EESC Midterm Questions
Draw a diagram indicating the likely depth of hydrocarbon fuel generation, for biochemical methane, oil, and natural gas.
Narrow, shallow biochemical gas, oil 1-4 or 1.5 to 3.5 or 1-3 km below surface, thermogenic gas deeper than oil
In classical drama, and common usage, a "tragedy" is a situation in which well-meaning and morally responsible actions or individuals are unable to avoid a catastrophe. Describe the "Tragedy of the Commons" as outlined by Garrett Hardin, in terms of maximizing gain for a small group (a person, family, tribe, nation, ...) versus maximizing gain for all members of the population using a resource. What are two examples of resource use that can be understood in terms of the tragedy of the commons, other than human-induced climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions? What are two proposed solutions for managing resource use to avoid the "tragedy of the commons", one associated with "conservative" economists who try to avoid government intervention, and another associated with "liberal" economists who favor government intervention. How might these solutions be applied to human-induced climate change?
The tragedy of the commons is a very real economic issue where individuals tend to exploit shared resources so the demand greatly outweighs supply, and the resource becomes unavailable for the whole. Some examples of resource use that can be understood in terms of the tragedy of the commons are water, forests, fish, and non-renewable energy sources such as oil and coal. One proposed solution associated with "conservative" economists is to convert common good into private property, giving the new owner an incentive to enforce its sustainability. Individuals ought to take over the property rights of a resource—to privatize it. Another proposed solution associated with "liberal" economists is increased governmental regulation. Governmental regulations can limit the amount of a common good that is available for use by any individual. Permit systems for extractive economic activities including mining, fishing, hunting, livestock raising and timber extraction are examples of this approach.
Describe Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons". Give two examples.
The tragedy of the commons is an economic problem in which every individual tries to reap the greatest benefit from a given resource. As the demand for the resource overwhelms the supply, every individual who consumes an additional unit directly harms others who can no longer enjoy the benefits. Generally, the resource of interest is easily available to all individuals; the tragedy of the commons occurs when individuals neglect the well-being of society in the pursuit of personal gain. Examples: Uncontrolled human population growth when there is no surplus of resources, air pollution - industrial emissions and cars, overfishing of oceans
What are two main methods of coal mining? Which is safer for those involved in producing coal
The two main methods are open pit mining and underground mining. Open pit mining is much safer for those producing coal. The miners work in extremely hot conditions and there is always a danger of flooding, overheating, rock falls, cave-ins, and the buildup of poisonous or explosive gas
What is one-watt equivalent to
1 watt = 1 joule per second
What are typical depth intervals for thermogenic oil maturation?
1-4 km
Along what sort of plate boundary did the great 1964 Anchorage earthquake occur? How about the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake
1964 anchorage earthquake: Special type of convergent plate boundary called a subduction zone, caused by a denser oceanic plate sinking underneath a continental plate Called a megathrust fault 1906 San Francisco earthquake: along San Andreas fault, a continental transform fault, characterized by lateral motion (in this case of Pacific and North American plates) Called a strike-slip fault
What is the current human population of the Earth (to the nearest 0.5 billion)?
7.5 billion (7.459)
What is the UN's most likely estimated value for human population in 2050 (to the nearest 0.5 billion)? How does the UN expect the rate of population growth to change in the 21st century? How does this compare the 19th and first 2/3 of the 20th centuries? Why?
9.6 billion in 2050. The population growth rate is expected to decline in the 21st century. In the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries the population growth rate was increasing and reached its peak in 1962. Ever since this year the population growth rate has declined each year.
What percent of all oil used to date was consumed since Prof. Kelemen was born (1956)?
95%
A decline in the rate of production of a natural resource does not always imply a decline in supply. Explain using an example.
A decline in the rate of production could just mean that production has gotten harder/more expensive or "unconventional". Supply does not decline in these cases because of replacement or recycling of resources ex. coal production
What is a deep-sea hydrothermal vent? Along what sort of plate boundary are they located? What is the source of heat? How do ore deposits form in this setting?
A fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated water issues. Found along divergent plate boundaries (aka mid-ocean ridges). Hydrothermal fluids issuing from many of these vents have formed large mounds and "chimneys" that consist of ore minerals of zinc, copper, and iron, in textures very similar to those found in large ore deposits of much greater age
What is an oceanic spreading ridge
A fracture zone along the ocean bottom where molten mantle material comes to the surface (upwells) and moves outward on either side, thus creating new oceanic crust
What is the difference between a temperature "proxy" and a measured temperature?
A measured temperature is when we directly measure the temperature of something whereas a proxy is another indicator of temperature from which we infer the temperature of the earth. Proxy examples include tree lines, or stable isotopes in ice.
Define in simple terms the difference between a reserve and a resource?
A mineral resource is a "concentration of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous material, in or on Earth's crust, in such form and amount that economic extraction of a commodity from the concentration is currently or potentially feasible." A reserve on the other hand is that part of the resource that can be "economically and legally extracted at a given time."
What is a subduction zone
A region of the earth's crust where tectonic plates meet (convergent plate boundary). One plate bends and slides underneath the other, curving down into the mantle The oceanic crust usually sinks into the mantle beneath lighter continental crust
What are the two main processes forming methane from buried organic material?
Aerobic digestion and anaerobic decomposition (fermentation)
List two environmental impacts due to use of coal in power generation and manufacturing
Air pollution and acid rain
Roughly, when in the past was per capita energy use in New York equivalent to the average value for people worldwide today? Before 1850? Between 1850-1900? 1900-1950? 1950-2000?
Before 1850 (1750)
Explain how market prices have an impact on the quantity of reserves for a given mineral or commodity.
As market prices increase, reserves increase and vice versa
How does the solubility of CO2 in seawater change with temperature?
As the seawater temperature DECREASES, solubility of CO2 in seawater INCREASES
What are two positive feedbacks relating CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and mean global air temperature near the surface. How does CO2 solubility in the ocean change with temperature?
As the temperature of the ocean goes up, it becomes less soluble with CO2, making temperature go up further. Additionally, as the arctic ice caps melt, they no longer reflect light back into the atmosphere meaning that more of the heat is held in by the earth.
List one method that is either being implemented or proposed to store high-level nuclear waste. What is one problem or risk of using this method?
At present: used fuel rods are packed into stainless steel tanks, which are stored at the sites of fuel reprocessing plants or at the plants where they were generated. The problem is that no solution for their disposal has been agreed upon in many countries. The liquids are incredibly toxic; less than 4 liters would be enough to bring everyone to dangerous levels of radiation exposure. Proposal- incorporating the waste into glass- Vitrification. But worry about how they handle coming into contact with water at high temperatures. During some tests at high temperature the nuclear waste transferred into the water which was then contaminated.
Which is at a high value not seen in more than one million years, atmospheric CO2 or global temperature?
Atmospheric CO2
Which of the two types of crust on Earth (basaltic ocean crust, continental crust) is denser?
Basaltic ocean crust is denser and thinner, so it's remade and recycled much more often
What are black smokers and how do they form
Black smokers are vents on the seafloor from which hot hydrothermal fluids issue, with suspended matter, typically black sulfide minerals. They form from a crack in the planet's surface (on sea floor) from which hydrothermally heated water comes out. Commonly found near volcanically active places Formed from deposits of iron sulfide, which is black The particles are fine-grained sulfide minerals formed when the hot hydrothermal fluids mix with near-freezing seawater; these minerals solidify as they cool and become the particles in black smokers
What is CO2 capture and storage (CCS) and how could it contribute to mitigating climate change?
CCS is the capture and storage of CO2... it doesn't let carbon go into the atmosphere and so it mitigates climate change.
What are two of the main gases released when fossil fuels are burned
CO2 and SiO2
One type of meteorite, carbonaceous chondrites, is very helpful in estimating the bulk composition of the Earth. What are some similarities and differences between the composition of carbonaceous chondrites and the composition of the solar atmosphere
Carbonaceous chondrites have a component of Si and Mg equivalent to that of silicate Earth
What is coal bed methane? How is it produced? How can this extract energy from coal beds too small to mine underground?
Coal bed methane is a form of natural gas extracted from coal beds. The term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of coal. The methane is in a near-liquid state, lining the inside of pores within the coal (called the matrix). The open fractures in the coal (called the cleats) can also contain free gas or can be saturated with water.
What is the largest source of human Mercury emissions to the atmosphere
Coal fired power plants
Why is it unlikely - impossible, or almost impossible - to find coal deposits in rocks that are more than 350 million years old?
Coal forms from organic plant material; plants evolved about 350 million years ago
How is coal formed? How does this differ from formation of petroleum aka oil?
Coal is formed by thermal maturation at depth of reduced plant material, oil is formed by thermal maturation at depth of reduced microbial material.
What are positive feedbacks between coal production, steel production, and steam engine technology?
Coal production increases steel production because the steel needs to be heated and have the oxygen striped out (transformed into coke), without steel you cannot have steam engines. Steam engines improved coal industry since they rely on coal to run.
Describe the formation process of fossil fuels. Give two examples specifying materials, required conditions, and time scale. What does that imply about fossil fuels usage?
Coal: takes millions of years to form. Energy comes from giant plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago in swamp forests; when they die, they form layers at the bottom of the swamps; water and dirt pile on top of the plant remains, undergoing physical and chemical change and pushing out the oxygen, turning the remains into coal Natural gas: deposited over the past 550 million years. Decomposed organic matter, typically from ancient marine microorganisms, is mixed with mud, silt, and sand on the seafloor, gradually becoming buried over time; sealed off in an oxygen-free environment and exposed to increasing amounts of heat and pressure, the organic matter underwent a thermal breakdown process that converted it into hydrocarbons. The lightest of these hydrocarbons exist in the gaseous state under normal conditions and are known collectively as natural gas The formation processes of fossil fuels imply that they are nonrenewable, and take millions of years to renew.
What is "coke" (not the soft drink, the special type of fuel for smelting of iron)? How is it similar to charcoal? How are coke and charcoal used to produce steel from iron ore? What is the role of oxygen in transforming iron ore to iron and steel? Why was the transition from charcoal to coal and coke in steel production and as fuel in steam engines important in the UK and elsewhere?
Coke is coal that has been heated and partially combusted under oxygen poor conditions; burning of coke heats and melts iron oxide or, then takes up oxygen from iron oxides to form iron metal (no oxygen) plus CO2; use of charcoal for steam engines and steel production depleted huge regions in trees; coal was far more plentiful
What are the advantages of horizontal drilling for oil & gas extraction?
Companies can drill in many directions from one well pad → saves money and surface disturbance. This creates a greater production rate. Able to locate well sites away from residential areas and sensitive ecosystems
Where would you expect to find igneous rocks with more SiO2, in oceanic crust or in continental crust?
Continental crust Igneous = rock from solidified magma
Where is oceanic crust formed/
Continuously being formed at mid-ocean ridges
What is the relative efficiency, in energy returned on energy invested, for oil shale vs. conventional oil production?
Conventional oil production has a higher EROI than oil shale
What's a "creaming curve" in the context of oil and gas production? What is the relationship between creaming curves and energy returned on energy invested (EROI)?
Creaming curve = number of wells versus oil (or gas) produced from a given reservoir; over time, the yield per well decreases; this reflects decreasing EROI
Which constraints influence whether or not a resource is a reserve? A. The incorporation of land into national parks. B. Land Ownership issues. C. The presence of endangered animals or plants. D. All of the above. E. None of the above
D. All of the above
Is oceanic crust denser or less dense than continental crust
Denser - Continental crust less dense than oceanic crust, therefore harder to subduct. Oceanic crust is remade and recycled more often, whereas continental crust is older, remaining the same
What are the three main types of tectonic plate boundaries
Divergent plate boundary, Convergent plate boundary, Transform plate boundary
Define Energy Return on Energy Invested (EROI or EROEI) and describe what would make the ratio increase or decrease for a specific resource.
EROI = the ratio of the amount of usable energy acquired from a particular energy resource to the amount of energy needed to obtain the resource (this is a key determinant of the price of energy). Ratio would decrease when energy becomes scarcer and more difficult to produce. EROI from any resource in the ground will decline as exploitation continues.
How is energy returned on energy invested (EROI) for coal expected to change in the future?
EROI for coal will decline as resources become more scarce. Global coal reserves are not increasing
Define "environmental services". How can we assign monetary value to environmental services? Give two examples.
Environmental services = nature's capacity to provide quality of life and comfort. We can assign monetary value by seeing how much it would cost to technologically derive the service instead. Ex. If there's no clean water: how much would it cost to desalinate water, or we can pay for the health costs of drinking dirty water.
What is the difference between external and internal costs of resource use and pollution? What are two examples of the change from external to internal costs
Eternal costs are borne by "the public", internal costs are borne by the producer. Acid rain is a good example. The Clean Air Acts forced factories to bear the cost of the pollution by charging them for pollution they produce and having them incorporate measures to limit the emission of harmful gases
True or false: average annual CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has been steadily increasing since at least the late 1950's.
False (CO2 in atmosphere is increasing exponentially)
What caused formation of banded iron formations in oceanic sediments, billions of years ago
Formed in seawater as the result of oxygen released by photosynthetic cyanobacteria; oxygen combined with dissolved iron in earth's oceans to form insoluble iron oxides, which precipitated out, forming a thin layer on the ocean floor Banding is assumed to result from cyclic variations in available oxygen Arguably how Earth formed--from alternating periods of free oxygen and iron oxide deposition
What are gas hydrates? Where are they found in the world? What is a challenge for commercial extraction of gas from gas hydrate deposits?
Gas hydrates are cages of H20 molecules holding hydrocarbons, often methane, in a solid mineral. They are found deep in the ocean (in regions of low temperature and relatively high pressure) and in the permafrost. Gas hydrates must be "melted" to extract the gas, but melting them completely would remove the frozen "cap" and allow the gas to escape to the surface.
In a typical oil and gas field, is most of the gas generated deeper than oil, or is the oil generated at greater depth than most of the gas?
Gas is deeper than oil
What is enhanced oil recovery?
Heating oil to reduce viscosity, then hydraulic fracture to increase permeability, then injecting water, CO2, to "push" oil toward and up a production well
In the context of human emissions of greenhouse gases, what is "ocean acidification"? Why might it have a negative impact on organisms at the bottom of the food chain in the surface oceans?
Human emissions of greenhouse gases into the ocean would make the pH of the ocean decrease... thus becoming more acidic. This would be harmful for phytoplankton and other micro-organisms because they have shells that are soluble in acid
What is the role of hydraulic fracture for extraction of shale gas? How does this technique relate to permeability, and the natural migration of oil and gas from source rocks to reservoir rocks?
Hydraulic fracking is a technique in which water, chemicals, and sand are pumped into the well to unlock the hydrocarbons trapped in shale formations by opening cracks (fractures) in the rock and allowing natural gas to flow from the shale into the well.
How is past ice volume inferred from measurements on ice cores and oceanic sediments?
Ice volume is inferred much like past temperatures: looking at isotopes Glaciers are relatively high in O^16 while oceans are high in O^18, so as the ratio of O^16/O^18 increases, you know there is more ice volume
List three carbon storage options
In subsurface pore spaces, mineral carbonation, ocean storage
Where are the largest copper deposits found, and how have plate tectonics determined this distribution?
In the Pacific Ring of Fire, around subduction zones because as the heavier plate slips under the lighter plate, dense mantle material becomes buoyant magma that rises through the crust to the earth's surface
What is one type of solution mining technique? To extract what material?
In-situ leaching (ISL) The process initially involves drilling of holes into the ore deposit. Explosive or hydraulic fracturing may be used to create open pathways in the deposit for solution to penetrate. Leaching solution is pumped into the deposit where it makes contact with the ore. The solution bearing the dissolved ore content is then pumped to the surface and processed. This process allows the extraction of metals and salts from an ore body without the need for conventional mining involving drill-and-blast, open-cut or underground mining. This process is used mainly to extract copper and uranium.
Has the use of coal to generate electricity in the US increased or decreased in the past 50 years?
Increased, but recently there has been a steep decrease
Why did publicly stated oil reserves in many OPEC countries jump up rapidly between 1983 and 1988?
Increases in oil prices and improvements in technology made drilling for those oil resources economically feasible
Under what circumstances does the quantity of reserves increase? decrease?
Increase—As discussed in question 3, the development and application of new technology can turn oil resources previously unrecoverable into reserves from which oil commodities can be procured. This includes moving to deeper prospects, differing geologies, and more challenging offshore environments. Also, a price rise in the market value of a commodity. These two factors cause an increase in the quantify of reserves. Decrease—Reserves can slip back into resource status if they become too expensive to be mined or procured or if the price and demand of a commodity decreases. (gold in the 1980s and 1990s is an example).
How are past temperatures inferred from measurements on ice cores?
Inferred from measurements on ice cores by using stable isotope ratios in the ice as proxies. O^18/O^16 (oxygen isotope ratio) is relatively high when climate is warm/there is little permanent ice and relatively low when climate is cool/there is abundant polar ice
What are the four main layers of the Earth's interior, below the oceans and atmosphere, two composed mainly of silicates plus some metal-oxides, and two composed mainly of metallic compounds? Which one is liquid
Inner core, outer core, mantle, crust...Mantle and crust mainly composed of silicates plus some metal-oxides Inner core and outer core mainly composed of metallic compounds (nickel and iron) Outer core is liquid
What country is used in the textbook as an example of a population in which people older than 40 are predicted to outnumber younger people by 2025?
Japan
What conditions are needed for gas hydrates to form? What is the climate risk if gas hydrates, e.g., beneath the Arctic Ocean, melt and decompose?
Low temperature and relatively high pressure are needed for Gas hydrates to form. They won't form in seawater, where they will generally dissolve and/or oxidize; instead, they form in reduced sediments below the seafloor; however, the temperature in the solid Earth rises with increasing depth; thus, gas hydrates are only stable in a narrow, cold region in shallow sediments, between the oxidized seafloor and the high temperature sediments at greater depth. The climate risk is that large scale melting of gas hydrates due to warming of ocean bottom water would release abundant methane, a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere.
Based on current laboratory data, what abundant, rock forming mineral reacts fastest with CO2 to make solid carbonate minerals? Where is this mineral most abundant on Earth? Where is it found on the surface?
Magnesium silicate (olivine) = Mg2SiO4 reacts fasted with CO2. Most abundant in the mantle; found in chunks of the upper crust.
What is the difference between regional and contact metamorphism?
Metamorphism: rock minerals/texture are changed by heat and pressure Regional metamorphism = metamorphism over a wide area or region Contact metamorphism = metamorphism due to contact with magma (more localized)
What is the most abundant compound in natural gas?
Methane
What is a methane clathrate (aka gas hydrate, aka methane hydrate)?
Methane clathrate is a crystalline solid that consists of a methane molecule surrounded by a cage of interlocking water molecules.
Complete this chemical reaction, proposed for solid storage of CO2: Mg2SiO4 + 2CO2 = _______ + ________. Where might one find large masses of Mg2SiO4?
Mg2SiO4 + 2CO2 = 2MgCO3 + SiO2 Found in mantle
What are three methods for engineered, relatively rapid decreases of atmospheric CO2 concentration?
Mineral carbonation, post combustion capture, carbon storage in pore spaces
Outline one strategy to reduce CO2 concentration in the atmosphere that does not involve mitigating emissions.
Mineral carbonation: olivine + CO2 = magnesite + quartz
Is there oil beneath the seafloor in the deep ocean basins far from continents? Why or why not?
No because in the deep sea there are no sediments of sufficient thickness; sedimentation rate is too slow to produce thick sediments for hydrocarbon maturation before oceanic crust gets subducted; instead, oil is found in thick sedimentary sequences along continental margins, that rarely subduct
What are two, related positive feedbacks that could arise in global climate if the ice caps melt due to global temperature increase?
No ice leads to warming water --- warming water leads to no ice
Is CO2 the only greenhouse gas whose emissions could be responsible for anthropogenic climate change?
No, Methane (CH4) is another greenhouse gas whose emissions could be responsible for anthropogenic climate change
Does the Earth's atmosphere appear to be in a steady state with respect to the carbon cycle?
No, it no longer is, because excess anthropogenic carbon emitted into the atmosphere affects the uptake of carbon by the ocean
What is the greenhouse gas with the highest concentration in Earth's atmosphere? (HINT: It is not anthropogenic). What is the anthropogenic greenhouse gas with the highest concentration in the atmosphere?
Non-anthropogenic: H2O. Anthropogenic greenhouse gas: CO2
What observation of the Sun can be used to estimate the bulk composition of the solar atmosphere?
Observing absorption lines that arise in the photosphere and lower atmosphere Range of visual wavelengths Temperature and density increases and decreases in different zones of solar atmosphere Lighter elements / gas giants / carbonaceous chondrites would be heavier elements
On the summary diagram from the IPCC, label the three main reservoirs proposed for geological storage of CO2
Ocean storage, mineral carbonation, industrial uses
What distinguishes the buried material that ultimately produces coal from the material that ultimately produces oil?
Oil mostly originated from very simple organisms, like bacteria, algae, and plankton (so oil is often found in ocean). Most of Earth's coal originated as trees, ferns, and tropical forest plants (coal beds are found on land).
What are oil shale and shale oil? How is usable oil produced from such shales?
Oil shale is fine-grained sedimentary rock containing much bituminous organic matter incorporated when the sediment was deposited. The usable form of these shales—Shale oil (kerogen oil)— is produced from oil shale by pyrolysis, pyrogenation, or thermal dissolution. These processes convert the organic matter within the rock fragments into synthetic oil and gas.
Injection of CO2 into the ocean could be done from ships or via pipelines from the shore. Leaving these delivery methods aside, what are two distinct settings and methods proposed for storage of CO2 in the ocean? What is the most obvious, potentially damaging environmental consequence of CO2 storage in the oceans?
One method = injecting CO2 into the middle of the water column so that the CO2 dissolves in seawater 2nd method = injecting CO2 into the deep ocean (at high pressure, low temp) where CO2 is denser than water, thus creating CO2 "puddles" on the seafloor Most obvious problem = Ocean Acidification
In the terms of Socolow & Pacala, what is one "wedge"? Give an example of a power generation technology other than fossil fuel combustion that could be used to achieve one wedge, including a comparison between the magnitude required to achieve one wedge and the magnitude of present day use of this technology.
One wedge = 1 Gt of C emissions or 3.67 Gt of CO2 emissions avoided (not put out into atmosphere) Each wedge represents avoided emissions that would stabilize carbon emissions over a 50 year period If nuclear generating capacity were increased by a factor of 3 worldwide, this could achieve 1 wedge of carbon emissions
In the United States, what method is used to mine most of the coal in the High Plains - Rocky Mountain region? In general, is the coal in this region higher or lower grade than coal obtained from the Appalachians in the previous century?
Open pit mines; The coal in the Rocky Mountain region is lower grade than the Appalachian coal, which was bituminous
Name four of the twelve most abundant elements on Earth
Oxygen Silicon Aluminum Iron
Around which ocean basin (Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific...) are the most sub-aerial volcanoes found? Why? Are the lavas in sub-aerial chains along the edge of ocean basins more or less "felsic" than most submarine lavas
Pacific ocean basin; near Hawaii; Ring of Fire Water of subducting crust lowers temperature of water at depth Lavas in sub-aerial chains more "felsic" than most submarine lavas
Define "peak oil". Was King Hubbert's prediction for the US correct? And for the world? Illustrate and defend your viewpoint.
Peak oil is the point at which the production of oil has reached its maximum and will decline- never to rise again. Hubbert's prediction for the US was correct (peak between 1965-1970), and his prediction for the world was incorrect (less than 5 years away)
Describe, with the aid of a diagram, what the phrase "Peak Oil" means.
Peak oil means that oil production will follow a bell-shaped curve... there is a "peak" in production
Chemically speaking, what distinguishes high-grade coal from low-grade coal?
Peat - Lignite - Subbituminous coal - bituminous coal - anthracite (decreasing oxygen/carbon ratio, more reduced carbon to burn, this list is organized from low-grade to high-grade) High grade has less oxygen/carbon ratio
Why would people ever intentionally use more energy to extract a fuel than they can obtain from that fuel? Could this happen for oil? Why?
People would do this if they wanted the energy they are using to be in a particular form, such as liquid fuel. This could happen for oil—biodiesel and gasohol are both produced from fossil fuels and both have a negative EROI.
In the 21st century, is per capita energy use in developed countries rising or falling? Why? How about in developing countries?
Per capita energy use in developed countries is falling and it is rising in developing countries.
What is a petroleum source rock? What is a petroleum reservoir rock? What physical characteristics are required to form and preserve a conventional petroleum reservoir?
Petroleum source rock is rock from which hydrocarbons have been generated or are capable of being generated. Petroleum reservoir rock is a subsurface pool of hydrocarbons contained in porous or fractured rock formations. A conventional petroleum reservoir has overlying rock formations with low permeability
What is the most common form of carbon sequestration used today?
Post combustion capture
What processes are responsible for acid rain and how can it be prevented or reduced?
Power plants release the majority of sulfur dioxide and much of the nitrogen oxides when they burn fossil fuels. Car exhaust and volcanoes can contribute as well. To reduce this, power plants could use coal that contains less sulfur or "wash" coal to remove sulfur. Car companies could be required to reduce their emissions in new cars....etc.
What produced the 100,000 year cycles in temperature and CO2 concentration in the atmosphere recorded in ice cores?
Primarily, this is due to variations in Earth's orbit and rotation axis.
In the lifetime of a really good petroleum reservoir, what methods are used to extract and collect oil? Why is Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) used for conventional petroleum reservoirs? What are two methods for EOR from conventional petroleum reservoirs?
Primary method: underground pressure in reservoir is sufficient to force the oil to the surface. Secondary - insufficient underground pressure to force oil to the surface, so we inject fluids to increase pressure. EOR used for conventional petroleum reservoirs when secondary oil recovery isn't enough to continue adequate extraction, but the oil can still be extracted profitably When crude oil prices are high, previously unprofitable wells are brought back. When crude oil prices are low, extraction is curtailed
Why is Hawaii an ideal place to measure global CO2 levels?
Readings will not vary a lot due to influence of growing plants and exhaust from motors. It is remote from big population centers (remote from any continent). On tropical islands at night, the prevailing winds blow from the land out to sea, bringing clean, well-mixed Central Pacific air from high in the atmosphere to the observatory.
What are renewable and nonrenewable resources? List three of each
Renewable resources are those materials that are replenished on short timescales of a few months or years (organic materials derived from plants and animals), as well as the energy drawn from wind, flowing water, and from the sun's heat. Given an infinite amount of time, it would be possible to grow infinitely large amounts of food and to draw infinite amounts of energy from water, wind, and the sun. Non-renewable resources are those materials of which Earth contains a fixed quantify since they are not replenished on human timescales. Examples: oil, natural gas, coal, copper, iron...
What property of the Earth's magnetic field was crucial in the discovery of seafloor spreading? Draw a schematic "map" illustrating a spreading center and the remnant magnetization recorded by the surrounding sea floor
Reversal of earth's magnetic field: a timescale for "normal" and "reversed" polarity was established Magnetic history of earth is recorded in the spreading ocean floors--a continuous record of the movement of ocean floors Alternating bands at mid-ocean ridges that are each magnetized with a polarity opposite the surrounding bands
What are three of the five major natural reservoirs of carbon?
Rocks, oceans, plants/animals
Name the two countries with the highest proven oil reserves. How has this changed over the past 20 years?
Saudi Arabia and Canada, this has changed over the past 20 years due to the commercial scale exploitation of the Athabasca oil sands in the Alberta region of Canada
How do scientists know that injecting aerosol particles into the upper atmosphere can cause global cooling? About how long does this effect last after one large injection?
Scientists know that injecting aerosol particles into the upper atmosphere can cause global cooling because volcanoes do just that during an eruption (particles refract the solar radiation and cool the earth) This effect lasts about 3-5 years
What is shale gas? How is it extracted? Name two recent developments in drilling and related technology that have enabled profitable extraction of shale gas?
Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped within shale formations. Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that can be rich sources of petroleum and natural gas. Over the past decade the combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracking has allowed access to large volumes of shale gas that was previously uneconomical to produce.
What are two non-traditional fossil fuel resources in shale (aka mudrocks)? How are hydrocarbon fuels extracted from each of these?
Shale oil, and oil shale... extracted by situ leaching.
Why did the proportion of total primary energy production from coal decline relative to oil? Why is the proportion of energy production from gas increasing in this century, relative to oil?
Shifting market prices (oil is cheaper than coal; natural gas has become cheaper than oil) and emissions regulations that discourage energy generation from coal and oil
Why is it unlikely to find coal deposits in igneous rocks?
Since coal is combustable, when igneous rocks form around the coal deposit, the coal will burn
What is one way in which air pollution is thought to reduce global warming?
Smog (mainly sulfur dioxide) reflects light when in atmosphere, which keeps sunlight out and causes earth to cool...Volcanic eruptions can spew massive amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, sometimes causing cooling that lasts for years
Define the "Social Cost of Carbon". How can this be determined? How would economists use the SCC and the cost of methods for avoiding or mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, to determine an "ideal" carbon tax or value for carbon trading in a "cap-and-trade" framework?
Social cost of carbon = the amount that would have to be paid in order to compensate for the increase in greenhouse gases (ex. cost of moving inhabitants of low-lying islands that will flood due to rising sea levels). This can be determined by the cost per ton of CO2. Ideal carbon tax would be when avoided costs of impact of CO2 = cost of reduction. Cap and trade: cap sets limit on emissions, trade creates a market for carbon allowances
What are two natural sources of thermal energy (heat) on Earth
Solar energy and geothermal energy (from within the earth)
In the context of crystallization of magmas, what are incompatible elements?
Stay in melt. As Mafic magma crystallizes, they stick around in melt (wait until last gasp, until it's almost completely solidified, and form their own ore deposits) Felsic continental crust is enriched in incompatible elements
With the exception of some small fragments thrust onto the continents, the oldest oceanic crust on Earth is less than 200 million years old. The Earth has had oceans, and oceanic crust, for several billion years. Where did the older oceanic crust go?
Subduction zones...The older oceanic crust has been remade and recycled time and time again, since it's denser and thinner
What is one acid in acid rain
Sulfuric acid and nitric acid
What are two ways that oil is extracted from oil sands aka tar sands in Alberta, Canada?
Surface mining and in-situ extraction techniques
Describe the benefits and drawbacks of surface mining
Surface mining, which accounts for about two-thirds of the world's solid mineral production, especially sand and gravel, crushed stone, phosphates, coal, copper, iron, and aluminum generally involves open-pit mining, a form of strip-mining. Surface mining is preferred over underground mining by mining companies, when at all practical, because it is less expensive, safer, and there are fewer complications with air, electricity, water, and rock handling. However, one drawback is that it results in a greater environmental impact than underground mining, since extraction proceeds by drilling, blasting, and loading material into large trucks that haul rock and ore out of the pit.
What are tar sands? How is usable oil produced from tar sands?
Tar sands are a compound that includes bitumen - a heavy viscous form of oil that can be refined into petroleum
What are 4 "unconventional" hydrocarbon fuel resources?
Tar sands, shale gas, shale oil, gas hydrates
What are some effects of increasing atmospheric CO2?
The Greenhouse effect
What is OPEC?
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, an intergovernmental organization of fourteen nations.
In a world in which almost all usable energy is derived from combustion of hydrocarbon fuels, what might place a quantitative limit on "technically recoverable resources" of hydrocarbon fuels?
The amount of technically recoverable hydrocarbons is limited because the amount hydrocarbons is finite—deposition rates are so slow that they are never going to heat up enough to form hydrocarbons on the human timescale—because of this the amount of remaining petroleum is constantly declining. A fine-grained sedimentary rock containing 1-2% of organic matter is a source rock—and this organic matter is gradually converted to kerogen at temperatures between 60-100c at depths below 2000m. The kerogen starts to generate hydrocarbons and then gases at higher temperatures. In order for hydrocarbons to be generated they must be heated within this window, there must be little oxygen around, and there have to have been life forms. These specifications limit its recoverability.
In chemical terms, what happens during combustion of hydrocarbon fuels? Write an example chemical reaction for combustion of methane, CH4.
The combustion of all fossil fuels follows a very similar reaction: Fuel (any hydrocarbon source) plus oxygen yields carbon dioxide and water and energy. CH4[g] + 2 O2[g] -> CO2[g] + 2 H2O[g] + energy
What are the differences between near surface (upper few 100 meters) and deeper formation of natural gas?
The deeper the source, the "drier" the gas (means that there is a smaller proportion of condensates in the gas). Biogenic vs. thermogenic gas.
How do commodity resources become reserves? Give two examples
The development and application of new and different types of technology can change production and extraction costs of resources and thus previously unreachable resources can become reserves, or resources that were previously too expensive to extract can become reserves. Examples: 1. D.C. Jackling and R.C. Gemmell discovered that copper deposits previously ignored because of their low grades could be worked at a profit by using new bulk-mining processes—this greatly increased the supplies of copper available for world-wide use 2. Soon after the end of WWII, as the richest portion of the iron ores of the Great Lakes region were running out, new mining and processing technologies allowed the leaner and formerly unworkable low-grade deposits called "taconites" to be worked. 3. Shale gas and shale oil have become viable thanks to new technology
What is the greenhouse effect and what human practice(s) are thought to cause this phenomenon
The greenhouse effect is an increase in the average temperature of the earth, caused by greenhouse gases which absorb infrared heat that would normally be radiated into space. The burning of greenhouse gases is thought to cause this effect
On a diagram of wavelength vs. intensity of light, which is characteristic of incoming radiation from the sun, shorter wavelength or longer wavelength? How about radiation emitted from the surface of the Earth?
The incoming radiation is shorter wavelength, and the emitted radiation is longer wavelength
Name and describe a method for carbon storage and any problems that might arise from this process.
The main issue with storing carbon in subsurface pore spaces is that there could be leaks. For example, a waste disposal well created a crack in the Utsira formation which grew to the seafloor and was over 40 meters wide. A lot of carbon escaped through this crack.
What are the mid-ocean ridges
The most extensive chain of mountains on earth, but more than 90% of this mountain range lies in the deep ocean. Also known as a divergent plate boundary or spreading center because they occur along the kind of plate boundary where new ocean floor is created as the plates spread apart
Name two natural reservoirs emitting CO2 and CH4 into the atmosphere. How do these compare in size to human emissions of greenhouse gases
The oceans and trees/soil. Both are much bigger than human emissions.
What is the importance of the "ozone layer" in the upper atmosphere to life on the Earth's surface? When did it form? Why? Prior to formation of the ozone layer, where would life have been abundant?
The ozone layer absorbs the sun's biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation (causes sunburn, cataracts, immune system suppression, and genetic damage). It was formed 600 million years ago. Before this, life was restricted to the oceans. It formed because early aquatic organisms began doing photosynthesis, leaving some oxygen to accumulate in the atmosphere.
Why is it important for there to be very little oxygen present when fossil fuel forms?
The remains of the organisms decay when there is no oxygen present
Describe the fractional crystallization of magma
The removal and segregation of mineral precipitates from a melt. Removal of the crystals typically changes the composition of the magma. Responsible for the bulk of differentiation that occurs in igneous rock. As certain elements are extracted to form the early minerals, the composition of the remaining melt changes such that subsequent minerals are of a different composition
Below the surface layers affected by weather and short-term climate change, how does temperature vary with depth in the solid crust of the Earth? How does temperature vary with depth in large ocean basins? How does this affect the stability of gas hydrates? How does this affect potential methods for storage of CO2 captured from exhaust gas at power plants?
The temperature and pressure of the earth increase with increasing depth below the surface. The temperature of water in ocean basins decreases with increased depth. Gas hydrates form at low temperature and relatively high pressure. Thus gas hydrates must be found deep enough in the ocean to fit these two factors—generally in areas with more than 100m of water depth and water temperature more than 10C.
What are evaporite deposits? What is the most common mineral commodity that has been recovered from evaporites for thousands of years?
There are two types of evaporite deposits - marine (ocean deposits) and non-marine (lakes). The most common mineral commodity that has been recovered from evaporates for thousands of years is salt.
What are the geological characteristics of oil source rocks?
They are organic-rich sediment that may have been deposited in a variety of environments. There are 3 types of source rocks. Source 1 are formed from algal remains in deep lakes, they tend to generate waxy crude oil when submitted to thermal stress during deep burial. Source 2 are formed from marine planktonic and bacteria remaining under axonic conditions, they produce both oil and gas when thermally cracked during deep burial. Source 3 of source rock are formed from terrestrial plant material that has been decomposed by bacteria or fungi -- most goal is generated by this.
Is continental crust thicker or thinner than oceanic crust
Thicker
About how many coal mining deaths are there per year in China in the 21st century (to the nearest order of magnitude)?
Thousands of people per year
On a diagram of wavelength vs. intensity of absorption, which is characteristic of greenhouse gases, transparency at shorter wavelengths and high absorption at longer wavelengths, or transparency at longer wavelengths and high absorption of shorter wavelengths?
Transparent at shorter wavelength and high absorption at longer wavelengths
Acid rain is considered one of the most serious forms of pollution. What causes it?
When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air, they rise high into the atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form more acidic pollutants (known as acid rain) Power plants release the majority of sulfur dioxide and much of the nitrogen oxides when they burn fossil fuels, but car exhaust and volcano emissions also put oxides into the atmosphere
What was the role of measurements of the magnetization of the seafloor in the discovery of plate tectonics
When the polarity of the magnetic field changed, new crust and lithosphere created at a mid-ocean ridge would take on the different polarity--led to the idea of seafloor spreading
Mafic vs. Felsic
When they are molten, mafic magmas are hotter Mafic igneous rocks have more Mg and Fe Felsic igneous rocks have more Al, Si, Na, and K Felsic igneous rocks have more "incompatible elements" Mafic igneous rocks have more "compatible elements" such as Ni and Cr and Co
