Ecosystem management (ENSC)

occurs when linear corridors (ex: roads, powerlines) dissect an area --these roads fragment or dissect the landscape into smaller parcels

internal fragmentation

collaboration often begins when there is some threat: a natural disaster, a loss of a major employer, a legal challenge; in the local community -seek to understand others -listen empathically (active listening) -use many methods for communication -become engaged together -focus interests rather than positions -seek what is held in common -starts small -think big

keys to successful collaboration

important that all interested stakeholders or their chosen reps are invited and participate in ecosystem management -called the principle of inclusivity --helps people with different views recognize and understand their common interest

principles of stakeholder involvement

the explicit and formal steps used in making a management decision (direct and formal steps to make a management decision) -the realm of the administrator, lawyers, and special interest group

process

an interest in understanding how nature works -recognizes that nature is a source of wonder and that seeking to understand nature will help humans understand themselves better --ex: ppl who like to visit natural history museums or watch education tv programs about nature

scientific

amount of change or turnover in species in going from one habitat to the next (the species difference between two habitats, gained or lost) -a high beta richness means that different habitats are supporting very different suites of species, and the cumulative number of species recorded increases rapidly as additional habitats are censused

Beta richness (symbol looks like "B")

trust responsibilities of federal agencies

Example page 224

the smallest population having a certain probability (ex: 99%) of remaining extant (not going extinct) for a certain period of time (ex: 1,000 years), despite the effects of demographic, environmental, genetic, and catastrophic events -the smallest population size needed for a species to not go extinct, when a stochastic event to occur -ex: tornado, forest fire, human activities -strictly numbers does not consider landscape

minimum viable population (MVP)

most commonly used approach to assess the extinction risk of species as well as population viability -deterministic and stochastic forces are apart of the modeling approach

modeling approach

a spiritual and moral affinity for the natural world -assigns near equality to humans and to individual animals and plants, as well as to species and ecosystems -detests the destruction of nature and the mistreatment of animals and plants --ex: people against cruelty and even the use of animals (ex: for clothing or food)

moralistic

includes the spatial characteristics of all the natural and human-created aspects of the environment -ex: roads, towns, neighborhoods, city parks, woodlots and prairie remnants, lakes and reservoirs, agricultural fields, shopping malls, parks, and recreation areas in your town = collectively compose the mosaic of your own region -need to remember two things: (1) a mosaic is not static, it is not fixed in time of the way you remember it; (2) the components of the mosaic are not disconnected and isolated from each other

mosaic

membership to these categories is not always clear, members can fall into multiple categories -ex: mountain gorilla is a flagship or charismatic species, it is also vulnerable, as there are few individuals and they live in a small area subject to civil wars. Species is also economically important bc people pay large sums of money to local guides to see gorillas. Are also an umbrella species, bc the protection of thousands of acres of their mountain habitat means that other species are also protected

multiple categories

a desire to experience the natural world directly -drives people to experience nature for deriving physical, mental, and emotional renewal -time spent on trails, or on the water especially in remote settings with few other people around, satisfies the naturalistic value -spend leisure time or work outdoors

naturalistic

fear, avoidance, and a disdain of nature -regards nature as dangerous and uncertain, raising fear and uncertainty -ppl who prefer to live and play in large cities or other highly controlled environments

negativistic

is appropriate in some cases -ex: forest fire emergency, responsible individuals need to act promptly to protect life and property, without consultation about other concerns that stakeholders might have -ex: regulatory actions firmly grounded in case law that has withstood legal challenges do not require stakeholder action (ex: stopping someone who is spraying illegal toxic chemicals -ability to proceed in these cases has probably been established through a rule-setting or procedure-setting process that included extensive stakeholder involvement in the past

no involvement

the most extensive, most connected, or most influential landscape element of an area -ex: in America midwest; the matrix is agricultural -ex: in Orange county, cali; the matrix is urban -ex: Yellowstone; matrix is coniferous forest -matrix is important in that it can influence ecological processes that may affect biodiversity

matrix

a regional population consisting of a number of spatially discrete pop distributed among habitat fragments and connect via dispersal -is affected to a large degree by birth and death rates within the spatially discrete pop, as well as by how often dispersal occurs among them -birth and death rates are affected by the habitat quality of patches supporting these discrete pops -consist of source populations and sink populations -ex: collection of three separate patches of Crawford State Forest or Sandhill Crane collection of nesting sites -metapop use all of demographic data, some of the landscape, and some of dispersal

metapopulation

alpha richness is the number of species found in each habitat, beta is the number of species unique to each habitat, gamma is the cumulative total for the two habitats -focus of studies is native species -the way species are distributed across a landscape can have implications for land-use decisions

relationship between alpha, beta, and gamma

the networks that develop among individuals with direct or indirect interest in or influence over a management decision -realm of the politician, journalist, entrepreneur and civic leader, who wish to know, trust, and have access to decision makes

relationships

the process of source populations bolstering sink pops through dispersing individuals -at the heart of metapop -encourages managers to be aware of individual pops and the quality of the habitat supporting them -dispersal is mediated by the landscape between the pops -whether the landscape is friendly, benign, or deadly will largely determine whether successful dispersal occurs

rescue effect

nature as a source of imagination and communication -its ability to give us examples of how we might think or act -fairy tales, childrens stories, totems, legends, and religious parables all use nature do describe how the world works, to teach lessons about behavior, and to stimulate our higher purposes --ex: the bald eagle symbolizes American national pride and patriotism

symbolic

a systematic approach to working with people that emphasizes openness and inclusivity -all interested parties can share their concerns and ideas and help develop common solutions to community issues **different types: -interviews with key informants (quick assessment of public sentiment can be completed by informally interviewing key stakeholders in a community) -establish a local office (should be downtown and in the public eye) -electronic communication (explaining the project on the website) -displays and exhibits at local events -informal meetings with community groups -focus groups (a highly directed meeting of selected participants who are homogeneous demographically or in other important characteristics, 5-20 individuals) -workshops (a small meeting, 15-25 participants, that usually lasts several hours; want to generate a specific output) -charette (a form of retreat where important/deeply interested stakeholders spend one or more days in focused deliberation) -town meeting -public meeting (most formal/complex kind of stakeholder involvement)

techniques for stakeholder involvement

what leads to/causes the increase in death rate or decrease in birth rate -usually associated with species environment, need to know in-order-to reverse a species decline -ex: bald eagle, pervasive pesticide contamination throughout much of the species range -falcons accumulated organochlorines by eating birds that had these toxins in their body fat by feeding on invertebrates which in turn had taken up DDT from soil -dealt with this: required action by the US congress, which eventually banned DDT in the US -- today they have reoccupied much of their toric range

ultimate factor

species that, if secure or flourishing, would protect many other species because of its demand for large expanses of habitat -ex: grizzly bear

umbrella species

the material benefits of natural resources -expresses the physical comfort and security that we derive from using nature for food, clothing, shelter, medicine, and all other products and services -most basic and pervasive value of nature

utilitarian

the biological dependence on an affinity that people have to the natural world

values of american toward natural resources - biophilia (defined)

or population, is particularly susceptible to extinction -ex: black-footed ferrets and whooping cranes

vulnerable species

provides easily understood projection of how well a pop is doing because it is an estimate of the population's rate of change -frequently used when modeling MVP -ex: cutthroat trout, a pop contains 150 individuals this year, last year there were 100 individuals --pop grew by 50%, lambda for this pop captures that rate of change: 150 animals this year, divided by 100 animals last year = 1.5 --a value greater that 1 indicates that a species is growing --a value less than 1 indicates that a species is decreasing (ex: 90 divided by 100 = 0.90) --a value of 1 tell us the pop is static, did not change during the time interval between the two surveys -conservation modelers use lambda to determine whether or not a pop they are modeling is increasing --if a pop is greater than 1, then models used to estimate MVP is deterministic or stochastic

Lambda (symbol looks like an upside down y)

the US government holds lands and resources "in trust" for Native Americans and ensures that funds are maintained and expended to enhance the conservation of those lands

Trust Responsibilities

abiotic effects that may impinge on edge-sensitive species include sharp gradients across edges in temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, and moisture -ex: certain plant species evolved in contiguous patches of forest; thrived under a relatively narrow range of ambient temp, wind speeds, and relative humidity --when ecosystems are fragmented, individuals of these species often find themselves in close proximity to an edge --bc wind, moisture, temp, and other abiotic conditions differ along habitat edges when compared with habitat interiors, the fitness of these species is often reduced --many of the species of insects, like butterflies, thrive only in forest interiors, where temp and wind speed are more uniform than those found along forest edges

abiotic effects

a value for the physical attraction and beauty of nature -reflects the inspiration and instruction provided by nature --ex: watching a sunset or viewing a beautiful landscape --ex: hanging a landscape photo in your home

aesthetic

the numbers of species within small habitats -sensitive to area sampled and definition of uniform habitat -ex: the number of songbirds or herbaceous plant species in a coniferous forest stand

alpha richness (symbol looks like "a")

the practitioner experimentally isolates different-sized patches of suitable habitat that contain the species of interest -population size is assumed to be directly related to patch size -populations living in these patches are then monitored over time, and an empirical estimate on how long these different populations persist -smaller patches, populations may quickly go extinct, suggesting these patches did not support populations that would qualify as a minimum viable pop -results provide managers with info about patch size that support populations large enough to ensure that species of conservation concern will persist over time

approaches to estimating MVP (3) - experimental approach

need large area for survival and reproduction -sensitive to habitat frag -a species might have a restricted ecological niche --ex: carnivores have a specialized diet that requires large areas, simply because of their food requirements -other species may be area-sensitive because of seasonal movements --ex: elk in the Rocky Mountains have seasonal movements from summers spent at high elevations to winters in lower elevations -other species are area-sensitive bc of their body size --ex: black bears; eat a broad range of foods and occur in a wide range of habitats **read example, page 173 "a study of rain forest fragments..."

area-sensitive species

some species do evolve with ecosystem edges -species do best when they are associated with edges, and their ability to survive and reproduce are enhanced -they can exert biotic effects on other species -ex: blue jays and american crows are quite effective nest predators of forest songbirds; whereas brown-headed cowbirds are efficient nest parasites of songbirds, not building nests of their own but instead laying their eggs in the nests of other species --jays, crows, and cowbirds qualify as edge-generalist species bc they are more likely to be encountered along an ecosystem edge than in its interior --result may be lower survival and reproduction rate of edge-sensitive species, results in reduced pop

biotic effects - define: edge-generalist species

loss of area, increase in edge, increased isolation of remaining patches

consequences of fragmentation

the process of requesting substantive input form stakeholders at the early stages of thinking about proposed actions -leaders may take a crude proposal to small groups of stakeholders to ask for their help in developing it more fully -may lead diverse stakeholders to commit to specific actions in support of ecosystem management activities

consultation

species on the basis of reproductive (genetic) isolation, was the prevailing species concept for much of the 20th century

define species (2) biological species concept

contain fixed birth and death rates for different age classes, based on the averages of actual birth and death rates measured in the field from wild pop -the only parameter one usually varies is the initial pop size -models give a pop estimate that is then compared with the pop estimate at some earlier time and lambda is determined -if lambda is greater than 1, the pop is increasing and the birth and death rate averages used in the model are those for which a manager can plan -called deterministic because they always give the same population estimate, unless you change the initial pop size or if you change the birth and death rates used in the model -use some of the demographic needs (age class, age of first breeding, mean survival..)

deterministic MVP models

have a limited success in dispersing between isolated patches -third major change following fragmentation: in addition to a decrease in area and an increase in edge, is increased isolate of ecosystem remnants; this affects dispersal-sensitive species -some species are limited in their dispersal ability by their morphology --ex: small seeds can disperse on their own but bigger seeds need to be transported by other species (ants) --ex: desert tortises move too slow to cross a road -other species are physiologically limited in their ability to disperse from one patch to another --ex: eastern chipmunks can only be in the sun for so long before they experience heat stress -some species have behavioral limitations that preclude successful dispersal between isolated patches -they can go between patches but don't because they don't want to or never had to do it before won't start now --studies in North America of birds; birds will cross openings of a limited size and larger birds are more likely than smaller birds to cross gaps, especially large gaps ***ex: page 182, "consider the white-breasted nuthatcher..."

dispersal-sensitive species

the people involved should be a cross-sectional rep of the demography and interests of the community -ex: looking at forest management practices; don't just involve foresters, should also involve: recreationists, hunters, economists, local land owners, members of the forest product industry, preservationists, ecosystem scientists, and many others -if you dont involve some people there is a lack of balance and undoubtedly will backfire

diversity of representation

value for the ability to master and control the natural world - sees enhanced physical and mental fitness through subduing nature, and it strengthens one's security and confidence --ex: hunting or fishing trophies in homes

dominionistic

-process managing for species communities draws on ecosystem science for its inspiration -focus on ecological processes such as flooding, fire, and predator-prey dynamics -if bring back ecological process natural diversity will benefit -ex: reinstatement of fire to fire-dependent ecosystems --US forest service are allowing fires to burn or are starting prescribed fires to mimic the historical fire regime of ecosystem; requires knowing the fire interval, time of year when fires naturally occur, and average fire-patch size --ex: US department of the Interior recently used flooding at the Grand Canyons to reestablish riverine geomorphology and biological parameters below a damn by releasing large amounts of water to mimic a natural flood event

ecological process approach

species that has positive or negative consequences for local, regional, or national economy -ex: elk, zebra mussels, Komodo dragons

economically important species

phenomenon whereby some species are negatively affected near habitat edges -fitness is reduced near edge -when ecosystems become increasingly fragmented, see a reduction in species ability to survive and reproduce

edge effect

edge effects have impacts at variable distances from edges into ecosystem remnants -ex: each species is different (ex: raccoons vs. brown-headed cowbird predation) -ex: the abiotic factors differ (ex: temperature at a forest edge vs. the relative humidity) -ex: humans have different depth-of-edge effects depending on their activities -patches of equal area may vary considerably in the amount of area exposed to edge effects --ex: two ecosystem remnants of the same size but different shapes; rectangle vs. circle --the rectangle faces more edge effect, all of it has edge effect --the circle has some areas that do not experience edge effect, has some "non-edge habitat ***ex on page 179, "a study of songbirds in woodlots..."

edge-effect distances and patch shape

one whose fitness is reduced near habitat edges -decrease the fitness of species senstive to ecosystem edges

edge-sensitive species

the kikapoo valley program

example: page 221

result from factors that, unless checked, will unquestionably result in the disappearance of a population -ex: continuous deforestation and logging --if deforestation of old-growth forests and the conversion of deserts to houses continues, there will be an ever-increasing list of species whose fate is in jeporady

extinction types (2) deterministic forces

species that elicits emotional feelings from individuals, including a willingness to contribute financially to the species' well-being or otherwise support their protection -ex: whales, tigers, and elephants

flagship or charismatic species

the number of species within a region (i.e., the cumulative number of species observed in all habitats of a region) -all the patches combined together -ex: the number of songbirds or herbaceous plant species on the Colorado plateau

gamma richness (symbol looks like "y")

ex: many of our present day food crops have a very narrow base of genetic variation and may be vulnerable to disease, global climate change, or other environmental stressors -the wild ancestors are still in existence and are reservoirs of genetic diversity that could prove extraordinarily useful to human agricultural endeavors as unique sources of genetic variation

genetic diversity - different populations may contain unique genetic diversity this diversity is a resource that if lost cannot be recovered

ex: a high-elevation population of a tree frog species would be expected to be better adapted to cold temps than a low-elevation population (and vise versa) -a population of shrubs living on the edge of an estuary would be expected to be more salt-tolerant than one well in-land, next to a mountain stream

genetic diversity - different populations may contain unique local adaptations not found elsewhere

when a species disappears form a system, it may seem to be a populational extinction if the species exists elsewhere, but that function is no longer performed there -ex: wasp and fig tree species in the new world tropics that have a tight pollination relationship: a given wasp species pollinates only a single specie of fig tree. if that wasp disappears from a valley where the fig occurs, though the wasp is elsewhere, the biological function is missing and the fig trees will not get pollinated -biodiversity needs to be conserved at all levels not just the species level

genetic diversity - organisims perform functions in their local ecosystems

the conversion of contiguous native vegetation into remnant patches for human use -ex: landscape-wide conversion of native grasslands to agricultural crops -overtime grasslands are converted to agricultural crops; the grassland ecosystem is fragmented leaving only grassland patches

habitat fragmentation

the objects that we see are manifestations of perfect forms, and any variance in those objects is due merely to imperfections - unfortunate deviations from the type -mean or average form is what counts, and any variance around that mean is "noise", largely to be ignored

how to describe variation (2) typological view

include all conditions associated with human activities along edges, such as pets, weapons, and disturbances from human activities and structures -bc we fragment most landscapes, humans are in high densities associated with edges -housing is a habitat fragmentation, but human activities have impacts that cause edges far away from the home --include: pets, yard lights, activities such as play, lawn mowing, and altering backyard habitat through birdbaths, feeders, and nest boxes

human effects

a strong affection for and emotional attachment to the natural world -expresses the human need to develop a sense of connection and kinship with nature and living objects --ex: having a pet in your home - especially more exotic ones (reptiles or birds); those who visit zoos

humanistic

indicative of particular conditions in a system (ranging from natural to degraded) and used as a surrogate measure for other species or particular conditions -ex: darters and stoneflies in a stream, indicate good water quality

indicator species

whose effect on the structure of a biological community is well out of proportion to its relative biomass - the addition or removal of a keystone species has larger effects on the richness and relative abundance of many other species -ex: gopher tortoises, inhabitant of the southeastern US coastal plain is a keystone because the burrows it digs have been found to harbor many other species of vertebrates and invertebrates --burrows may be especially important in protecting species from frequent fires that were historically prevalent in this region -ex: yellowstone wolves

keystone species

-patterns draws on the discipline of landscape ecology for its stimulus -focuses on landscape patterns rather than processes, manages landscape elements in such a way as to collectively influence groups of species in a desired direction --topography, hills -ex: a mixture of old-growth forest stands that are large, less edgy, and more connected - managing for species communities --managed for old age, large area, and minimal edge ---manged so that ecosystem remnants are more connected by movement corridors -assumes by managing a landscape for its components, the naturally occurring species will persist

landscape approach

is an agreement among stakeholders to pursue mutual goals with shared assets of time, money, equipment, or authority -also called participation in many management texts; stakeholders are given the formal authority to actually decide what will be done -represents the highest degree of stakeholder involvement and will require the largest investments of time, money, and energy by each partner

limited partnership

-many species are not endangered so protection is not given -due to the amount of species, could be expensive -not enough managers, community level management is not taught (usually species) --want to protect bald eagle, not protect the habitat it needs -mostly focused on species but should be focused on entire communities --challenge is that most of the species within a community will not be extinct

managing for species communities - challenges

a form of "good neighbor" policy in which an individual, organization, or agency although having the legal authority to act without consulting stakeholders, chooses to inform them of planned activities -ex: a decision by a land trust to conduct timber harvest on a portion of its holdings would probably be received better by neighbors, members, and the press if they are informed about the rationale, scope, and legality of the harvest before its begun

notification

examines populations of a species over time in habitats of different sizes, but not habitats that were created experimentally, as in the experimental approach -if pop inhabit patches of diff sizes and have diff persistence times, one can use the info to deduce a viable pop -assumes that pops are at equilibrium and that pop size is solely a function of patch size and not due to differences in other patch attributes, both unlikely assumptions -it monitors real pops of diff sizes over time -measures pops in naturally occurring habitat patches, not on experimentally delineated ones -ex: used to estimate the minimum pop size of bighorn sheep, necessary to persist overtime --bighorn sheep pops occurring on different-sized mountain ranges in cali, colorado, nevada, new mexico, and texas have been monitored by state wildlife agencies for decades

observational approach

defines species according to patterns of ancestry and descent and shared derived characters, has gained popularity

phylogenetic species concept

the science of model development to estimate extinction risk and closely related parameters such as Ne (reproducing population) --look for: age of breeding, life span, genetic diversity levels, likelihood of environmental events -models designed to estimate a species extinction risk --ex: bog turtle - breed when they're older, don't have long life span and are at risk for extinction -uses demographic data about the species

population viability analysis (PVA)

objects in nature, including individuals that constitute what we perceive of as species, occur in a continuum of variation and that this variation is in fact meaningful -focus on the variance around that mean, which can be substantial -variation is the raw material for evolutionary change and natural selection -not all variance is from genetics, some is from environmental factors --key is to know the difference and how that variation occurred ---changes how we would approach it

populational view

human uses alter small patches within an area of natural vegetation -when small openings (ex: housing, forest clear cuts) are created within otherwise contiguous habitat -housing plots or campsite in the forest

preforation

used to seek stakeholder reaction to proposed activity; by exposing their ideas to open review, decision makers signal that, although they may have narrowed the possible options somewhat, they are still open to improving their plans -often used to gauge stakeholder preference among several options for actions -ex of review and comment: public meetings, workshops, surveys, press reports, media stories, and on-site visits

review and comment

-every stakeholder decides their own involvement -based on their interests and comfort or discomfort with how something is being handled

self-selection

the immediate cause for the decline and is usually related to a decreased birth rate, an increased birth rate, or both -if uncorrected these effects may cause a population to decline to the point where extinction is inevitable unless drastic actions are taken -ex: bald eagle in north america was a decrease in birth rates

single species management (2) proximate factor

a habitat supporting a spatially discrete pop in which mortality exceeds productivity -populations in which death rates exceed birth rates --will go extinct without management intervention or individuals dispersing into the populations

sink population

a population in which productivity exceeds morality -a self-sustaining pop capable of producing individuals that may disperse to other populations -are spatially discrete pops in which birth rates exceed death rates -large self-sustaining pop

source population

incorporate the actual location of organisms and suitable patches of habitat -looks at the rough landscape, and locations of organisms (ex: Mountains being a barrier) -also explicitly consider the movement of organisms among such patches across real landscapes -are dependent upon GIS (geographic information system) -grid cell based or individual based -use demographic data, landscape data, and dispersal data (all of them) -the most accurate because it has the most data

spatially explicit models

-critical animal concentrates on the manipulation of demographic variables (such as birth/death rates) of a single species that affects a larger number of species --geared at the species that is causing problem for other species -ex: salmon --salmon; pacific salmon die in glacier-fed rivers, their carcasses provide a rich food source for a wide array of scavenging species (eagles, bears, crows, gulls and ravens) --as salmon runs decline or are replaced b hatcheries, the community of scavenging species is no longer sustained and experiences a decline in its members --salmon are keystone species; they have a disproportionate impact on communities of other species, relative to their biomass

species approach

many species are not limited in their ability to disperse but experience human imposed barriers -ex: seeing animal remains on road sides (deer, raccoons, turtles) --ex: white-tailed deer; more likely to encounter humans, their pets, and cars, as well as human activities that result in their death

species that are not impacted by dispersal

as the ecosystem area increases, the number of species increases -increased -with increasing area, there is a greater likelihood of ecosystem heterogeneity, topographic diversity, and different habitat types (thus increasing beta richness) --increasing heterogeneity cause more species because there are more niches available --increasing patch size, there is an increasing likelihood of dispersing individuals encountering the patch -chance of MVP, increase number of area-sensitive species

species-area relationship

anyone who has an interest in the topic at hand and wishes to participate in decision making -people who live, work, play, or worship near an ecosystem -people interested in the resource, its uses, its use, or its non-use -people interested in the processes used to make decisions --some care deeply that all the legal requirements are met before a decision is made -people who pay the bills --taxpayers, fishers with liscences -people who represent citizens or are legally responsible for public resources --include elected and appointed officials

stakeholder

-primary info: the name of the individual or group; affiliation, principal members/leaders, contact info -general characteristics: formal/informal mission and interests; related activities in other places or on projects; size and scope of influence (ex: membership, employment, land area) formal or informal authority over activity -interests: future outcome likely to be desired by stakeholders, in both the short term and long term -probable levels of involvement: the ways in which stakeholders may wish to participate in the activity -stakeholder needs: what stakeholder will require in order to participate, ranging from basic info to an invitation to take a leadership role

stakeholder analyses

-the more a stakeholder cares the more they will participate --low orbit, closer to the issue -less care = high orbit -stakeholders change their orbits as the issue impacts them differently

stakeholder orbits

incorporate uncertainty into the model. uses average birth and death rates and by not including genetic and environmental stochasticity, deterministic models fail to acknowledge the variation that is part of any real population existing in nature -enable you to incorporate uncertainty, that is they allow the natural variation in data to express itself -use most of the demographic data

stochastic MVP model

result of random events such as demographic changes, the loss of genetic diversity, or unusual environmental factors like an extremely cold winter, a wet spring, or a dry summer -may also result from catastrophic demographic, environmental, human -stochastic extinctions usually occur for populations that are small or already reduced by deterministic forces

stochastic forces

the technical and factual content of a situation -the realm of the scientist and technician, for whom data collection and analysis are fulfilling and compelling -relative importance of said facts vary by issue and stakeholder interest

substance

substance, process, relationship -the concept that successful collaboration share these three components -reason we think about the human dimension and stakeholder involvement in ecosystem management

success triangle