Ed Psych Chapter 4: Learner Differences and Learning Needs

The idea that people vary in what we call ____ has been with us for a long time. ___ discussed similar variations over 2,000 years ago. Most early theories about the nature of intelligence involved one or more of the following three themes: (1) the capacity to _____; (2) the total ____ a person has acquired; and (3) the ability to adapt successfully to ___ situations and to the _____ in general.

Intelligence Learn Knowledge New Environment

Gardner's MI Theory has not received wide acceptance in the scientific community, even though many educators have embraced it. The eight intelligences have criticisms, such as that they are not _____, and there separate abilities may not be so ____ after all. In addition, some critics suggest that several intelligences are really _____ or personality traits. So, there is not yet strong research that adopting a multiple intelligences approach will ____ learning.

Independent Separate Talents Enhance

While Howard Gardner was a developmental psychologist doing research with two very different groups- artistically gifted students and patients with brain injuries- he started thinking about a new theory of _____. Gardner concluded that there are several separate mental abilities, and developed his now-famous _____ that describes at least ____ separate intelligences.

Intelligence Theory of Multiple Intelligences 8

Two major groups are considered for Section 504 accommodations: students with ___ or health needs, and students with _________. Through Section 504, all school-age children are ensured an _____ opportunity to participate in school activities

Medical ADHD Equal

Emotional disturbances (ED) that involve inappropriate behaviors, unhappiness, or depression, fears, and anxieties, and trouble with relationships. The APA refers to these behavioral difficulties as ____

Mental Disorders

If classmates know that a student has intellectual disabilities, once called _____, they will be more willing to accept his or her behaviors. However, labels probably both _____ and ____ students.

Mental Retardation Stigmatize Help Harm

Fluid Intelligence

Mental efficiency, nonverbal abilities grounded in brain development.

In response to these criticisms of the MI theory, defenders say that the critics have a very ____ view of intelligence and research about intelligence. Gardner has responded to them by identifying a number of myths, misconceptions, and misuses related to multiple intelligences theory and schooling. Intelligences are not the same as ______.

Narrow Learning Styles

From infancy through the preschool years, most studies find few differences between boys and girls in overall mental and motor development or in specific abilities. During the school years and beyond, psychologists find ____ differences in general intelligence on the standard measures- these tests have been designed and standardized to minimize sex differences. However, scores on tests of specific abilities show ___ differences.

No Sex

In most studies of sex differences, race and ethnicity are ___ taken into account. Several recent international _____ (analyses that combine data from many different studies on the same topics) have found few differences in mathematics achievement for boys and girls. Nowhere has the _____ debate raged so hard as in the area of ____.

Not Meta-Analyses Nature VS Nurture Intelligence

Anxiety Disorders

Occur when students experience an overwhelming sense of fear or dread.

Even though there are many good tests and careful procedures for identifying students with disabilities and using labels properly, racial and ethnic minority students are _____ in the disability categories and ______ in gifted programs.

Overrepresented Underrepresented

Another way of showing respect to individuals with disabilities is to use "____" language. The individual has many characteristics and abilities, and to focus on the disability is to _____ the individual. An alternative is "_____" language or speaking of "students with a behavior disorder" or "students placed at risk".

Person-First Misrepresent Person-First

For English speaking students, these difficulties appear to be _____ - problems with relating sounds to letters that make up words, making spelling hard as well. For Chinese, they seem to be ____ or the ability to combine morphemes into words (the smallest units of meaning that make sense alone). Math, both computation and problem solving, is the second most common problem area for learning disabilities.

Phonemic Awareness Morphological Awareness

We saw that intelligence tests originally were developed, in part, to protect the rights of children poorer families who might be denied an education on the false grounds that they weren't able to learn. We also saw that intelligence tests ____ school success equally accurately for students of different races and income levels. Even so, these tests can _____ be free of cultural context, so they always will have some biases built in. Intelligence is a current state of affairs, affected by ___ experiences and open to ____ changes.

Predict Not Past Future

Learning Preferences

Preferred ways of studying and learning, such as using pictures instead of text, working with other people versus alone, learning in structured or in unstructured situations, and so on.

The IEP must state in writing... 1) The students ___ level of academic achievement and functional performance (PLAAFP) 2) Annual ______ 3) A statement of specific special education and related ___ to be provided 4) An ____ of how much of the program WILL NOT be in the general classroom 5) A statement about how the student will participate in _____ assessments 6) Ages 14-16, a statement of needed ____ services to move the student toward further education.

Present Goals Services Explanation State Transitional

Learning Disability

Problem with acquisition and use of language; may show up as difficulty with reading, writing, reasoning, or math.

Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence

A three-part description of the mental abilities (thinking processes, coping with new experiences, and adapting to context) that lead to more or less intelligent behavior.

Mood Disorders

Depression Bipolar

General Intelligence (g)

A general factor in cognitive ability that is related in varying degrees to performance on all mental tests.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

Educating each child with peers in the regular classroom to the greatest extent possible.

Section 504

A part of civil rights law that prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in programs that receive federal funds, such as public schools.

Language differences are not necessarily language ____.

Disorders

Speech Disorder

Inability to produce sounds effectively for speaking -articulation problems and fluency disorders (stuttering) are 2 most common problems

Ever since IQ tests were introduced in the early 1900's, scores in ___ different industrialized countries and in some more traditional cultures have been rising. The Flynn effect was named after ______. One result of the Flynn effect is that the norms used to determine scores have to be ______ revised.

20 James Flynn Continually

All children show some of these behaviors some of the time, but children with ADHD are likely to have some of the symptoms before age ___ and they occur across many ____, leading to problems learning and getting along with others. These problems can even persist into ____ for at least half of those with ADHD. There is strong and consistent evidence that behavioral treatments are ____ for treating ADHD.

7 Settings Adulthood Effective

Gifted programs have only about ___% each of African American and Latina/o students, even though these students compromise about ___% and 20% of the school populations respectively.

8% 13%

Zero Reject

A basic principle of IDEA specifying that no student with a disability, no matter what kind or how severe, can be denied a free public education.

Handicap

A disadvantage in a particular situation, sometimes caused by a disability.

Intelligence Five: Bodily-Kinesthetic

Abilities to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully Dancer, Athlete

Intelligence Three: Musical

Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness Composer, Violinist

Intelligence Eight: Naturalist

Abilities to recognize plants and animals, to make distinctions in the natural world, to understand systems and define categories (perhaps even categories of intelligence) Botanist, Farmer, Hunter

Intelligence

Ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world.

Crystallized Intelligence

Ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods. -application to new domains

Intelligence Seven: Intrapersonal

Access to one's own feelings and the ability to discriminate among them and draw on them to guide behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence Person with detailed, accurate self-knowledge

Applying Metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components allows individuals to solve problems in different situations and to develop three kinds of successful intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical. ______ involves applying these components to situations with relatively familiar problems. ____ is necessary to cope successfully with new experiences in two ways: using _____ and _____. The third part of the theory is ________, highlights the importance of choosing an environment in which you can succeed, adapting to that environment, and reshaping if necessary.

Analytic Intelligence Creative Intelligence Insight Automaticity Practical Intelligence

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

Annually revised program for exceptional students, detailing present achievement level, goals, and strategies, drawn up by teachers, parents, specialists, and the student if possible.

Eating Disorders

Anorexia Bulimia

Articulation Disorders

Any of a variety of pronunciation difficulties, such as the substitution, distortion, or omission of sounds.

Having more knowledge about the student and his or her circumstances outside of school should help teachers make better decisions about what programs are _____.

Appropriate

Flynn Effect

Because of better health, smaller families, increased complexity in the environment, and more and better schooling, IQ test scores are steadily rising.

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Behaviors or emotions that deviate so much from the norm that they interfere with the child's own growth and development and/or the lives of others- inappropriate behaviors, unhappiness or depression, fears, and anxieties, and trouble with relationships.

Gardner believes that intelligence has a ______ base. An intelligence is a "bio psychological potential to process information in certain ways in order to solve problems or create products that are valued in at least one culture or community.

Biological

Intelligence Six: Interpersonal

Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people. Therapist, Salesman

Intelligence Four: Spatial

Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions. Navigator, Sculptor

Learning Styles

Characteristic approaches to learning and studying

Every state in the U.S. has a ____ system to alert and educate the public about services for children with disabilities and to distribute useful information.

Child Find

For many years, researches have examined individual differences in "styles". Zhang and Sternberg organize the work on individual styles into three traditions. _____ styles assess the ways people process information, by being reflective or impulsive. ______ styles assess more stable personality traits such as being extroverted versus being introverted or relying on thinking versus feeling. ______ styles assess a combination of cognition and personality traits. One theme in activity-centered approaches is the differences between surface and deep approaches to processing information in learning situations. _____ approach focus on memorizing the learning materials, not understanding them. _______ approach see the learning activities as a means for understanding some underlying concepts or meanings.

Cognitive-Centered Styles Personality-Centered Styles Activity-Centered Styles Surface Processing Deep Processing

Because of these persistent intercorrelations, some psychologists believe intelligence is a basic ability that affects performance on all ______ oriented tasks, from solving mathematical problems to analyzing poetry to taking history essay examinations.

Cognitively

Today, attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is ____. The number of children with this is _ in 10. Hyperactivity is not one particular condition, but two kinds of problems that may or may not occur together- attention disorders and impulsive hyperactivity problems.

Common

As you can see, the theories of Spearman and Cattell and Horn, Carroll, and Gardner tend to describe how individuals differ in the ___ of intelligence-different abilities. Work in cognitive psychology has emphasized instead the ________ that is common to all people.

Content Information Processing

Labeling students is a _____ issue. A label does not tell which methods to us with ______ students. Everyone- teachers, parents, classmates, and even the students themselves- may see a label as a ____ that cannot be changed.

Controversial Individual Stigma

Voicing Problems

Inappropriate pitch, quality, loudness, or intonation

Even though the IDEA legislation does not use the word ___ today, the LRE is assumed to be inclusion as much as possible.

Inclusion

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Current term for disruptive behavior disorders marked by over activity, excessive difficulty sustaining attention, or impulsiveness.

After 20 years of work on his multiple intelligences theory, Gardner believes two lessons are most important for teachers: that teachers should take the individual ____ among students seriously and differentiate their instruction to connect with each student, and secondly, any discipline, skill, or concept should be taught in several ____ ways. These two big ideas should ____ educational interventions, but Gardner stresses that his theory is not itself an educational _____.

Differences Appropriate Guide Intervention

Two general approaches, preferably used together, are highly effective for students with learning disabilities. The first is ____, with clear expectations and demonstrations of new material, teaching in small steps with practice after each step, immediate feedback, and teacher guidance/ support. The second is _____, specific rules for focusing attention and accomplishing tasks, such as _____ (Topic Sentence, Reasons, Ending, Examine). These strategies have to be taught using good direct instruction- explanation, examples, and practice with ____>

Direct Instruction Strategy Instruction TREE Feedback

Disruptive behavior disorders include 3 types: _______- characterized by inattention, high activity _____- students are defiant with adults _______ - when students fight, bully, display cruelty

Disruptive Behavior Disorders ADHD Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) Conduct Disorders

Crystallized intelligence can ______ throughout the life span because it includes learned skills and knowledge such as reading, facts, and how to hail a cab, make a quilt, or design a unit on symbolism in poetry.

Increase

Most psychologists believe there are both physiological and _____ bases for learning disabilities, such as brain injury, exposure to toxins before birth, etc. ____ plays a role as well. If parents have a learning disability, their children have a ___% to ___% chance of having a learning disability too. Students with these though, are not ____ alike. The most common characteristics are specific difficulties in one or more academic area; poor coordination, problems paying attention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, problems organizing and interpreting visual and auditory info, seeming lack of motivation and difficulties making and keeping friends. But, not all students with these will have these problems, and very few will have ___. Most students with learning disabilities though have difficulties ___.

Environmental Genetics 30-50% All All Reading

Scoring higher on IQ tests is related to school achievement for children in all ___ groups. But standard IQ tests measure only analytic IQ, not practical or ____ IQ. IQ test scores can provide some prediction of achievement, but if measures of self-regulated learning skills, practical intelligence, and creativity are included, more accurate predictions are likely. People with higher intelligence test scores tend to complete _____ years of school and to have higher-status jobs. However, when the number of years of education is held ____, the correlation deceases between IQ scores, income, and success in later life.

Ethnic Creative More Constant

Beware of either/or comparisons : It is impossible to separate intelligence " in the genes", from intelligence "due to ___". Today, most psychologists believe that differences in intelligence are the result of ___ heredity and environment, probably in about ___ proportions for children.

Experience Both Equal

Raymond Cattell and John Horn's Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence is more helpful in providing _______.

Explanations

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA)

Federal legislation prohibiting discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, transportation, public access, local government, and telecommunications

Long assignments may overwhelm students with learning disabilities and attention deficits, so give them a __ problems or paragraphs at a time with clear consequences for completion. Rather than treating the problem child, David Nylund's SMART approach enlists the child's ____ to conquer his or her problems- to put the child in control. Students with communication disorders who are between the ages of 6-21 are the second largest group served by special _____.

Few Strengths Education

Integration

Fitting the child with special needs into existing class structures

It is important that we do not create _____ for people by the way we react to their ______. _____ came from the phrase "cap-in-hand", used to describe people with disabilities who once were forced to beg just to survive. We can think of all human characteristics as being on a _____, for instance, from very acute hearing to complete deafness.

Handicaps Disabilities Handicap Continuum

There are three major points of interest to parents and teachers of the IDEA: the concept of "least restrictive placement", the individualized education program (___), and the protection of the rights of both students with disabilities and their parents.

IEP

The concept of ___ was added after Binet's test was brought to the U.S> and revised at Stanford University to give us the Stanford-Binet Test. An IQ score was computed by comparing the mental age score to the person's actual chronological age. Formula was IQ= Mental Age/ Chronological Age X100

IQ

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

In Gardner's Theory of Intelligence, a person's eight separate abilities: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist

Mental Age

In intelligence testing, a performance that represents average abilities for that age group. -EX: A child who succeeded on the items passed by most 6 year olds was considered to have a mental age of 6, regardless of whether the child is actually 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA)

Latest amendment of PL 94-142; guarantees a free public education to all children regardless of disability.

There is one learning styles distinction that has research to support. Richard Mayer is finding that there is a visualizer-verbalizer dimension and that it has three facets: Cognitive Spatial Ability (low or high), Cognitive Style (visualizer versus verbalizer), and ____ (visual learner versus verbal learner). So, before you try to accommodate all your students' learning styles, remember that students, especially younger ones, may not be the ___ judges of how they should learn. Preference for a particular style does not ___ that using the style will be effective.

Learning Preference Best Guarantee

Psychologists also have developed group tests that can be given to whole classes or schools, but compared to individual tests, a group test is much ____ likely to yield an accurate picture of any one person's abilities.

Less

Learning Preferences is a more accurate label because most the research describes preferences for particular learning environments- for example, where, when, with whom, or with what lighting, food, or music, you ___ to study. The reason researchers roll their eyes at learning styles research is the utter failure to find that assessing children's learning styles and matching to instructional methods has ___ effect on their learning.

Like Any

The eight intelligences in multiple intelligence (MI) theory are ____ (verbal), musical, spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic (movement), interpersonal (understanding others), intrapersonal (understanding self), and naturalist (observing and understanding natural and human-made patterns and systems). Gardner stresses that there may be a ____ intelligence and an existential intelligence- the abilities to contemplate big questions about the meaning of life.

Linguistic Spiritual

Sternberg believes the processes involved in intelligence are universal for humans. These processes are defined in terms of components- elementary information processes that are classified by the functions they serve and by how general they are. There are at least three different functions served. The first function- higher-order planning, strategy selection, and monitoring is performed by _______ (sometimes called executive processes). A second function- implementing the strategies selected- is handled by ______, such as taking notes to focus attention in class. The third function- gaining new knowledge- is performed by ___ such as separating relevant from irrelevant information as you try to understand a new concept.

Metacomponents Performance Components Knowledge- Acquisition Components

One of the early explanations for learning disabilities was ____ brain dysfunction. It is difficult to determine exactly which came first, the learning problems, or the _____. Quite a bit of research on learning problems has focused on working ____, partly because working memory capacity is a good predictor of a range of cognitive skills, including language understanding, reading and mathematics abilities, and fluid intelligence. Almost one-_____ of all students receiving some kind of special education services in the public schools are diagnosed as having learning disabilities- by far the largest category of students with disabilities.

Minimal Brain Differences Memory Half

Learning styles probably are a minor factor in learning: factors such as teaching strategies and social connections in classrooms likely play ______ larger roles. Even though much of the work on matching learning styles and preferences to teaching is suspect, with unreliable measures and inflated claims, there is some value in thinking about learning styles. First, by helping students think about how they learn, you can develop thoughtful self-monitoring and ______. Second, it might help teachers appreciate, accept, and ___ student differences and differentiate instruction.

Much Self-Awareness Accommodate

Free, appropriate public education (FAPE)

Public funding to support appropriate educational programs for all students, no matter what their needs.

Deviation IQ

Score based on a statistical comparison of an individual's performance with the average performance of others in that age group. - A number that tells exactly how much above or below the average a person scored on the test, compared to others in the same age group.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Score comparing mental and chronological ages

Intelligence Two: Linguistic

Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language Poet, Journalist

Intelligence One: Logical- Mathematical

Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasons. Scientist, Mathematician

A better way to use the MI theory is to focus on ___Entry points- narrative, logical-quantitative, aesthetic, experimental, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and existential/foundational- in designing curriculum.

Six

In 1904, Alfred Binet was confronted with the following problem by the minister of public instruction in Paris: How can students who will need _______ and extra help be identified early in their school careers, before they fail in regular classes? Binet and his collaborator Theodore Simon wanted to measure not merely school achievement, but also the intellectual skills students needed to do ___ in school. They identified ___ tests, several for each age group from 3 to 13.

Special Instruction Well 58

Even though psychologists do not agree about what intelligence is, they do agree that intelligence, as measured by _____, is related to learning in schools. Why is this so? It has to do in part with the way intelligence tests were first developed.

Standardized tests

Most intelligence tests are designed so that they have certain _____ characteristics. The Stanford-Binet is an individual intelligence test. It has to be administered to ___ student at a time by a trained psychologist and it takes about 2 hours. A student usually pays closer attention and is more motivated to do well when working directly with an ____.

Statistical One Adult

Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of successful intelligence is a cognitive process approach to understanding intelligence. Sternberg uses the term ______ to stress that intelligence is more than what is tested by mental abilities measures: Intelligence is about ___ success based on your own ____ of success in your cultural context.

Successful Intelligence Life Definition

Mainstreaming

Teaching children with disabilities in regular classes for part or all of their school day.

Insight

The ability to deal effectively with novel situations

Learned Helplessness

The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all of one's efforts will lead to failure.

Disability

The inability to do something specific, such as walk or hear.

Inclusion

The integration of all students, including those with severe disabilities, into regular classes.

Automaticity

The result of learning to perform a behavior or thinking process so thoroughly that the performance is automatic and does not require effort.

The most widely accepted psychometric view today is that intelligence, like self-concept, has many facets and is a hierarchy of abilities, with general ability at the ____ and more specific abilities at lower levels of the hierarchy.

Top

In recent years, Sternberg has added the concept of "___" to his explanations of successful intelligence to create the WICS theory (wisdom, intelligence, creativity synthesized). According to this theory, the goal of education is to help citizens use (a) creativity to generate new ideas and problems as well as possible solutions to the problems (b) analytical intelligence to evaluate the quality of these solutions (c) practical intelligence to implement decisions to persuade others of their value and (d) wisdom to ensure that these decisions help achieve a common good over the long and short terms.

Wisdom

The neurophysiological underpinnings of fluid intelligence may be related to changes in brain volume, myelinization, the density of dopamine receptors, or processing abilities in the prefrontal lobe of the brain such as selective attention and especially _____. Fluid Intelligence is sensitive to injuries and ____.

Working memory Diseases

What could explain these results? Charles Spearman suggested mental energy, which he called ___, was used to perform any mental test.

g