplasts?)

1. Light absorption-->1. Chlorophyll in thylakoids ABSORB PHOTON energy. 2. Electron transport-->2. Chlorophyll releases electrons to a chain of reactions. 3. Oxygen production-->3. In the process, H2O molecules are split into H+ and O2- ions. 4. O2- ions join to form molecular oxygen. AFTER ELECTRON RELEASED BY CHLOROPHYLL 4. ATP and NADPH formation-->Energy is collected from released electrons and the split of H2O. 6. Energy + H+ + ADP ATP 7. Energy + H+ + NADP+ NADPH ATP and NADPH are high-energy compounds CALVIN IN STROMA? given to the Calvin cycle

Adaptations to salinity

A common strategy is to change the osmotic potential of body FLUIDS by synthesizing large quantities of ORGANIC solutes. Rocky tidal pools receive seawater from the splash of high waves. As water DRIES AFTER HIGH TIDE WAVES, salinity increases. -arctic front and low tide comes out, changes each 6-8 hours also cold changes come on sudden from seawater temps In response, the copepod Tigriopus synthesizes amino acids to maintain salinity This is costly; during synthesis, respiration rate declines to conserve energy, and then increases as salinity decreases to break down amino acids. -intertidal zone-->intermediate area where u have high and low tide -more ratio salt:freshwater depending on tide? PUT IN FROM NOTES

Phenotypes and the environment

All phenotypes result from GENES interacting with environments. -WE CAN manipulate inside enviro as well , unique Environmentally induced phenotypes have a genetic basis, but reflect the ability of the ENVIRONMENT to turn certain genes ON or OFF, which causes different phenotypes to develop. A phenotype that is well-suited to one environment may be poorly suited to other environments. -scarce floor food=longer giraffe, natural selection

Adaptations to oxygen

As you rise above sea level, air pressure becomes LOWER and reduces the amount of available OXYGEN. Animals that move up and down mountains as part of their daily or seasonal movements can adjust their PUYSHIOLOGY to variable oxygen concentrations. Adjustments may be more rapid breathing, an increase in the number of red blood cells, and increased heart rate. blood might b more viscous

why C3 seen more here not in dry area, disadvantage

C3 makes a 3 carbon compound w CO2 and rubisco rxn rubisco doesn't like co2 much-->dealt by packing this enzyme in cells close stomata-O2 cell buildup-->rubisco binds to O2 shutting off photosynthesis then photosynthesis even starts to reverse with When conditions are hot and dry, leaf stomata close to prevent transpiration (water loss), which also prevents O2 from leaving the leaf. Photorespiration-->Photorespiration: the OXIDATION of carbohydrates to CO2 and H2O by Rubisco, which reverses the LIGHT reactions of photosynthesis. start building up CO2 in trees at night? C3 Photosynthesis: reaciton CO2 + RuBP 2G3P RuBP: ribulose biphosphate; FIVE-carbon sugar G3P: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate; three-carbon sugar Process is catalyzed by RuBP carboxylase-oxidase (also known as Rubisco).

CAM

CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) photosynthesis: a pathway in which the initial assimilation of carbon into OAA occurs at night. open stomata at night same rxn mechanism as C4 still Calvin cycle during the day (Malic acid) Instead of separating the steps of CO2 assimilation between mesophyll and bundle sheath cells, the steps are separated in time. During days, stomata close to reduce transpiration rates. Stomata open to exchange gases during the night, when cool temperatures slow transpiration. Hence, C3 plants are adapted to cool, wet conditions, whereas C4 and CAM plants are better adapted to warm and arid conditions. CAM are C4 plants that fix carbon dioxide during the night. They store it as 4 carbon malate, releasing carbon dioxide during daylight when the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis can take place.-->C4 probs would release stored malate into sheaths any time

Some organisms, known as homeotherms, maintain constant temperature conditions within

CELL,S INTERNAL STABILITY/EQUILIB NEEDED to adjust its biochemical reactions to work most efficiently.rxns

Depending on the pH of the water, carbonic acid molecules can release hydrogen ions ( H + ) to form either bicarbonate ions ( HCO 3 − ) or carbonate ions ( CO 3 2 − ):

CO2 DOM AT LOWER PHS , USE OF CO2 IN PHOTOSYNH TRIGGERS THIS EQUILIB BW BICARB When photosynthetic organisms preferentially use CO 2 , because it is used more efficiently, the amount of dissolved CO 2 in the water declines. As the amount of CO 2 declines, some of the bicarbonate ions are converted to CO 2 to replenish the supply. The size of each circle represents the relative size of the carbon pool. When CO 2 is removed from the water by plants and algae that are performing photosynthesis Although the bicarbonate ion is the most common form of inorganic carbon under moderate pH conditions

what chlorophyll absorb in general

Chlorophylls absorb red and violet light, and reflect green and blue light.

cohesion

Cohesion: the mutual attraction of water molecules; allows water to move up through empty remains of xylem cells.

Continuous vs. Categorical Variables

Continuous variables: variables that can take on any numeric value, including values that are not whole numbers. Categorical (nominal) variables: variables that fall into distinct groups.

Analyzing ecology: correlations

Correlation: a statistical description of how one variable changes in RELATION to another variable. -look at R^2=good correlation The size of an area affected by an atmospheric event is correlated with the duration of the event. Positive correlations indicate that as one variable increases in value, the second value also increases. Negative correlations indicated that as one variable increases in value, the second value decreases. Correlations may also be curvilinear.-->exponential and drop off like optimal foraging, takeoff/gets better or worse

Soil particles include sand, silt, and clay, in addition to organic material from ? organisms

DECOMP ORGS AND 3 PARTICLES

Dormancy

Dormancy: a condition in which organisms dramatically reduce their metabolic processes. Four types of dormancy are: -4 types Diapause: involves a PARTIAL or COMPLETE physiological shutdown in response to unfavorable conditions; common in insects. -lipid reserves thru winters, screwed by spring needing blood meal by time spring comes—>also in insects? -cold can fully shutdown, not fully shutdown if slightly warmer Insects facing drought conditions enter diapause by dehydrating themselves. Some form an impermeable outer layer to prevent further dessication. DIAPAUSE DEHYDRATION OR DESSICATION FOR INSECTS , total shutdown if too cold, DROUGHT Hibernation: individuals REDUCE the energetic COSTS of being active by lowering heart rate and decreasing body temperatures; common in mammals. During winter, chipmunks slow BREATHING and HEART rates and REDUCE body temperature to CLOSE to 0∞C. -chipmunk almost fully freeze, smaller and larger mammals? Torpor: a brief period of dormancy in which individuals reduce activity and body temperature; common in birds and mammals THAT ARE ACTIVE. The West Indian hummingbird loses much of the heat it generates to cold temperatures. To save energy, the bird enters torpor when it is resting at night. -susceptible to cold area bc large SA rel to volume Think small boi hibernation Aestivation: the shutting down of metabolic processes during the summer in response to hot or dry conditions. Well-known examples include snails, desert tortoises, and crocodiles. -aestivation=slowing stuff down , can change in minutes I think

This behavior, known as basking, is common among reptiles and insects COMING FROM FACT ITS AN , WHAT TWO HEAT SOURCES FOR BASKING

ECOTHERM, heat balance BEHAVIORALLY by moving into or out of shade, by changing their orientation to the Sun, or by adjusting their contact with warm substrates. LIZARD IS adjusting their contact with warm substrates. horned lizards are hot, for example, they decrease their exposure to the ground surface by standing erect on their legs. When they are cold, they lie flat against the ground and gain heat both by CONDUCTION from the ground and from direct solar RADIATION. Ectothermic animals that bask in the RADIATION of the Sun can effectively regulate their body temperatures. Indeed, their temperatures may rise considerably above that of the surrounding air, well into the RANGE of birds and mammals. (ENDOTHERMS) TEMP SIMILAR TO ENDOTHERMS

Available and absorbed solar energy

Energy from the Sun is essential for the existence of most life. Electromagnetic radiation: energy from the Sun; packaged in small, particle-like units called photons. Photon energy is positively related to frequency and inversely related to wavelength. Visible light represents only a small part of the light spectrum. -most plants green->plants not using this green light they don't absorb it , not In order from highest to lowest energy, the sections of the EM spectrum are named: gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, and radio waves. Microwaves (like the ones used in microwave ovens) are a subsection of the radio wave segment of the EM spectrum, wavelengths get longer to right

water for soil volume

For a given volume of soil, the more surface area that soil has, the more water it can hold.

Environmental cues, first step for altering phenotype?

For an organism to alter its phenotype in an adaptive way, it must first be able to sense its environmental conditions. The best cues are those that offer the most RELIABLE/STEADY information about the environment. How does an organism sense the level of food in its habitat? Detecting the presence of COMPETITORS may offer a POOR cue because number of competitors may not matter if resources are abundant. A BETTER cue may be the amount of FOOD an individual can acquire each day. burning energy for food when lack of food is good clue

Foraging decisions

Foraging is a PLASTIC behavior because different feeding strategies represent different BEHAVIORAL phenotypes. (Like migration) Since resources vary in space and time, no single foraging strategy can maximize an animal's fitness. Animals must determine WHERE to forage, how long to feed in a certain patch of habitat, and which TYPES of food to eat. Animals have FOUR responses to food VARIATION in space and time, including central place foraging, risk-sensitive foraging, optimal diet composition, and diet mixing. (2 diet and 2 foraging changes)

Collectively, these terms tell us whether an organism's temperature is constant or variable, not whether the temperature changes of the body are controlled internally or externally. (CONTROL SOURCE OF TEMP)

HOMEOTHERM/HETEROTHERM/POIKILOTHERM FOR HOMEOTHERM THINK HOMEOSTASIS

Soil includes . Soils develop distinct ? that differ in ?, depending on ? and ? Soils exist in a dynamic state, and their characteristics are determined by what does rainfall breakdown, what is not added w little rainfall

HORIZONS=PART AND PROCESS AT EACH LEVEL MINEARL PARENT AND MODIFIED, MATERAIL (ORGANIC FROM PAW, LIVING ROOTS, MICROORGS) Minerals derived from the parent material; modified minerals formed WITHIN the soil; organic material contributed by plants, air, and water within the pores of the soil; living roots of plants; microorganisms; and the larger worms and arthropods that make the soil their home. OTHER ANIMALS, climate and parent material develop horizon w dif thickness determined by climate, parent material, vegetation, local topography, and age. CVAPT breakdown of parent matierla and help plant growth, org matter not added w lil rainfall Thus, dry climates typically have shallow soils with bedrock lying close to the surface.

Temperature influences physiological processes because of t

Heat imparts kinetic energy to living systems, causing biological molecules to change shape. Heat also accelerates chemical reactions by increasing the rate of molecule movement. SHAPE OF MOLECULES AND RXN RATES BOTH FROM KE IMPART BY HEAT The molecular motion caused by heat tends to open up, or denature, the structure of these molecules. physical properties of fats and oils, which are major components of cell membranes and constitute the energy reserves of animals, depend on temperature. When fats are cold, they become stiff; when they are warm, they become fluid. STRUCTURE OF BIO MOLECULES CHANGE

Competition for mates

Hermaphrodites: individuals that produce both male and female GAMETES; individuals are able to fertilize their eggs with their own sperm (i.e., they are self-compatible). -but Hermaph lead to inbreeding depression Inbreeding depression: the DECREASE in fitness caused by matings between close relatives due to offspring inheriting DELETERIOUS alleles from both the eggs and the sperm. Because of this cost, some species wait until self-fertilization becomes the last chance for reproduction. The hermaphroditic common pond SNAIL DELAYS egg-LAYING if mates are unavailable. Self-fertilizing snails lay FEWER eggs. time to first egg laying delayed if mates not available

WOULD HYPOOSMOTIC HAVE CONCERNTRATED URINE?

Hyposmotic organisms face a constant challenge to maintain the balance of water and solutes in their tissues. As shown in Figure 3.13b, water tries to LEAVE their bodies and solutes try to ENTER. CONCENTRATE URINE AND EXCRETE the excess solutes are actively excreted out of the body using the kidneys and, in the case of fish, the gills.

A scarcity of ? nutrients, such as nitrogen, often limits plant production in terrestrial environments.

INORGANIC not bonded w carbon

Osmotic pressure and water uptake

If a root cell has a higher solute concentration than soil water, osmosis will draw water into the root AGAINST the pull of gravity. roots have semipermeable membranes preventing larger solutes from leaving the root and allow ions and small molecules to enter SMALLER IONS UPTAKE maybe just easier? -dry area=plants w high osmotic pressure to be able to draw water into roots -mangrove further increase solute to pull out water w these membranes -root cell higher concentration than soil water goes into root Plants growing in very DRY areas (high OSMOTIC pressure) have adaptations to extract more water from the soil. Plants growing in SALTY environments increase the concentration of SOLUTES in their roots. Salinization: the process of repeated IRRIGATION (with salty water) that causes increased soil salinity; creates a challenge for crop plants/agricultural environments trees here die w too much salt if we salinize here, Root pressure, in plants, force that helps to drive fluids upward into the water-conducting vessels (xylem). It is primarily generated by osmotic pressure in the cells of the roots from the higher amt solutes

what heat transfer mech stimulates boundary layers? Having a thicker boundary layer DOES WHAT W CONVECTION, what does air in boundary layer interact with? When the environment is ? than the organism, the organism tends to ? this boundary layer, which in turn ? the animal's heat loss. if you were to stand in a hot desert and your boundary layer was ? than the air, a ? wind would disrupt the boundary layer between your ? and the ? and make your body even hotter.

If wind passes by the animal, the current disrupts the boundary layer and heat can be carried away from the body by convection. T gas/air movement SLOWS ORGANISM HEAT LOSS heat transfer between the air surrounding an organism and the air moving past an organism. convection bw thick boundary layer and air moving past, thicker boundary colder enviro-->warm bound layer (fluff feathers and raise hair to thick boundary), reduce heat loss, heat convection AWAY from body basis of wind chill factor air not just heat removal from warmer org's surface cooler boundary , hot wind disrupt skin and air boundary , making body hot

ENDOTHERMIC METAB HEAT IN PLANTS

In one species of skunk cabbage, scientists have discovered that generating heat also improves the rate of pollen germination and pollen tube growth in the flowers. T The plant's mitochondria generate enough metabolic heat in its tissues to raise its temperature more than 10°C above the external environmen The odor attracts insect pollinators such as flies that typically feed on dead, rotting organisms. substantial benefits, including earlier flowering in the spring, more rapid development of flowers, and protection from freezing temperatures. The heat also benefits the pollinators, which can absorb some of the heat produced by the plant. EVEN SPROUT IN SNOW EARLY SPING 8 Skunk cabbage. Using mitochondria to generate heat, the skunk cabbage can elevate its temperature by more than 10°C above the environmental temperature. The elevated temperature melts a path through the snow in early spring, making the skunk cabbage one of the first plants to sprout and attract pollinators to its flowers.

more Soil structure and water-->matrix pot in saturated soil ,

In saturated soil, most water does not contact soil particles and is not strongly held by the soil; matric potential is 0 MPa.

Aquatic animals that live in habitats with low amounts of oxygen have evolved a number of additional adaptation (7)

In the deep oceans, many organisms have very low rates of activity, thereby reducing their need for oxyge zooplankton, a group of tiny crustaceans, can increase the amount of hemoglobin, rather than using other orgs Other animals, such as tadpoles and fish that live in oxygen-depleted swamps, swim to the surface and take gulps of air. Fish store this air in a swim bladder from which they extract the oxygen into their bloodstream. MATCH DENSITY AND STORE WATER FOR BLOODSTREAM spotted salamander, which are usually attached to sticks that are submerged in water, have a mutualistic relationship with a species of alga The algae live in the egg sac and so obtain a place to live and photosynthesize while the developing embryo obtains oxygen from the photosynthesizing algae chloroplasts of algae for sea slugs, and egg sac of salamander PHOTOSYNTH(ALGAE)-->SALAMANDER EMBRYO OXYEGN ADN SUGAR(HELPS GROWTH)-->EARLIER HATCH AND LARGE GROWTH EGG FLUID AND EMBYRO ITSELF ANOTHER ALGAL MUTUALISM FOR OXYGEN Sea slugs take algal mutualisms to an even more extreme level. When sea slugs hatch, they seek out algae to consume and they are able to SEQUESTER some of the ALGAL CHLOROPLAST into their own bodies. Over time, the sea slug accumulates enough chloroplasts that its body turns green chloroplast in body gas exchange directly with the atmosphere.BY MANGROVES W HIGH ROOTS microbes can live in environments without oxygen because they use anaerobic respiration. A common product of anaerobic respiration by bacteria living in anoxic soils is hydrogen sulfide gas ( H 2 S ). This gas is the cause of the rotten-egg smell that occurs when water-saturated soils become anaerobic. living w tube worms, will pass off to orgs when given sulfide gases from vents

Analyzing ecology

Independent variables: factors that are presumed to cause other variables to change. Dependent variables: factors that are being changed. (may be changed as result of other variables We hypothesize that variation in the availability of freshwater has led to evolution of kidney sizes. Independent variable = availability of freshwater Dependent variable = kidney size -less freshwater=larger kidney Continuous variables: variables that can take on any numeric value, including values that are not whole numbers. Categorical (nominal) variables: variables that fall into distinct groups.

organisms must manage heat gain and heat loss carefully. why? this exchange of heat can occur through four processes that can occur?

Infrared images. Thermal cameras can detect warm animals radiating heat against a cold background, Because body temperature impacts physiological functions, ultimate source of heat at the surface of Earth is sunlight, most of which is absorbed by water, soil, plants, and animals and then converted to heat. this EXCHANGE of heat can occur through four processes that can occur simultaneously

so raising the concentration of solutes in blood and tissues is not a viable option. for most marine animals and some terr invertebrates like 30%

Instead, some Antarctic fish prevent freezing by raising their blood and tissue concentrations of nonsalt compounds such as glycerol. Glycerol is a chemical that prevents the hydrogen bonds of water from coming together to form ice unless the temperatures are well below freezing glycerol=prevent H bond formation 10 percent glycerol solution in the body allows the temperature of the body to drop to about −2.3°C without severely disrupting biochemical processes. glyco=supercooling stopping crystal seeds In supercooling, however, glycoproteins in the blood impede ice formation by coating any ice crystals that begin to form. IN MARINE ENVIRO GLYCOPROTEIN STOP CRYSTALS, WHICH LOWERS FP OF STUFF liquids can cool below the freezing point without developing ice crystals. IN THE BLOOD -->Supercooling A process in which glycoproteins in the blood impede ice formation by coating any ice crystals that begin to form.

PROCESSES INVOVLED IN COHES-TENSIN , which strucs tension works in , , tension again up in xylem

LOOK AT DIAGRAM: ROOT HAIR, STEM AND LEAF (Tension (neg water pressure out leaf vein xylem, evap and diffusion from stoma leaving two dif ways)) STEM(cohesive ecolum , also tension up thru xylem helped generated by roots) tension in all (tension works in leaves and stems and root hair) ROOT HAIR water into root osmosis, tension again up in xylem , tension again up in xylem in both root hair and stem, leave xylem in leaf veins into the air

Where fresh water abounds, animals can drink ? quantities of water to ? salts that would otherwise accumulate in the body. WATER SCARCITY ADAPTATIONS, EXPTS OF KIDNEYS FOR WATER SCARCITY WHY ARE SALT GLANDS USED RATHER THAN CONCENTRATED URINE FOR Expelling excess salts, WHICH IONS NOT WELL EXCRETED

LOTS, FLUSH OUT , Behavioral and physiological adaptations (SHORTER TERM) TO WATER SCARCITY the kidneys provide an additional PHYSIOLOGICAL adaptation to extreme heat and water scarcity. kidneys are responsible for removing salts and nitrogenous wastes from the blood. TAKE OUT WATER IN URINE, HIGHLY CONCENTRATED IN RATS AND CAMELS feeding at night (BEHAVIORAL) Rodents living in habitats with the lowest amount of precipitation have relatively large kidneys MODIFIED SALT TEAR GLANSDS TO RID SALT W LIL FRESHWATER ACCESS Because sodium and chloride ions participate in the water conservation mechanism of kidneys, the kidneys do not excrete these ions efficiently. NACL SALT ELEMENTS marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) from the Galápagos Islands is SALT that was produced in THESE GLANDS and expelled through the nostrils.

Spatial variation

Large-scale spatial variation may be caused by factors such as CLIMATE, land TOPOGRAPHY, and SOIL type (aka nonliving factors?); small scale variation is generated by factors such as plant structure and animal behavior(living).(think regional an and plant large role in variations in small scales, no plants bc of wind or animals dispersing or failing to disperse seeds A particular scale of spatial variation may be important to one organism but not to another (e.g., leaf shape is important to an insect, but not to a large mammalian herbivore,). -cow just eats Individuals moving through space experience spatial variation as a SEQUENCE in TIME (e.g., an herbivore moving through crop fields).-see how things change over spatial variation The FASTER an individual moves through space and the SMALLER the scale of SPATIAL variation, the SHORTER the TEMPORAL scale of variation.

water movement inside leaves WATER POTENTIAL/TENSION FROM WHAT? creates a continuous gradient from leaf surfaces in contact with the ATMOS down to the surfaces of ROOT HAIRS in contact with SOIL WATER water.

Leaves can also generate water potential as water evaporates from the surfaces of leaf cells(EVAP FROM MESOPHYLL) inside the leaf and into the tiny air spaces (STOMA DIFFUSION) that surround these cells. This evaporated water ultimately moves out of the leaf and into the air (transpire off leaf) leaf surfaces in contact with the ATMOS ROOT HAIRS in contact with SOIL WATER water. FROM TRANSPRATION THIS POTENTIAL COMES

loam example of/

Loam soils Soil is often composed of mixtures of particles. Loam soils, which are some of the best for growing plants, contain 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay.-->max different bw wilting pt and field capacity (less negative matrix potential) Soil composition affects field capacity and wilting point. for example if holding lots of clay-->plant has to pull too hard against clay due to charges involved in matric forces

CO 2 and bicarbonate ions are both abundant under ? pH conditions

MODERATE, 5-9, , many species of aquatic plants and algae can use both CO 2 and bicarbonate ions as carbon sources for photosynthesis

Adaptations to temperature

Many organisms can adjust their PYHSIOLOGY to maintain activity across different environmental temperatures. (not permanent) Isozymes in goldfish allow cold-acclimated fish to swim FAST at low temperatures and warm-acclimated fish to swim fast at high temperatures. Fish swim poorly at temperatures to which they are not acclimated. -slow changes are better Many animals respond to temperature by moving to microhabitats. Microhabitats: locations within SAME a habitat that differ in environmental conditions from the rest of the habitats. The desert iguana regulates its body temperature by basking on rocks, seeking shade, or burrowing in the ground.

Adaptations to enemies

Many species alter their GROWTH, BODY SHAPE, and BEHAVIOR in response to the presence of predators. These alterations improve prey fitness by making it difficult for the predator to find or consume the prey. Euplotes ciliates sense CHEMICAL cues from Lembadion predators. Euplotes respond by growing larger. This is energetically costly. -bettter to sacrifice less repro fitness/energy to repro even though prey is lowered by growing larger -larger predator less suited to eating smaller prey Lembadion PREDATOR can also respond by growing larger, but they are poorly suited to eat small prey. -prey get smaller again, cycle repeats Plants have the ability to respond to the presence of herbivores--->sense selves being eaten When Virginia PEPPERWOOD is eaten by herbivores, the plant develops leaf HAIRS (i.e., trichomes) and gluocosinolate compounds that make the leaves difficult to consume. Induced leaves attract fewer herbivores. HAIR AND CHEM RESPONSE TO INSECT PREDATOR -nicotine defensive compound in tobacco plants -CYCLE OF PREY GROWING LAGRER and predator lembadion growing largemouth from mechanical clues more chem clues eating larger prey, induce large winged eupolotes?phenotype into smaller prey without wing? -predator cell division into smaller phenotype again

wilting point

Matric potential decreases as plants extract more water from the soil. Past ~-1.5 MPa, known as the wilting point, most plants cannot extract more water. -pressure becomes negative/matrix potential -can extract w relative ease up to wilting point

Adaptations to water availability

Most animals can move to different microhabitats where water is more available. MICROHABITST FOR TEMP OR WATER Plants cannot move, and exhibit numerous adaptations. In response to scarce water, many plants will close their stomata, or adjust relative allocations of energy and material to grow LONGER roots. -root to shoot change in drought conditions

Optimal diet composition

Most animals do not consume a single food item, and base their diet decisions on HANDLING time in addition to the ENERGETIC and NUTRITIONAL value of various resources. Handling time: the amount of time that a predator takes to CONSUMING a captured prey. -lobster=high handling time, think handling prey longer handling eating time than burger or something The energy benefit of a resource item divided by the handling time is the amount of energy gained per unit time. AKA ENRRGY LIKE CALS PER MINUTE SO AMT ENERGY DIVIDED BY TIME EATINg A predator should always eat the prey species that provides the highest amount of energy gained per unit TIME If the highest energy prey is rare, the animal should include less profitable items in its diet. Optimal diet-based on energy and handling time, MIXing from nutrients

endotherms (homeotherms)

Most mammals and birds maintain internal temperature from 36°C to 41°C, whereas their environment varies from ± 50°C. Sustaining internal temperatures requires a lot of work and energy. -fans are blowing extremely hot air, inhale and warm body Endotherms must replace LOST heat by generating METABOLIC heat (which requires consuming resources) OR by gaining heat through other means (e.g., solar RADIATION OR CONVECTION convection). The rate of metabolism needed to maintain a body temperature increases with the difference between body and environment temperature. -metab must RISE a bit in the COLD -shunt bring WARM blood to CORE, hypothermia

all homeostatic systems exhibit ? feedbacks

NEGATIVE system deviates from its desired state, or set point, internal response mechanisms act to restore that desired state. hypothalamus — a gland in the brain — determines whether the body temperature is above or below the desired set point, temperature drops below this set point,the hypothalamus uses neural and hormonal signals to trigger the body to generate more heat, SHIVERING the hypothalamus triggers the body to stop producing heat. UPON SET POINT,

For example, during cold weather, plants can move water ? of their cells, forcing ice to only occur ? their cells and not within their cells where ice could cause cell damage Plant ? is also important since growing ? and ? to the sun-warmed ground allows plants to experience warmer temperatures than if they were tall.

OUT CELLS, BETWEEN CELL ICE PPSSIBLE CONDUCTION FOR PLANTS NEAR GROUNDS STATURE, GROWING LOW AND CLOSE ABSORB MORE HEAT

TURNING BICARB TO CO2-->HOW AQUA PLANTS DO THIS

One way to do this is by secreting an enzyme into the water that converts bicarbonate ions into CO 2 (DIRECT CONVERSION OR MESS Q EQUILBI) Plants and algae can also obtain CO 2 by secreting hydrogen ions into the surrounding water. This helps drive the chemical equilibrium in a direction that converts more of the bicarbonate ions into CO 2

Competition for resources

Organisms have evolved a variety of phenotypically plastic strategies for high and low competition. Animals may spend MORE TIME looking for food or ALTER DIGESTIVE morphology. -python ecotherm eat once a month , lengthen intestine to prep for eating almost 2 times as long LARGER intestines can help extract more NUTRIENTS from ingested food. The Burmese python may come across a meal only once a month. When a rodent is consumed, the snake DOUBLE the length of its INTESTINE and QUADRUPLES its heart size to accommodate the extra tissue. After digestion, intestine and heart size return to normal to avoid the costs of carrying the extra TISSUE weight. and energy cost for heart? TEMPO TISSUE INCREASE 1/3 our heartbeat going to digestive tract lots of energy to digest and bring in food pythons can shut down tract -after digestion change heart SIZE AGAIN

deep water that does not receive sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis and waterlogged sediments and soils. BOTH MISS WHAT?

Oxygen is in even shorter supply in waters that cannot support photosynthesis, since those waters do not receive the O 2

passive transport for who?

Passive transport occurs when ions and SMALL molecules move through a membrane along a concentration gradient, prob not large

Phenotypic trade-offs

Phenotypic trade-off: a situation in which a given phenotype experiences higher fitness in one environment, whereas other phenotypes experience higher fitness in other environments. TRADEOFF OF FITNESS IN ENVIRO MAKE MULTIPLE PHENOTYPES FAVORABLE IF LARGE TRADEOFF PROBS CHANCE OF PLASTICITY Phenotypic plasticity: the ability of a single GENOTYPE to produce multiple PHENOTYPES. Phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to achieve HOMEOSTASIS if environmental conditions vary. nonplastic phenotypes work well in certain enviro conditions, not as well as in others, but plastic pheno better in both -salamander or something

only chem formula to remember

Photosynthesis 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + photons --> C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2 Photosynthesis is the process of combining CO2, H2O, and solar energy to produce glucose (C6H12O6):

Plants and animals in contact with rocks, soil, and each other can ? heat to or from these objects, depending on whether their body temperatures are ? or ? than the surrounding objects As winds move the air ? the organisms, there can be an additional exchange of heat, CONVECTION SOURCE? Radiation from the Sun can occur as ? sunlight, as well as sunlight that has been ? as it interacts with ? in the atmosphere or is ? from clouds and the ground. RADITION FROM OBJ COMP TO SUN : As objects in the landscape are warmed by solar radiation, they emit ? radiation in the form of infrared light. NEED TEMP DIF BW SURF FOR RADIATION IN KELVIJN, WARMER SURFACE ? ENERGY BY RADIATION TO ? PARTS ENVIRO .

Plants and animals in contact with rocks, soil, and each other can CONDUCT heat to or from these objects, depending on whether their body temperatures are WARMER or COLDER than the surrounding objects As winds move the air PAST the organisms, there can be an additional exchange of heat, AGAIN DEPEND ON ORGS TEMP VS ENVIRO WIND Radiation from the Sun can occur as direct sunlight, as well as sunlight that has been scattered as it interacts with gas molecules in the atmosphere or is reflected from clouds and the ground. As objects in the landscape are warmed by solar radiation, they emit LOWER-ENERGY radiation in the form of INFRARED LIGHT heat radiation of two small animals, lizard has a skin temperature of 17°C (290°K), the difference in heat radiation between the mammal and the lizard is 310 4 ÷ 290 4 = 130 % 20°C higher body temperature, the mammal radiates 30 percent more heat to the environment than does the lizard. dif in heat radiation=30% more body heat to enviro than lizard coming from total dif heat radiation of 130% NEED TEMP DIF BW SURF FOR RADIATION IN KELVIJN, WARMER SURFACE LOSING ENERGY BY RADIATION TO COLDER PARTS ENVIRO . think radiation s conversion of house gas in atmosphere SUNLIGHT RADIATION: DIRECT, SCATTERD, REFLECTED, HEAT LOSS W EVAPORATION (EASIER GOING LIQ TO GAS), WIND CONVECTION, CONDUCTION BW LIZARD AND SURFACE, THERMAL RADIATION FROM ATMOS AND GROUND OBJECTS

Soil nutrients

Plants need oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen to fuel survival and growth. -pull ELEMENTS out of soil or air Plants also require other INORGANIC NUTRIENTS including nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and potassium to make proteins, nucleic acids, and other essential compounds.-->mostly thru soil our defectaion would need to give the nitrogenous waste to replenish the inorg nutrients we get form air import in paraculture Many nutrients are obtained as ions dissolved in water held by the soil. Nutrients come in various forms, such as ammonium (NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), phosphate (PO43-), calcium (Ca2+), and potassium (K+). (ions/inorganic nutrients in soil) The availability of these ions varies with soil temperature, pH, and the presence of other ions.

Source of heat gain and loss

Radiation: the emission of ELECTROMAGNETIC energy by a surface. Increases with the fourth power of absolute temperature??? HUH, building GIVING OFF heat, lizard basking Conduction: the transfer of the KINETIC energy of heat between substances that are in contact with one another. Convert conduction into kelvin temperature, then raise each to the fourth and divide to find percent change (percent above 100) e.g. mouse and lizard, if mouse like double temp, mouse losing 130% more heat by having warmer temp transfers KE of heat Convection: the transfer of heat by movement of LIQUIDS and gases; molecules next to a warm surface GAIN energy and move away. heat from hair boundary layer from jumping in water stripped away by cold liquid, hypothermia colder water molecules stripping hair boundary of heat? Evaporation: the transformation of water from a liquid to a gaseous state with the input of energy; removes heat from a surface.-->sweat lowering liquid temp here enough energy to overcome the VAPOR pressure, some water molecules will escape and enter the surrounding air as a gas. When evaporation occurs, the ENERGY REMOVED FROM the vaporized LIQUID will reduce the temperature of the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.

thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria AND ARCHAEBAC EXCEPTION TO WHAT

Relatively few organisms can survive temperatures above 45°C. thermophilic bacteria have higher proportions of particular amino acids that form STRONGER bonds than the PROTEINS of other heat-intolerant species. prevent them from being shaken apart under high temperatures, so the proteins do not denature.

In contrast, a soil containing a higher proportion of SILT and a lower proportion of SAND is classified as a ? loam soil.

SILT, HIGHER THING BEFORE LOAM

MINERALS

SOIL PARTICLE FROM ROCK ,roots dead living material first formation step-->bedrock breakdown via weathering until horizons O mix lying dead or living mat some organics found in A and minerals

why smaller parts they can hold more water,?

Smaller particles (e.g., clay) have a larger surface area relative to their volume. As a result, they can hold more water, but that water is held very tightly. -hold more water around it

soil particles

Soil particles include varying composition of sand, silt, and clay, in addition to decomposing organic material. Sand > 0.05 mm diameter Silt = 0.002 - 0.05 diameter Clay < 0.002 diameter why soil here won't dry as quick as sands after it rains versus a beach

Diet mixing

Some foragers consume a VARIED DIET because one type of food might not provide all of the necessary NUTRIENTS. Humans combine food items to consume all essential amino acids. -vegan problem, all meats have amino acid but in certain plants NYMPHS of the American grasshopper grow FASTER when provided a mixed diet of PLANTS like mulberry and mesquite, even though each of the plants is relatively low quality. freeze dried cricket protein for many things

Temporal variation

Some temporal variation in the environment is predictable (e.g., alternation of day and night); some is unpredictable (e.g., weather). Weather: the variation in TEMP and PRECIP over periods of hours or days. -daily/hourly, day 10 max prediction from weather Climate: the typical ATMOSPHERE conditions that occur through the YEAR, measured over many years. -years Events can be rare, but have large effects (e.g., tsunamis). -not forecastable , bc from volcano or earthquake Some variation occurs in regular intervals (e.g., forest fires). --not forecastable , but forecast conditions In general, the more extreme events occur less frequently. -cannot guarantee hurricane or blizzard

Adaptations to prevent freezing

Some terrestrial animals survive cold weather on land by producing ANRIFREEZE chemicals that control the formation of ice crystals. -glycol, glycol, preventing crystals Some animals burrow in places where temperatures are warmer, but body temperatures can still go below freezing. Many amphibian species can freeze solid underground in a state that requires little metabolic activity. They survive by producing antifreeze compounds and by forming ice crystals BETWEEN cells rather than within them. BETWEEN CELL ANTIFREEZE FOR LAND ANIMALS -keep cells intact, in ponds drying during spring, frozen frog

Migration

Sometimes, adverse conditions are so severe that individuals cannot acclimate, or the changes required would not be worth the cost. Migration is the seasonal movement of animals from one region to another. The decision to migrate is a PLASTIC behavior in response to changing environmental conditions, such as temperature or food supplies Migration=behavioral PHENOTYPE, PLASTIC Monarch butterflies migrate to wintering areas in Mexico and southern North America and to the north during the summer. -going extinct, tourist development in Mexico and pesticides everywhere -weather unpredictability, not affected by wall like others

Body size and thermal inertia

Surface area (SA) of an organism increases as the square of its length (L). Volume (V) increases as the cube of L. SA AND V RELATED TO LENGTH Hence, V increases faster than SA. Since heat transfer occurs across an organism's surface area, larger individuals lose and gain heat less rapidly than smaller individuals. MORE STABLE TEMP LARGER THINF When temperature varies, it is easier for a larger animal to maintain a CONSTANT INTERNEL temperature.

Calvin cycle: DIRECT INPT OF?

Takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast. The ENERGY in ATP and NADPH is used to convert CO2 into glucose. IS IN A WEIRD CARBON FORM GOING CAM-desert southwest Several different types of CALVIN cycles have evolved: C3 (most plants), C4 (grasses, sedges), and CAM (family Crassulaceae). Some plants that are adapted to dry environments, such as cacti and pineapples, use the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway to minimize PHOTORESPIRATION DIRECT CO2 INPUT G3P MADE W GLUCOSE

more about Ectotherms

Tend to be organisms with low metabolic rates or small body sizes (e.g., reptiles, amphibians, insects). AIR They can adjust their body temperature behaviorally by changing their orientation with the Sun, adjusting their contact with warm substrates, or moving in and out of shade. Many reptiles bask, which is the behavior of lying flat against the ground to gain heat by conduction and solar radiation

Water and salt balance in animals

Terrestrial animals, with INTERNALIZED gas exchange surfaces, are less vulnerable to respiratory water loss than plants. Organisms must exhibit behavior to acquire or remove solutes to maintain the proper concentrations of water and solutes. Animals acquire mineral ions in the water and food they consume. Water INTAKE and URINE excretion eliminate excess SALTS. When water is scarce, animals exhibit numerous adaptations. blood clotting and childbirth=positive feedback

Negative feedbacks:

The action of internal response mechanisms that restores a system to a desired state, or set point, when the system deviates from that state. ex-->lecture room In mammals, the hypothalamus triggers increased metabolism /SHIVERING when body temperature is below 37°C, and SWEATING when body temperature is above 37°C.THIRTYSEVEN increase metab more walking outside

Water and salt balance in animals example

The desert kangaroo rat conserves water by HUNTING during the NIGHT and staying below ground during the day. It also has LARGE KIDNEYS that permit increased water retention. elim excess salt, salt horn in marine iguana Organisms that do not have access to freshwater (e.g., the marine iguana) eliminate the salt in their drinking water through specialized salt-secreting organs. kinda store it in a salt horn

Spatial vs. temporal variation

The extent of the SPACE AFFECTED by an event is usually related to an event's DURATION in time, less time=less space?-->direct correlation or cause -fog when rowing -deep circulation not changing much Example: The spatial dimensions of ATMOS and MARINE phenomena are related to their duration Variations in topography and GEOLOGY are generated at a slower pace than aquatic and atmospheric variations. -land takes while to change

Speed and reversibility, WHICH enviro induced changes from an environment are the fastest/slowest? Which are reversible?

The most rapid phenotypic responses are typically BEHAVIORAL traits. Acclimation, which is an environmentally induced change in an individual's PYHSIOLOGY, can also be relatively RAPID. Changes in MORPHOLOGY (e.g., body shape) and LIFE HISTORY (e.g., time to sexual maturity) are often relatively slow responses. Rapid responses are often REVERSIBLE, whereas slow responses are often irreversible. The RATE of ENVIRO change determines the type of responses that evolve; rapid environmental fluctuations favor rapid responses, whereas SLOW fluctuations favor SLOW responses. -hibernation is response to enviro change in winter, growing thicker coat as bear -warmer=shed -might change morphology or time to mature if slower enviro change -BUTphysiology (get examples of physiology) might be changed in faster enviro BA LM

more Body size and thermal inertia

Thermoregulation: the ability of an organism to control the temperature of its body. Homeotherms: organisms that maintain constant temperature; this allows biochemical reactions to work most efficiently. Poikilotherms: organisms that do not have constant body temperatures. Ectotherms: organisms with body temperatures determined by their external environment; BUT MAY STILL KEEP TEMPS IN RANGE not necessarily poikilotherms (dinosaurs were ecto but not poikilotherms-->didn't keep body temp in small band like modern lizard), BUT ectotherms like desert animals will move, wanna keep it around small area so not just totally subject to enviro Endotherms: organisms that can generate METABOLIC HEAT to raise body temperature higher than the external environment nothing about warm/cold blooded up here Poikilotherms that's not an ecotherm-->chipmunks hibernating , would just cool off at night STILL CONFUSED ECTO VERSUS POIKO

Structural adaptations of plants against heat and drought ? produces a boundary layer of still air, and what's their purpose? hair-covered surfaces are also prevalent in ? environments that are cool. Long spines can also serve as structures that ? away from the plant

These adaptations include roots that can take advantage of different water sources, arid regions often have very shallow or very deep roots, which represent two different adaptive strategies. Plants with very shallow roots, such as many species of cacti, are able to take water up rapidly from brief rain events in which the rain does not penetrate very far into the soil. Cacti often pair this adaptation with thick, succulent tissues that can hold a great deal of water other desert plants ditch this sucking innof water and go for deeper roots resistance to heat buildup,(resins adn waxy cuticle)-->plant surfaces from direct sunlight with leaf resins, waxy cuticles, spines, and hairs. Resins and waxy cuticles help make the surfaces of the plant more resistant to losing water. Spines and hairs produce a boundary layer of still air that traps moisture and reduces evaporation., reduce water loss, the stomata are recessed into deep pits that contain hairs vein configurations that protect against air blockages, morphological adaptations in leaves. hair-covered surfaces are also prevalent in ARID environments that are COOL. Long spines can also serve as structures that dissipate excess HEAT away from the plant. . Plants can reduce their HEAT loads by producing finely subdivided leaves with a large ratio of edge to surface area. This large amount of leaf edge breaks up the boundary layer surrounding the leaf (less still air), which helps dissipate heat from the leaf SMALLER LEAVES FOR HEAT REASONS Smaller leaves also contain a higher density of large veins that transport and distribute water to the many small veins. In 2011, an international team of scientists discovered that having small leaves with a high density of large veins is actually an adaptation to overcome the problem of air bubbles, known as embolisms, which can form in large leaf veins.-->so in drought air not bubbling in larger leaf veins blocking water

The temperature of water changes relatively slowly even when heat is removed or added rapidly-->what 2 reasons?

This is because water has a high specific heat, which is the amount of heat required to increase its temperature by 1°C. In addition, water transfers heat rapidly, causing heat to spread evenly throughout a body of water, which also slows localized changes in temperature. Water also resists changing from one state to another. For example, raising the temperature kg of liquid water by 1°C requires the addition of 1 Calorie of heat. However, converting 1 kg of liquid water into water vapor requires the addition of 540 Calories of heat. lowering the temperature of 1 kg of LIQUID water by 1°C requires the removal of 1 Calorie of heat, but converting that amount of liquid water TO ICE requires the REMOVAL of 80 Calories of heat.

Like the C 4 plants, CAM plants use an initial step of assimilating CO 2 into OAA, which is then converted to malic acid and stored at high concentrations in ? within the mesophyll cells of the leaf.

VACUOLES ENZYME FOR ASSIMILATION IN CAM BEST AT NIGHT During the day, the stomata close, and the stored organic acids are gradually broken down to release CO 2 to the Calvin cycle.PEP AT NIGHT AND REMADE DURING DAY

Instead, much of this blood is redirected into the ? IN BLOOD SHNTING TO STOP FROM EVEN GETTING TO EXTREMITIES HOW DOES THIS CONSERVE ENERGY . When a gull stands on ice or swims with its feet in cold water, it conserves heat by using? the camels were using countercurrent circulation to cool the blood via water evaporation in the ?

VEINS, OR Blood shunting occurs when blood vessels can be shut off — at locations called precapillary sphincters sending less warm blood to the extremities, the extremities are not warmed as much and there is less of a temperature differential between the extremities and the cold environment LESS CONVECTION COLD LOSS AT EXTREMITIES, CORE WARMER EXPENDING LESS limits the amount of chilled blood that returns to the heart. it conserves heat by using COUNTERCURRENT circulation in its legs. arrangement occurs with the position of veins and arteries in the extremities of many animals; NO SHUTOFF BUT GOOD VESSEL ARRANGEMENT Warm blood in arteries leading to the feet cools as it passes close to veins that return cold blood to the body. Rather than being lost to the environment when the warm blood reaches the feet, heat is transferred from the blood in the arteries to the blood in the veins REROUTUNG LOST HEAT TO VEINS , REROUTE HEAT NOT BLOOD nasal cavity ooler blood to their brains, thereby preventing the brain from overheating in the hot desert. The arteries in a gull's leg that carry warm blood from the heart to the feet are positioned next to the veins that carry chilled blood away from the feet and back to the heart. This positioning of the arteries and veins allows the birds to transfer heat from arteries to the veins, keeping the feet just above freezing and reducing the amount of heat lost to the environment.

osmoregulation. water in name but rlly balance for?

WATER

Therefore, soils with a high proportion of clay particles hold more water on their ? than soils with a high proportion of silt particles (Figure 4.3b). In turn, soils with a high proportion of silt particles hold more water than soils with a high proportion of sand particles.

WATER ON INDIV PARTICLE SURFACE

WOULD HYPEROSMOTIC HAVE CONCERNTRATED URINE? ROLE OF GILLS AND KIDNEYS

WATER TRYING TO ENTER BODY(MUST GET RID OF SOME) AND SOLUTES WANNA LEAVE, MUST ADD SOLUTE , They add solutes to their bloodstream by using their GILLS cells to actively transport solutes into the body from the water. KIDNEYS REMOVE IONS IN URINE RETAINIGN THESE SOLUTES BOTH FOR IONS Freshwater fish continuously gain water when they consume food and when osmosis occurs across the mouth and gills, which are their most permeable tissues. Fish respond to this influx of water by eliminating the excess water through their URINE. NOT CONCENTRATED PRETTY DILUTE IF MORE SALTS kidneys retain solutes and elim excess water, their water wants to go in

what makes body heat loss faster in water? WHAT factor of conduction makes orgs hibernate?

Water is so much denser than air, and it CONDUCTS heat more than 20 times faster than air rate of heat loss due to conduction is higher when there are large differences between the temperature of the organism and that of the environment., A lower body temperature results in less heat loss to the cold external environment.

water potential

Water potential: a measure of water's potential energy; affects the movement of water in soil from one location to another. soil will hold the water but plants have to pull water out soil bc soil wants to hold on/attracted to water is matrix potential CREATING this matrix potential

Understanding the thermal optima for aquatic species has led to regulations that restrict how much

Water that is used to keep nuclear power plants cool, regulations that restrict how much a discharging power plant can raise the temperature of a lake or river. applies thermal optima concept

Phenotypic plasticity, what traits are plastic and in what enviro do these occur?

When environmental VARIATION results in phenotypic TRADE-OFFS, natural selection will favor the evolution of phenotypic plasticity. Example: Gray tree frog tadpoles produce a phenotype that allows fast escape when predators are present and fast growth when predators are absent. Many types of traits are plastic, such as behavior, growth, development, and reproduction. -can have phenotype for fast escape or growth at certain points in single org's life depending on factors like predators in enviro If spatial variation is not common, a single phenotype will be favored. -not wroth energy if enviros SAME across SPACE

no rain for a while, in what direction does pressure head as water drains?

When gravity drains the water in soil, the matric potential DROPS to -0.01 MPa. The maximum amount of water held by soil against the force of gravity is the field capacity of the soil. -drop to field capacity, not squishy soil anymore -plants take all water even if soil dry

Storage

When resources are LIMITED and MIGRATION is not possible, storage of resources can be an adaptive strategy. -squirrel acorn burying Animals accumulate fat or cache food supplies as a reserve of energy for periods of harsh weather when food is inaccessible. Take in harsher periods so have some sort of food Plants may store nutrients and energy in roots., so next yr can shoot back up In habitats that frequently burn, perennial plants store FOOD in fire-resistant root crowns that send up NEW SHOOTS after fires. -first spring sprouter-->tulips -energy in roots make them able to shoot up afterwards, tulip bulbs are yearly remade structure?

Nitrogen balance in animals

While most aquatic animals eliminate excess nitrogen as ammonia (NH3), BECAUSE AQEUOUS?terrestrial animals rarely have access to large quantities of freshwater to excrete NH3. land ppl lack enough water Since high concentrations of NH3 are mildly toxic, many terrestrial animals produce metabolic by-products that can accumulate in higher concentrations. LESS TOXIC TO EXCREET MORE Examples: Mammals produce urea (CO(NH2)2). US AND IN SWEAT Birds and reptiles produce uric acid (C5H4N4O3). toxic disinfectant Producing these compounds CONSERVES the water that is needed to remove excess nitrogen, but they are energetically costly to make. never mix w bleach-->chlorine gas terr ans use more energy but less water for these ammonia alternatives due to lack water .5 carbon per nitro excreted for urea, for reptile Uric acid it's 1.25 carbons needed

C4

a photosynthetic pathway in which CO2 is initially assimilated into a FOUR-carbon compound, oxaloacetic acid (OAA); provides an advantage in hot and dry conditions. Calvin cycle occurs in internal bundle SHEATH cells; after OAA is converted to malic acid. PEP: phosphoenol pyruvate ENZYME FOR ASSIMILATION has higher CO2 affinity than Rubisco. So less needing to pack cells by converting CO2 first before making product (malic output from mesophyll cells) CO2 + PEP--> OAA SO assim into OAA first-->then malic acid? malic acid converted back into CO2 in bundle cells and can now be in higher concentration/ CO2 concentrations in bundle sheath cells WHERE ARE THEY? are 3-8 times higher than is available in C3 photosynthesis. WHY Disadvantages of C4 photosynthesis (more space taken up between bundle sheath and mesophyll cell?) : less tissue is used for photosynthesis; energy is used to produce OAA. so here-->Instead of separating the steps of CO2 assimilation between mesophyll and bundle sheath cells, the steps are separated in time. IS THIS CAM? may still wanna use C3 when possible Their stomata only open at night, when humidity tends to be higher and temperatures are cooler, both factors that reduce water loss from leaves. This arrangement distributes carbon dioxide directly to Rubisco, effectively eliminating oxygen interaction and the necessity for photorespiration. CAM is a C4 plant that fixes CO2throughout the night. C4 photosynthesis does not take place at night.

Light reactions depend on light energy from the Sun and include

a series of events from the absorption of light to the production of high-energy compounds and oxygen ( O 2 ) 02 OUTPUT OF LIGHT RXNS WRITE OUT THIS GRAPH

homeostasis

an organism's ability to maintain constant internal conditions in the face of a varying external environment.

Chlorophylls b, c, d, and f

are accessory pigments that capture light energy and pass it to chlorophyll a.

BENEFIT OF DENSITY ADJUSTMENT OF THINGS IN WATER, WHAT else helps w density?

because they are not spending energy resisting their body's tendency to float or sink. By adjusting the amount of air in the vest, divers can make their density equal to the water at a particular depth, The whales discussed earlier become buoyant when they take a breath of air, but a slow release of air bubbles will help them sink to a particular depth.-->Other species possess pockets of air to control their buoyancy in water. F OR DIRECT TAKEIN OF AIR The same high viscosity that impedes the progress of tiny organisms swimming in water also keeps them from sinking. Because most aquatic organisms are slightly denser than water, they are prone to sinking due to the force of gravity counteracts more dense than water by using viscosity -->To take advantage of water's viscosity, (prevent from sinks) many tiny marine animals have evolved long, filamentous appendage, slowing the fall thru are -->These appendages help slow down movement through the viscous water and thereby retard sinking

Maintaining a higher body temperature provides the benefit of accelerated?

biological activity in colder climates, allowing endotherms an improved ability to find food and escape predators and to occupy environments that their ectothermic counterparts cannot. WOULD NOT CARRY OUT ACTIVITIES IN COLD ENVIRO WOULD MESS W INTERNAL HOMEOSTASIS, NEED INTERNAL STABILITY FOR BIOLOGICAL FUNCITONS

Compounding this slow rate of diffusion(10,000 times more slowly than through air) WHAT DOES SLOW REPLACEMENT RATE IN BOUNDARY LAYER THIS LIMIT

boundary layer. A boundary layer is a region of unstirred air or water that surrounds the surface of an object. I because this boundary layer is composed of unstirred water, CO 2 and HCO 3 − can be depleted within the boundary layer by uptake BC MOLECULES NOT RLLY MOVING THRU IT—especially in the region closest to the photosynthesizing organism—but the removed gases are slow to be replaced from the surrounding water slower than uptake of stuff for metab or photosynthesis . but the removed gases are slow to be replaced from the surrounding water. A thin boundary of unstirred water along the surface of photosynthesizing organisms EVEN. MORE slows the rate of gas diffusion through the water., and low solubility This increase in hydrogen ions is what decreases the pH. In addition, some of the hydrogen combines with carbonate to form more bicarbonate, decreasing the concentration of carbonate in seawater-->more bicarb prob less carbonate

plant adaptations to enemy pic pepperweed

chemical and trichomes to attract fewer herbivores, see less aphids on these leafs/plants, aphid lil sap suckers

Chloroplasts, Chlorophylls and carotenoids, LIGHT RXN STEP

chloroplast specialized cell ORGANELLES found in eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms. Chloroplasts contain stacks of membranes (i.e., THYLAKOIDS)surrounded by a FLUID-filled space (i.e., STROMA). Chlorophylls and carotenoids are PIGMENTS inside the thylakoids that absorb light.-->must be in thylakoids for light dependent rxn Light reactions: 1. Chlorophyll in thylakoids absorbs PHTOON energy. 2. Chlorophyll releases electrons to a chain of reactions. (OXIDATION OF WATER SPLITTING IT, ALSO ENERGY FROM PROTONS AND ENERGY RELEASE), MOLEC O2 ALSO FROM WATER SPLITTING 3. In the process, H2O molecules are split into H+ and O2- ions. 4. O2- ions join to form molecular oxygen. 5. Energy is collected from released electrons and the split of H2O. (ENERGY AND PROTONS PASSED TO MOLECULES) 6. Energy + H+ + ADP ATP 7. Energy + H+ + NADP+ NADPH ATP and NADPH are high-energy compounds given to the Calvin cycle.

lizards often lie flat on hot rocks to warm their bodies by? dif conduction source in something basking versus radiation? how many factors affecting conduction?, which described by insulation

conduction, still emitting radiation though but warming with conduction, NOT ELECTROMAG ENERGY WITH ANYTHING BUT RADIATION and think basking would mean rock is the heat source , warmer rock-->lizard 3-->SA, resistance to heat transfer(insulation), temp dif

THERMAL OPTIMA PHASES FOR WHAT? determined by the properties of

critical minimal temperature, below which the organism cannot perform some function, such as swimming. OPTIMUM TEMP until it achieves a peak of maximal performance, the thermal optimum. As temperatures go even higher, most organisms experience a rapid decline in performance and typically die as they approach their critical maximal temperature. critical minimum temperature required FOR PERFORM some physiological function enzymes and lipids, the structures of cells and tissues, body form, and other characteristics that influence the ability of an organism to function-->thermal optimum due to biological molecules changing

conduction rate factors

depends on surface area MORE AREA MORE HEAT TRANSFER?, resistance of substances to heat transfer (THERM INERTIA?)and temperature differences between substances. -SA -heat resistance of substance -temp dif bw substances

Adaptations to Terrestrial Environments

difficult, we need nutrients Most terrestrial plants obtain NUTRIENTS and WATER from the SOIL. we eat sunlight provides the energy for photosynthesis.--energy for any thing/animal living on land Terrestrial environments pose a challenge for animals to balance WATER, SALT, and NITROGEN. Adaptations to different TEMPERATURE allow terrestrial life to exist around the planet.

These fish are ? because their body temperatures are determined by the surrounding environment, but their body temperatures are nearly ?.

ectothermic, homeothermic

endotherms are not homeotherms, WHY?

extremities can become much cooler than the inner core of their body.

The difference between the ?and the ?is the amount of water available to plants., LACKING WATER AFFECT ON FIELD CAP

field capacity AND WILTING PT MEASURED IN WATER CONTENT , INCRASE BOTH W LESS PARTICLE SIZE Thus, even when precipitation is frequent, sandy soils cannot hold onto much of the water that enters the soil and most of the water drains quickly out of the sand. if precipitation is not frequent enough for the soil to reach its field capacity, most of the water in the soil will be held tightly by the clay particles, making the water unavailable to the plants. EVEN IN POOR RAIN COND, SAND DRAIN AND CLAY RETIANS TOO TIHGT-->plants that do live in soils that pose water challenges THEMSELVES have a number of adaptations.

The ?, illustrated in Figure 4.2b, represents the maximum amount of water available to plants

field capacity, held by soil against gravity

Central place foraging

foraging behavior in which acquired food is brought to a central place, such as a nest with young As an individual forages farther from the central place, it finds greater amounts of resources, but this increases energy costs and the amount of food the individual must bring back. -longer getting to nest As an individual feeds and collects prey, it becomes increasingly difficult to hold or consume the next prey item (i.e., there are diminishing benefits over time). -without a car can't bring a lot back Central place foraging Foraging decisions depend on the time needed to travel round-trip to site with resources (i.e., TRAVELING time) and the time spent obtaining food at a site (i.e., SEARCHING time). At sites farther away, birds should spend MORE time SEARCHINF for food and BRING back mMORE food to offset the extra travel time. -justify extra travel time, for more food -less cost than what's found nearby

Risk-sensitive foraging

foraging behavior that is influenced by the presence of predators Creek chub feed on tubifex worms, but locations with worms also contain more predators. Research has found that past a certain threshold of resource abundance, creek chub will risk feeding in an area with predators. Below that threshold of worms, creek chub avoid areas with predators. -dont' risk enemy territory if not enough worms

The relationship between surface area and volume BOTH WITH LENGTH is particularly relevant when considering ? implying for bigger orgs?

heat exchange , larger individuals transfer heat across their surfaces LESS rapidly than smaller individuals. larger organisms to maintain constant internal temperatures in the face of varying external temperatures-->aka more thermal inertia caused by larger volume increase lot more than SA, pros and cons in hot or cold enviro We saw an example of this in the case of the dromedary camels, whose very large bodies slowly added heat during the day but then released this heat during the night preventing overheating from thermal inertia

in cold temp adaptations, Some aquatic species that you may think of as poikilotherms are actually

heterothermic, at times, they can generate enough heat to maintain a high internal body temperature. skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) and Pacific blue tuna (Thunnus orientalis) are very large fish that can generate large amounts of heat from their swimming muscles. This heat generation, combined with countercurrent blood circulation from the warm core of the body to outermost swimming muscles, elevates their body temperature up to 20°C warmer than the water in which they are swimming. This adaptation allows the tuna to swim much faster, metabolic tuna and countercurrent, can be heterothermic selective heat production to continue swimming faster

Evaporation is the transformation of a liquid to a gas with the ? of heat energy., evap cost?

input water loss, As plants TRANSPIRE and animals breathe, water EVAPORATES from their exposed gas exchange surfaces, especially at higher temperatures. I

Chlorophyll a

is found in all plants and is primarily responsible for photosynthesis., all other accessory chlorophylls pass this off

In most C 4 plants, however, the Calvin cycle takes place in the chloroplasts of the BUNDEL CHLORO sheath cells that surround the? MAIN BENEFIT When ? is less abundant, however, the C 4 pathway has an advantage.

leaf VEIN/XYLEM This strategy solves the problem of photorespiration by creating concentrations of CO 2 in the bundle sheath cells that are three to eight times higher than is available to C 3 plants. In addition, because the enzyme PEP carboxylase has a high affinity for CO 2 , it can bind CO 2 at a lower concentration in the celL CREATRES MORE CO2 IN BBUNDLE SHETHA, PEP START LOWER CONCENTRAIOTN STARTING LOWER CONC MEANS STOMATA CLOSED LONGER PERIOD reduces water loss, Less leaf tissue is devoted to photosynthesis, WATER, ALSO TEMP ADVNATAGE LINKED TO WATER grasses and sedges. C 4 plants dominate tropical and subtropical grasslands, 20 to 30 percent of all CO 2 fixation and 30 percent of all grain production. A

Structural adaptations to water

lotta rain don't need deep roots, problem with wind Shallow roots are able to take up water after brief rainfall events. Long roots can access deeper waters. Resins and waxy cuticles protect plants from direct SUNLIGHT and SLOW water loss. SPINES and hairs provide protection and produce a boundary layer of STILL air that traps moisture and REDUCES evaporation. like our boundary traps heat, water trapping more useful by reducing transpiration Small leaves with a high density of MSALL veins prevent loss of leaf tissue via embolisms, or air bubbles in veins, which are common in water-stressed environments.-->HOW DO THESE WORK THO which can breaak water columns and break up connection w roots, cavitation=column breakage the tension in the xylem conduits becomes too high, thus xylem cavitation can occur i.e., water column breakage. This results in the hydraulic disconnection of leaves and above-ground parts from roots because xylem conduits are filled with air and water vapor, and this phenomenon is called embolism

Most vertebrates do not retain much urea in their bloodstream because urea impairs protein function. However, sharks, rays, and other marine organisms that use urea to WHICH SHARKS AND RAYS

maintain their water balance have an additional adaptation: They accumulate high concentrations of a compound called trimethylamine oxide to protect proteins from the harmful effects of urea This confirms the importance of urea for osmoregulation for species of sharks and rays that live in the ocean.

THERMOREGULATION 3 classes again

maintaining a constant body temperature (homeotherms) or VARIABLE body temperatures (heterotherms VARIABLE SOMETIMES and poikilotherms

ADAPTATIONS FOR OSMOREGULATION IN AQUATIC PLANTS

many mangroves maintain high concentrations of organic solutes—various amino acids and small sugar molecules—in their roots and leaves to increase their osmotic potential In addition, mangroves possess salt glands in their leaves that can secrete salt by active transport to the exterior surface of the leaf (Figure 3.15b). Many mangrove species also pump salts out of their roots by active transport. MORE SALTY LEAF SOLUTION=BRINGING MORE WATER UP?

Water in most lakes and rivers contains a dissolved mineral concentration of 0.01 to 0.02 percent, whereas ocean water contains a dissolved mineral concentration of 3.4 percent. Oceans have much higher concentrations of dissolved minerals because ? 2 CALC CARB SOURCE WE USE ACIDITY ORDER: NATURAL ACIDIC WATER OSURCE , ACIDITY TREE EFFECT

mineral-laden water continuously flows in from streams and rivers, but the constant evaporation from the ocean's surface removes pure water and leaves the minerals behind. Over billions of years, this process has caused an increase in the concentrations of minerals in the oceans. solvent properties of water explain the presence of minerals condensed water in the atmosphere is nearly pure. However, as it falls back to Earth as rain or snow, water acquires some minerals from dust particles in the atmosphere. Precipitation that hits land comes into contact with rocks and soils, and it dissolves some of their polar minerals SO AIR DUST AND WATER FROM ROCK AND SOIL his precipitated calcium carbonate, combined with the calcium carbonate from the bodies of countless tiny marine organisms, ACIDITY ORDER: CARB BEV (3) MORE THAN AC RAIN (4) BUT NOT STOMACH ACID BLOOD 7.45 OCEAN AROUND 8 ALK LAKE -12 Bogs, for example, are aquatic habitats with vegetation such as sphagnum mosses that release H + ions into the water and thereby make the water more acidi It turned out that the areas with more acidic bodies of water and dying trees were all far downwind of industrial areas with coal-powered factories that had tall smokestacks. The sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emitted--.>DIOXIDES INTO NITRIC ACIDS IN ATMO S, WATER BODIES AND DYING TREES DOWNWIND FROM COAL water of unusually low pH was entering streams, lakes, and forests. Most aquatic species cannot tolerate water with a pH lower than 4, so these bodies of water became toxic to many aquatic organisms. In forests, acid deposition has several effects. First, it leaches the CLACIUM out of the NEEDLES of conifer trees such as spruce (THINK WHAT CALCIUM DOES IN WATER), AND ACIDIC leaching of soil nutrients that trees require, including calcium, magnesium, and potassium . Finally, acid deposition causes aluminum to dissolve in the water. Although aluminum naturally occurs in the soil, it is typically not in a form that is available to plants. Dissolved aluminum can negatively affect a plant's ability to take up nutrients. Collectively, CA, MG, K, (AL DISSOLVE NOT LEACH)

In this section, we examine how soils are formed and how plants extract ? and ? from these soils. what is soil

nutrients and water Soil defies a simple definition, but we can describe it as the layer of Chemically and Biologically ALTERED material OVERLYING or other unaltered material at Earth's surface (BEDROCK)

step to the initial assimilation of CO 2 to make the process more efficient when CO 2-->what is this initial assimilation?

photosynthesis begins with a reaction between CO 2 and a five-carbon sugar known as RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate) to produce a six-carbon compound. This reaction, shown in Figure 4.7a, is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase-oxidase (also known as rubisco). Once the six-carbon compound is created, it immediately splits into two molecules of a three-carbon sugar called G3P (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate). We can represent this process as CO 2 + RuBP → 2 G 3 P

The process of photosynthesis involves

pigments absorbing energy from photons of light. This energy is then converted into chemical energy stored in the high-energy bonds of organic compounds

Matric (or matrix) potential

plants need to pushing water out of soil , the potential energy generated by the attractive forces between water molecules and soil particles; occurs because water molecules and soil particles have ELECTRICAL charges. Matric potential is quantified in units of pressure, called megapascals (Mpa).

Water depth can impact organisms due to?

pressure and decreases in light. You may have experienced increases in water pressure if you have ever gone diving. The deeper you go, the greater the pressure on your body, especially your chest cavity because it is full of air. LACK air in their bodies, such as fish, or have adaptations that allow air cavities to COLLAPSE CAVITIES under pressure, such as diving whales. Hydrothermal vents release plumes of hot water with high concentrations of sulfur compounds and other minerals. These animals possess specialized organs that house vast numbers of chemosynthetic bacteria that live in a close relationship with the tubeworms. The tubeworms capture the sulfide gases and CO 2 from the surrounding water and pass these compounds to the bacteria. The bacteria then use the sulfide gases and CO 2 to produce organic compounds. Some of these organic compounds are passed to the tubeworms, which use the compounds as food. bacteria's org compounds used BACTIERA IN TUBEWORMS ARE EATEN BY OTHERS AND MAKE ORG CMPD FOOD FOR TUBEWORM FROM PLUMES EMITTED BY VENTS The sulfur compounds provide energy for chemosynthetic bacteria, which then serve as food for many other species that live near the vents, including these rust-colored tube worms sulfur from chemosynthesis passed to tube worms

Clay soils and organic matter in the soil both have negative charges on their surfaces that attract positively charged ions called cations. WHY DOES Soil fertility improves over time, up to a point

provides an index to the fertility of that soil, Eventually, weathering breaks down clay particles, cation exchange capacity decreases, and soil fertility drops.

Carotenoids

reflect orange and red light; allow plants to absorb a WIDER range of SOLAR energy.

factors towards soil loss, EROSION WEATHERING SALINIZATION

salinization and erosion , physical water break down into smaller bit larger SA

This suggests that the small leaf size is actually an adaptation to ?? in both hot and cool environments, and the fact that small leaves can better ?? in the hot environments may be a valuable secondary benefit.

scarce water, dissipate heat

stomata

small openings on leaf surfaces that are points of entry for CO2 and exit points for water vapor; bordered by GUARD cells that open and close each stoma. Stomata stop excess transpiration so plants do not wilt. -too hot=stomata close so not wilting, most temperate days left open

problem w high solute concentration in salinization, which regions affected most

soil can have such a high solute concentration that many crop plants cannot create a lower water potential than the soil and therefore cannot obtain sufficient water. prob w plants beating more neg water potential prob w salinization for plants is water potential While it is possible to reverse the salinization of soil, it can be costly and take many years. In biomes that receive modest to high annual rainfall, widespread irrigation is not needed for crops and high annual rainfall flushes salts out of the soil, making salinization uncommon arid maybe affect most

One way for endotherms to gain heat is from ? The rate of metabolism required to maintain a particular body temperature increases in ? proportion to the difference between the temperature of the body and the temperature of the environment how endotherms and ectotherms REGULATE their metabolism and body temperatures under more extreme environmental conditions through a number of DORMANCY mechanisms

solar radiation, conduction, or convection. OR METAB HEAT ON OWN DIRECT INCREASE BW TEMP BODY AND ENVIRO how endotherms and ectotherms regulate their metabolism and body temperatures under more extreme environmental conditions through a number of dormancy mechanisms, AS WAY TO THERMOREGULATE WO LOSIGN ENERGY This loss of heat, particularly from exposed extremities, works against the maintenance of a constant warm body temperature. Ectotherms and endotherms have evolved a number of adaptations to minimize the impact of chilled EXTREMITIES

he osmotic potential of an aqueous solution depends ON?

solute concentration , he force with which an aqueous solution attracts water by osmosis

Spatial vs. temporal variation pic , which phenomena comparing time vs space of event

spatial dimension of events taken in km including deep circulation, being largest and not chaining much continuing for millennia -ocean gyres=centuries -eddies=decades -coastal fronts=years marine and atmospheric events comparing spatial vs temporal dimensions atmospheric (longest to shortest): -monsoon (only years), long waves, cyclonic systems (months), , hurricanes, and front and squalls, and thunderstorms(days) cali atmos river=long wave?

water becomes less abundant, such as when plants take up some of the water from the soil, the ? potential of the soil particles becomes stronger., For plants to extract water from the soil, they must produce a water potential that is ? than that of the soil. wilts if not matching potential

strong potential than soil in plants, matric of soil stronger bc water left more tightly packed . As soils dry out, they hold the remaining water ever more tightly. If a plant cannot counteract the matrix potential with a stronger water potential in the plant, it wilts, desert plants adapt strong potential

B horizon

subsoil further pushing minerals and nutrients C is parent rock

Weathering is the Physical and Chemical alteration of rock material near Earth's surface. It occurs whenever? penetrates the parent material In cold climates, for example, the repeated freezing and thawing of water in crevices cause the rock to break into smaller pieces and expose a greater ? of the rock to chemical reactions The ? chemical alteration of the rock occurs when water ? some of the more ? ?,

surface water penetrate parent material , water dissolves minerals and crack rock open for more SA exposed initial alteration, water dissolves initial soluble minerals (na and cl_ from rock before chem rxn continue soil building

Water movement in plants by cohesion and tension. Differences in water potential, also known as ?,cause water to move from there is insufficient water moving into the roots to replace the water lost from the leaves. HOW OD CAM plants prevent oxygen buildup

tension from gradient water potential diffuse out stoma from mesophyll soil into the roots, from the roots into the stem, and from the stem into the leaves., cohesion alone like 20 m into the air bc gravity and root pressure oppoe ultimate goal= replace the water lost from the leaves., must come from roots During the day, they breakdown the malate and use the released CO2 through Calvin cycle to produce sugars, similar to C3 plants. So, CAM plants releases oxygen during night. moves in root by osmosis, then into xylem in root

=completely devoid of oxygen, it is referred to as anaerobic, or anoxic. Anaerobic conditions pose problems for

terrestrial plants rooted in waterlogged soils, such as the many species of mangrove trees that live along coastal mudflats maybe in marsh, swamp, bog

cation exchange capacity

the ability of a particular soil to absorb and release cations, clay holds in order to deliver ions to soil so nutrients stay in soil in more temperate climates

When gravity drains the water in soil, how does gravity relate to field potential? Matric potential does what as plant extract more water from the soil? gravity and plants now decreasing pressure

the matric potential drops to -0.01 MPa. The maximum amount of water held by soil against the force of gravity is the field capacity of the soil. start saturated-->gravity, new max of water held by soil has neg pressure -becoming harder for plants extracting this water Past ~-1.5 MPa, known as the wilting point, most plants cannot extract more water. -decreasing pressure means

Transpiration

the process by which LEAVES can generate WATER POTENTIAL as water evaporates from the surfaces of leaf cells. cycle to pull up more water

Thermal inertia:

the resistance to a change in temperature due to a large body VOLUME—>Larkin vs house , warmer interior

eluviation what moves down

the washing out of fine soil components from the A horizon topsoil by downward-percolating water water down pull mineral out left w actual particles formed Weathering. Weathering of rocks and soil is the primary way that clays and clay minerals form at the Earth's surface today.Apr 1, 2009 -rain water normally pushing salt out -pumping water up from soil itself 2 irrigate, increase salt til hard to grow

As we will see later in this chapter and the following chapter, some organisms are considered to be heterotherms, which means?

their body temperature is sometimes maintained to be relatively constant and at other times is a product of the surrounding environmental temperature.

Cohesion-tension theory

theory that explains how the physical properties of water allow it to move through the xylem of plants LOW water potential from transpiration creates tension that draws water up through the xylem against GRAVITY and the high OSMOTIC potential of root cells. NEED TENSION FROM TRANSPIRATION MAKING MORE NEG PRESSURE, PLUS COHESIONNOT BREAKING DOWN the mechanism of water movement from roots to leaves due to water cohesion and water tension. max 130 M seen in sequoias and redwoods-->based on cohes0tension

adaptations that allow them to survive cold ocean temperatures,

thick layers of fat, high metabolism, countercurrent circulation

A horizon

topsoil

Photosynthesis occurs in X steps? generally takes place where? WHERE E- FREED FROM? LIGTH REACTION RELEASE WHAT?

two steps, known as light reactions and the Calvin cycle. light reactions-->pass ATP and NADPH to Calvin cycle (bc they're high energy) C3 shown in diagram The CHLOROPLAST is involved in both stages of photosynthesis. The LIGHT reaction takes place in the thylakoid DISCS. There, water (H20) is oxidized, and oxygen (O2) is released. The electrons freed up from water are transfered to ATP and NADPH.

COHES-TENSION IDEA: The movement of water is due to both: AND DESCRIBE MVOEMENT FROM?

water cohesion and water tension (which is another name for differences in water potential) ROOT TO LEAF MOVEMENT, root stem and leaf

The movement of water in the ? can be described in terms of its , which is a measure of the potential energy of the water and indicates its tendency to move from ? area to another. what influences water potential When water is ?, most of the water molecules are ? close to the surfaces of soil particles. . When a saturated soil ?, the force of ? on the water molecules is equally opposed by the attractive force of soil particles on the water molecules

water potential, water move in soil, one area to another depends on several factors that include GRAVITY, PRESSURE, OSMOTIC POTENTIAL (discussed in Chapter 3), and MATRIC POTENTIAL Because electrical charges are responsible for the attraction between water molecules and soil particles, those water molecules closest to the surfaces of soil particles adhere the most strongly. saturated.plentiful, NOT close to surface drains, gravity equally opposed by matric , opposing forces on WATER equal when draining , limit water in soil held vs grav at field capacity,

Photosynthetically active region:

wavelengths of light that are suitable for photosynthesis; includes wavelengths from 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red).

root pressure

when osmotic potential in the roots of a plant draws in water from the soil and forces it into xylem; can raise water to ~20 m. 60 ft high in sky oot pressure, in plants, force that helps to drive fluids upward into the water-conducting vessels (xylem). It is primarily generated by osmotic pressure in the cells of the roots

UREA USED BY WHO? WHAT DOES UREA RETENTION IN BLOOD BALANCE, goal to not take in salty water? hypo osmotic super salty

whereas terrestrial vertebrates generally convert this ammonia to urea, which they then excrete at high concentrations. Interestingly, sharks and rays convert ammonia into urea, Sharks and rays actively retain urea (AQ VERTEBERATE) Doing so raises the osmotic potential of their blood to that of sea water without any increase in the concentrations of sodium and chloride ions. NO REG TRANSPORT, UREA ONLY Consequently, the movement of water across the animal's body surface becomes balanced in relation to the surrounding salt water, with neither gain nor loss. NO NEED TO DRINK WATER BC THIS BALANCE, STILL EXCRETE SOME UREA ADAPTS TO HYPOOSMOTIC CHALLENGE Most aquatic organisms, such as dolphins, excrete this ammonia in their urine.

what this osmotic potential in? that causes water to enter the roots l against the attractive forces of soil particles and the downward pull of gravity. However, root cells possess two adaptations that prevent this equalization in solute concentrations within the root cell and in the soil water to eventually what is typically used to match soil salinity and create lower water potential than the soil?

work vs gravity and matrix to pull up potential in plant roots First, semipermeable cell membranes prevent larger solute molecules from leaving the plant's root Second, cell membranes can actively transport ions and small molecules against a concentration gradient into the root cells. These two adaptations maintain high solute concentrations inside the roots and allow strong osmotic forces to continue. two dif forces allow strong osmotic forces to continue. Plants living in deserts, for example, can extract water that is tightly held by soil particles plants have evolved to increase the concentrations of amino ACIDS, CARBOHYDRATES, or organic acids in their root cells to create higher osmotic forces t ORG COMPOUNDS