Elizabeth I

Who were the Puritans and what did they believe? what was the Vestiarian Controversy?

'godly' protestants, felt C of E needed to be purged of remaining catholic practices: important influence in 1560s/70s- radical protestants, pushed for further reform- picked up popularity after Convocation of Canterbury 1563- meeting of clerics, pushed for further reform of settlement some posed challenge to settlement: Vestiarian Controversy: several church figures decided couldn't conform to set clerical dress in Act of Uniformity- too catholic- Archbishop Matthew Parker and 5 bishops issues the 'Advertisements' in March 1566- called for unformity and wearing of vestements compulsory. 37 London clergymen refused to signify support- deprived of posts- shows queens determination to enforce the settlement

Why did relations with Spain deteriorate towards the end of the 1560s?

1. PIRACY - Activities of John Hawkins: attempted to break Spanish trading monopoly in the Caribbean/ New World- infuriated Spanish. In 1568 Hawkins' fleet blockaded at San Juan de Ulua port and only 2 of his ships could escape. AND Francis Drake: would capture gold and silver from New World. 2. SITUATION IN THE NETHERLANDS- Philip II wanted tighter control- Elizabeth under pressure to help Dutch Protestants. (see what she does later) 3. English harassed Spanish- e.g. 1568, storm forced several spanish ships carrying 400,000 florins intended to pay Duke of Alba, Philip's general in Netherlands, to seek shelter in English ports- Elizabeth seized money. 4. Philip's encouragement to 1569 Northern rebellion and to Catholic plots supporting Mary Q of S inc Ridolfi, against the queen. Also, excommunication of Liz in 1570- ALL HELP SOUR RELATIONS BY EARLY 1570s.

How did parliament serve the important function of granting taxation?

11/13 parliamentary sessions in the reign asked to grant revenue- on nearly all occasions she received what she asked for - arguably an area of conflict: liz tried to control spending and increase traditional sources of revenue, forced to rely heavily on parliamentary subsidies during spanish war- gave parliament financial leverage over the crown- provoked angry exchanges at demands of the government during a time of inflation and economic hardship + was a failure to reform system of direct taxation- parliament voted double subsidy in 1589 to raise revenue for spanish war. triple subsidy in 1593 and once again in 1597/8- she was desperately short of cash at a time of economic and social crisis, granted quadruple subsidy in 1601, last parliament.

When was the Treaty of Cateau Cambresis?

1559

when was the elizabethan religious settlement?

1559

When did the French Wars of Religion, civil war in France break out between Catholics and Hugenots (French protestants)? what did this lead the English to think?

1562- lasted intermittently until 1594.- was less pressure on English as France had to deal with internal problems, France was in relatively weak state= Elizabeth, encouraged by Earl of Leicester, wanted to use turmoil in France to reassert English presence there, apply military pressure and reclaim Calais. Also Catholics in France were negotiating with spanish= threatening

When was the Thirty Nine Articles of Religion published? what were they?

1563 sought to define the difference between the church of England and the catholic church - was broadly supportive of reformed doctrine attempted to adopt a broad and comprehensive approach to essential beliefs.

What years are classed as the 'triumph of Elizabeth'?

1563-1603 in textbook, 1558-63 considered separately as early years

What penal laws against catholics were passed in the 1570s and 80s?

1571- publication of papal bulls in england became treasonable 1581: Act to Retain the Queen's Majesty's Subjects in their Due Obedience: non allegience to queen or church treason, saying Mass punishable by heavy fine, fine for not attending church £20 a month- increase. 15 catholic priests executed in 1581-82 1585- Act against jesuits and seminary priests- treason for catholic priests to enter england, 123 priests convicted and executed from 1586-1603. After catholic plots, Bond of Association for preservation of queen's majesty's royal person, 1584: anyone who took oath of succession required to murder anyone who attempted to usurp crown or kill queen. 1597- law tightened- any recusant who didn't pay fine coul have 2/3 of estate seized.

Name and give the date of the 4 major Mary Q of S and Catholic plots against Elizabeth?

1571-Ridolfi plot 1583- Throckmorton plot 1585- Parry plot 1586- Babington plot

what were the catholic missions?

1575-85: catholic priests trained abroad came to England to spread catholicism, operated in secret from country houses of catholic gentry, some trained at new college in Douai in Spanish Netherlands from 1568- 100 arrived in 1580, 179 between 1580-85. 1580: the society of jesus began sending Jesuit priests, to reconvert places to catholicism- first in england were Robert Parsons and Edmund Campion- C executed in 1581 missions had limited success: catholic gentry enabled to retain faith but humble catholics ignored- catholicism became a country house religion, not popular faith. priests also divided over leadership of movement, operated in wrong areas-few in north despite there being more catholics there.

When was the Spanish Armada?

1588

What happened with Spain in 1595/96? in terms of Spanish war AT SEA

1595- English made 3 attacks on mainland Spain and its colonies including a spectacular but short lived victory with capture and occupation of Cadiz- sunk 4 ships, was no strategic follow up. Did however humiliate Philip II- In 1596, he again ordered a fleet to invade England but was defeated by storms. Hawkins and Drake wanted to attack Panama, regarded as weakest point in Spanish empire, attack failed, both men died at sea.

Explain the controversy and issues in 1597/98 and 1601 parliament surrounding monopolies?

1597/98 parliament issue of monopolies generated controversy. MONOPOLIES= when individual has sole control over an entire area of commerce- was royal prerogative to grant monopolies, Elizabeth made increasing use of in 1580s in return for cash payments to boost income- parliament unhappy as raised prices during rampant inflation- queen promised to review grants: her royal prerogative was being challenged. moaning and controversy in 1601- repeated challenges on monopolies made, MPs refused to grant additional taxes for war with spain unless she withdrew some licenses - parliament came close to petitioning the queen but she did eventually revoke some monopoly patents relationship between queen and parliament broke down considerably over issue of monopolies in 1601- debate on monopolies was one occasion when crown's officers lost control over House of Commons- i

How was parliament used to make laws concerning social policy?

1598- introduction of comprehensive poor law- revised in 1601

How old was Elizabeth when she became queen?

25 younger than Mary at accession

How many acts altogether were passed by parliament in the reign?

438

How did parliament across the period of 1572-1589, respond to the international situation including events surrounding Mary Q of S and Spain?

4th parliament (3 sessions, starting in 1572) considered issues of security following exposure of Ridolfi plot- called for execution of Norfolk and Mary but Elizabeth did not initially back Mary's execution. in 5th parliament- 1584-5= Passed Act for the Queen's safety excluding Mary from succession- Cecil's key aim. Then 6th parliament in 1586/7 called in aftermath of Babington plot -debated execution of M Q of S- Parliament petitioned the queen for Mary to be executed (angered queen) 7th parliament in 1589 had positive atmosphere after Armada triumph- many acts passed and revenue granted.

How did Elizabeth view parliament? how often did it meet?

A tiresome necessity- a necessary but occasional evil she had to put up with for tasks of law making, granting taxation and advice. Largely a secondary feature of Elizabethan political system Parliament met 13 times- was in session for 126 weeks/44 years of her reign. She prided herself on sparing use of it and tried to hold short meetings. Didn't always listen to advice of MPs- irritated when they ventured into areas within the royal prerogative - parliament did however give useful opportunities to members of council to gauge opinion among members of the 'political nation'- useful means of communication.

What were the 3 features of the religious settlement, 1559?

Act of Supremacy Act of Uniformity (2 acts of parliament) Royal injunctions issued to enforce these acts

In what sense did some reshaping of the council take place in the 1570s and why? describe nature of council at this time.

After 1571 Ridolfi plot, Norfolk executed, Cecil able to take further charge and Lord Treasurer of Winchester died in 1570s= influence of traditional conservative aristocracy reduced- nucleus of firmly Protestant councillors appointed inc Walsingham, Mildmay, Sadler etc. Advancement balanced by promotion of conservatives e.g. Hatton and Croft CHANGES RESULTED IN 'INNER RING' OF 8 COUNCILLORS- some militant protestants inc Burghley (title taken by Cecil in 1571), only cons, Hatton and Sussex. Council offered cohesive decision making but were disputes over foreign policy and breakdown in relations between queen and council over execution of M Q of S. on the whole, minister served queen well.

Following French withdrawal from Scotland, what was agreed in the Treaty of Edinburgh and when? what happened to M Q of S?

Agreed by Cecil in 1560 - Lords of Congregation accepted as a provisional conciliar government- English and French troops agreed to withdraw- success against French Guises fell from power once Francis II died in later in 1560- Mary Stuart's (Q OF S) influence on France ended, returned to Scotland- forced to accept political and religious power of enemies- greatly reduced Mary's political influence- Scotland now protestant Elizabeth wary that this was caused by luck of Francis' death- cautious still.

When did the English spot the Spanish Armada in the English channel? What happened off the Isle of Wight? What was the Battle of Gravelines?

Armada spotted in English Channel in July 1588- (before Spanish ships could reach Gravelines and join forces with Parma) England set sail from Plymouth, captured 2 ships but fleet generally kept safe distance- chased Armada down the channel. Some exchanges of heavy fire off I of W in August- Medina-Sidonia tried to safely anchor off Isle of Wight to wait for Parma to get his messages- English fired 6x more cannon balls than Spanish and from further away. THE BATTLE OF GRAVELINES, AUGUST 1588- English sent fire ships in amongst Spanish fleet- did little actual damage but created havoc by scattering Armada- when it regrouped, was the B of G- Medina-Sidonia had to fight without Parma's ships which were not ready, English cannons easier to load and heavy winds helped scatter Armada out its formation- easier to target. Armada forced due to unfavourable winds to return to Spain by hazardous route of sailing towards Scotland and west of Ireland- cost them more ships lost in storms.

How was the situation in the north of England?

As long as Scotland a separate state, possibility of border conflict remained - was a lawless subculture on the borders- emphasis on casual violence, stealing cattle= problem for authorities- Elizabeth appointed wardens of the 3 border marches from the south, like her father rather than traditional northern magnate. - difficult as they did not have a local land base, hard to control. = she did sometimes appoint wardens from second rank of northern landowners. Border security a problem after 1569 rebellion - some rebels escaped into Scotland- murder of Francis Russel, son of Earl of Bedford, in a border incident in 1585- solved by skillful diplomacy - James IV accepted pension and hint at possible succession of English throne. Outside border, responsibility lay with Council of the North in York- Elizabeth didn't fully trust a northern magnate to appoint president but were problems with appointing a southerner. - after northern rebellion, c of the n was reconstituted in 1572- under Earl of Huntingdon, puritan, with no local ties.

What was Burghley's view on whether Mary Q of S should be executed? what did parliament do? what did William Davison do and how did the queen respond?

Burghley had view that queen's personal safety and security of protestant state required her execution- used old tactic of parliamentary pressure to influence queen- parliament petitioned liz- she refused to sign death warrant until Feb 1587- but gave contradictory orders about its despatch. Davison, secretary of state, released the warrant and liz flew into rage= privy council blamed, davision fined and put in tower- Rage passed, council and Davison restored to favour. once Mary had been executed, Queen wrote to James VI of Scotland protesting her innocence over murder of his mother- he had no intention of fighting against england- future heir.

How were relations with Wales?

By Es reign, Wales was well integrated into Ireland- some linguistic and cultural differences- Council of Wales and the Marches policed border- conflict rarely an issue. Welsh language spoke widely by people but not used in government. Book of Common Prayer and Bible translated into welsh. much of wales remained poor , most gentry prospered. Disproportionate numbers of Welshmen implicated in Essex rebellion suggest a significant level of discontent with political situation.

How did France's control in Scotland lead to conflict? who were the Lords of Congregation?

Control alarmed John Knox- radical Calvinist, leader of the Scottish reformation- his political allies, the Lords of Congregation were seeking power in Edinburgh, they requested assistance from their fellow Protestants in England - Knox published book in 1558- attacked female and catholic rule of Mary of Guise, suggested there was no biblical justification for female rulership

In what sense was there a golden age in drama and literature?

Dramatists: Shakespeare, Marlowe- increased educational oppurtunities led to emergence of a literate audience, appealed to all sections of society (elite and groudnlings). sophisticated infrastructure for London plays- theatre companies e.g. the Lord's Chamberlain's men for whom Shakespeare wrote, supported by courtiers. operated in competitive market environment- e.g. the Globe. plays had political connotations Prose literature less widely read though many read Foxe's Book of Martyrs- established notion of English as God's elect protestant nation. influential writers- Sidney- moderniser of english language, adapted classical forms, revived the sonnet, precursor to Shakespeare. was however a political outsider, sometimes critical of court.

What was the Essex rebellion, 1601? How did it come about?

Earl of Essex- Robert Devereux - replaced his stepfather Dudley as a favourite after his death. Promotion of Essex angered Robert Cecil- enemies- FACTIONAL RIVALRY. Essex militaristic, young, ambitious, wanted to gain power in court. Essex's career suffered from a number of related problems- was largely froze out of court by Robert Cecil, in deep financial trouble In 1599, sent to deal with O'Neill/Tyrone rebellion in Ireland- ignored queens orders, negotiated with rebels and returned to court= a failed military leader, brought shame- placed under house arrest and deprived of his livings and refused to renew his monopoly of sweet wine- Liz had to explain to JPs her treatment of Essex. Essex and other inc Earl of Southampton began to create plans to seize court by force- wanted to force Queen to change leaders in government, particularly wanted to bring down Robert Cecil enraged, with 140 followers, Essex attempted to seize London, the Tower and court- even approached troops in Scotland, Cecil warned Mayor of London describing Devreux as a traitor - after use of this word, many of Essex's supporters disappeared- he was forced to surrender, gained no extra support-Cecil heard rumors of plans ad told Queen- Cecil was well prepared- - Essex and 6 main supporters executed.

Why was Robert Dudley a possible suitor for Elizabeth to marry? Why did this not happen?

Earl of Leicester, probs queens preferred choice, were childhood friends, she was fond of him and appointed him Master of the Horse- prospect of this marriage horrified Cecil- his influence would've been eroded. Marriage would have created political risks due to circumstances surrounding death of Amy Dudley- Leicester's first wife: found dead, assumed she had been murdered on account of husband so he could marry liz BUT the event made the marriage politically impossible despite jury ruling death an accident. Dudley died in 1588- upset Elizabeth.

What was the Tyrone rebellion? (Ireland)

Earl of Tyrone/ Hugh O'Neill rose up in rebellion in 1595 centred on Ulster Spanish tried to exploit situation by including Irish contigent in 1596 Armada- was unsuccessful but showed Spanish intentions, causing unease. Rebels victorious at the Battle of Yellow Ford- August 1598- Tyrone and allies then controlled much of Ireland beyond the Pale. -looked like he might establish independent Catholic Ireland, looking to Spain for support. Elizabeth thus sent Earl of Essex as Lord Lieutenant in 1599- an error, Essex disobeyed Queen's orders- instead of confronting Tyrone, made a truce and returned to court. Once truce expired, Tyrone moved south hoping to link up with Spanish army. Under new Lord Lieutenant, Lord Mountjoy, English made progress- Tyrone seemed saved by landing of 3000 Spanish troops in Sept 1601 but English triumphed on Christmas Eve- Tyrone retreated, negotiated peace with Mountjoy in 1603- once queen had died.

How was Elizabeth persuaded to intervene in Scotland and by whom?

Elizabeth reluctant- loathed Knox for views on women, cautious about interfering in domestic affairs of a nation whose subjects were rebelling against sovereign authority- Cecil strongly supported intervention- sympathised with religious predicament of Scottish protestants, knew England would be more secure without french influence and wanted to remove Mary Queen of Scots as potential catholic English claimant, wanted to incorporate Scotland into imperial British state - minority position on council. Cecil persuaded liz to intervene by playing on insecurity- pointing out that Francis and Mary had used English royal coat of arms and he threatened resignation. This illustrates how decision making could be influenced by religious considerations and a key individual

How did views regarding the continuing war with Spain vary among English policy makers?

Elizabeth sought national security above all other considerations - for many however England was involved in a war both for national and religious survival against a universal Catholic conspiracy. - Bughley saw Spain as engaged in a war of conquest. Despite differences in views, all shared assumption and that national and religious considerations were paramount. Some took more minimalist view that limited resources should be concentrated on Netherlands and confronting Parma. Others inc John Hawkins favored a more expansive naval campaign.

What were the problems in Ireland in the reign? (up to Tyrone rebellion)

Elizabeth wanted to impose English control in religious and secular matters- In 1560, she was proclaimed Supreme governor of the church of Ireland. However, Ireland catholic, spoke Gaelic, had different laws- hard to enforce Protestantism. Behavior of English incomers and use of martial law (military control) soured relations with Irish lords- rebellion broke out against English rule throughout 1560s/70s/80s- 3rd rebellion in 1579-82 closely linked with Anglo-Spanish war- was a brutal response by Lord Deputy of Ireland- relations sour.

Why was the succession considered an issue? What were the queen's views on the matter of marriage and succession?

Elizabeth's status as a single woman created difficulties- succession, should she die prematurely, was at forefront of ministers thinking. Most ministers wanted her to marry to prevent possibility of catholic inheriting throne. The queen felt this issue lay within the royal prerogative and weren't for discussion in parliament or with council. - caused repeated tension throughout reign

How was parliament used to pass laws related to religion?

First parliament pushed through Religious Settlement in 1559- efforts of strongly Protestant councillors despite conservative opposition in House of Lords- absenteeism a problem at this time (start of new political order- people perhaps waiting to decide stance?- 219/406 present) settlement moved through under Cecil's effective orchestration- changed legal status of church and established uniform form of worship. Parliament passed penal laws against Catholics and tightened them at different points- 1571, 1581, 1584/5. 1563-66= Puritan choir of 40 MPs pressed for further reform Many laws for further religious reform were prevented from being passed e.g. in 1566. In 1571, William Strickland proposed a bill to reform prayer book- upset queen and annoyed council trying to push for religious reform more subtly( by enforcing 39 articles through 6 bills)- only 2 bills passed- Strickland removed In 1593, the crown, urged by Archbishop Whitgift (of Canterbury from 1583) sought passing of punitive act against members of protestant sects who rejected church of england was however opposed by puritan MPs- one of Burghley's associated made a speech criticising Whitgift, offended the queen.

How significant was the threat of Mary Q of S?

Focus of potential rebellion against queen- seen by catholic supporters as the queen-in-waiting.- catholicism meant she was likely to be supported by Philip II and Pope. However has been argued events moved on by 1587- England actively at war with Spain, Mary's execution did give Philip II additional motive to invade but was already planned. Mary's execution can be seen as last stage of the Reformation- after Elizabeth's death, England remains a protestant country.

How did France end up having control in Scotland? when did Henry II of France die?

Henry II died in June 1559- son Francis II succeeded - married to Mary Queen of Scots, Elizabeth's cousin- main Catholic claimant to english throne. Francis's accession brought Catholic Guise faction to power in France- Guise sought to control Scotland- used it as instrument for french policy Mary of Guise was reagent of Scotland:- mother of Mary Queen of Scots French troops were sent to garrison major Scottish fortresses

What is the significance of the Essex rebellion? what can it be seen to represent?

Historians have argued Devereux represents the 'tip of the iceberg' of discontent among nobility and the gentry with the power of the Cecil's- though discontent was never properly organized into serious opposition to her government. Essex might have been an incompetent political figure, lacking in judgement, however his attitudes reflect a larger discontent over the rule of Liz and Cecil, tied in with queen's diminishing authority. Essex situation was a serious blind spot in queen's effectiveness and wisdom, she was reluctant to come to terms with the deficiencies of Essex' ability and character- seen as part of wider issues of government in final years.

Why did English intervention in France fail in 1562? What was the Treaty of Troyes 1464?

Huguenot army was defeated in France, - Elizabeth refused to withdraw troops (said she had taken Le Havre to make up for Calais)- Catholic leader Duke of Guise was assassinated= both sides in France leaderless: French factions made peace and united to drive English out. Elizabeth felt betrayed by Huguenots, never trusted them again. unfavourable peace settlement- Treaty of Troyes between Eng and France: England renounced claims to Calais, France paid around 200k crowns. - Liz lost protection from T of C-C and lost Calais- blow to her prestige and made her more cautious about supporting foreign protestants. SEE CARD 69 FOR CONTINUATION OF PROBLEM OF MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS

When did Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, Elizabeth's favourite, join the council? what impact did this have?

JOINED IN 1562- he had been her childhood friend- some rivalry between Cecil and Dudley but managed working relationship- particularly once liz was less interested in marrying Dudley after 1565. Council united in fear in 1562 as queen nearly died from smallpox and was no succession arranged.

What was the 1562 publication of 'An Apology of the Church of England' by John Jewel, bishop of Salisbury?

Jewel had been in exile under Mary and argued the church of england was returning to its true position that the church of Rome had abandoned- he stated the english church was near to that of the apostles described in Acts ( thus there was continuity between the early church and the belief of reformers) - can be seen as defining the character of the religious settlement

Across her reign, where are there examples of parliament infringing upon the queen's royal prerogative?

Large numbers of MPS urged Liz to marry and discuss issue of succession- 1563 parliament openly pressed issue and in 1566 but were subtler- Queen evaded direct answer both times and furiously demanded the debate end- argued parliament shouldn't discuss personal matters- commons persisted and queen gave in and allowed discussion of potential marriage- she was furious when parliament tried to include promise to marry into bill about taxation. PETER WENTWORTH- imprisoned in 1576 but released, in 1593 imprisoned again with 3 others until his death for arguing for Elizabeth to name a successor- shows queen's worsened temper with age , he however cannot be seen as an opponent, felt he was a loyal friend of monarch. also seen by those pushing for religious reform e.g. in 1586/7 a few Presbyterian MPs were imprisoned for seeking reform, infringement on royal prerogative. In 1593- after events surrounding Wentworth- Elizabeth ordered Lord Pickering to read a statement saying the degree to which she would allow free speech- queen recognised MPs should be allowed to discuss legislation but not other matters. OVER ISSUE OF MONOPOLIES- see later card

How can continuity be seen in the position of the bulk of the population under Elizabeth?

Lower layers of society generally differed little from start of century. Mostly lived in rural areas, only large city was London. Few cities had populations over 5000. Low standards of living. Population growth- around 4 million by end of reign, Poor sectors vulnerable to enclosure.

Why did relations with catholics change around the 1570s?

Mary Queen of Scots threat, Northern Rebellion 1569, excommunication by pope in 1570, he called on loyal catholics to depose her, laws tightened in 1580s in response to worsening Spanish relations, fear of catholic rebellion and worsened by onset of catholic missions of priests.

What was the 1586 Babington plot?

Mary complicit in plot to assassinate Elizabeth and put Mary on throne.- long term goal of plot was invasion of england by catholic spanish and french forces to restore catholicism plot was Mary's only chance to escape captivity and achieve catholic aims. led to Mary's execution- evidence from letters she sent to Babington where she consented directly to assassination exposed by Walsingham's code breaker- Thomas Phelippes.- sent to Walsingham, used in trial. conspirators sentenced to death for treason - Babington and Ballard executed. ENABLED BURGHLEY TO SECURE MARY'S EXECUTION

AFTER EARLY FOREIGN POLICY (SEE CARD 37 AND BEFORE)- Catholic Mary Queen of Scots still in Scotland, under government of protestants- How had Mary angered the Protestant lords in power and the english ? (through her marriages to who?)

Mary did still hold some level of power in Scotland- she married Lord Darnley (2nd husband) in 1565- gave birth to son James (heir)- but were rumours the father was David Rizzo, her secretary and lover. Darnley also had a claim as great grandson if HVIII- marriage prompted speculation that Mary intended to claim english throne. - marriage a disaster, Mary implicated in her husbands murder- then 3rd marriage to Earl of Bothwell, Darnley's presumed murderer- set off brief civil war, Mary fled to England in 1567- NO VERDICT COULD SOLVE M Q OF S PROBLEM- innocent= could raise army and threaten throne, guilty= would be returned to scottish lords as their prisoner and liz would be supported deposing of anoited monarch and cousin. - scandal let to Protestant scottish lords rebelling again- they forced Mary to abdicate in favour of James her son- protestant Earl of Murray= reagent. Mary imprisoned on castle in lake, escaped in 1568, raised army to try and win back throne, defeated- FLED TO ENGLAND

After Mary fled to England after escaping from imprisonment by scottish protestant lords in , why was there no good solution to this problem of MARY BEING IN ENGLAND? Why was Mary such a threat? What happened in 1570 to worsen the problem?

Mary wanted Liz's help but the two never met. from her arriving in england to execution in 1587 she posed CONTINUOUS PROBLEM- some English catholics saw her as rightful monarch- she became focus of Catholic plots to overthrow Elizabeth and a potential pawn of France or Spain. Elizabeth kept Mary under close scrutiny for next 19 years- rebellion of northern earls in 1569 made her take threat seriously. 1570- excommunication of Elizabeth by Pope Pius V- he also called on loyal Catholics to depose her- in eyes of catholics this absolved them from the need to obey her as their sovereign: frightened government, tightened treason laws.

Why was Elizabeth reluctant to press for the execution of Mary Queen of Scots?

Mary was another anointed monarch- elizabeth's notion of rulership was that all monarchs, even Mary who had lost throne, were divinely ordained- to seek her death could be a challenge to divine law. feared execution could undermine her own security as monarch. some other councillors and nobles reluctant because they were concerned that to condemn to death the mother of a possible future monarch was not a sensible career move- some not therefore present at trial at Fotheringham Castle. Mary was also liz's cousin- WERE 4 MONTHS OF DELAY DESPITE MARY BEING PLAINLY GUILTY.

What problems weakened the council from the later 1580s?

Military concerns grew (threat of war with Spain)- developed system of Lord Lieutenants after 1585, directed war effort, planned logistics and issued orders for conscription (all able bodied men could be called, some selected to join Trained Bands to train them with weaponry.) A number of ministers died in quick succession- from 1587-1591= 8 key councillors inc Sadler, Mildmay, Walsingham, Croft, Hatton etc. AND DEATH OF EARL LEICESTER IN 1588= personal blow for queen- By 1597, council only had 11 ministers. - Queen worsened matters as failed to make immediate replacements - relied on middle aged sons of former councillors who lacked skill.- absence of great aristocrats/ noblemen suggested her council no longer contained most important families. Elizabeth refused to allow Burghley to retire despite effectiveness/ health diminishing in 1590s- appointed his son ROBERT CECIL to council in 1591- took on immense administrative burden= this angered the Earl of Essex, led to FACTIONAL RIVALRY and ESSEX REBELLION OF 1601- SEE LATER NOTES - Essex executed and behaved badly BUT some suggest his attitudes reflect a larger discontent of Elizabeth's rule at this time- Essex situation was serious blind spot in queen's authority, reluctant to admit deficiencies of his character and ability.

What was the situation in the Netherlands from 1570-85? Why was this key in declining english and spanish relations? what was the Dutch Revolt? How did conflict in the Netherlands proceed? How did Elizabeth irritate the spanish? What was the Treaty of Joinville in 1584?

Netherlands ruled by Catholic Spain, also vital place for english trade. Protestant ideas spread in Netherlands- Protestant Dutch rebels began campaign for independence- lead to DUTCH REVOLT: In 1572 (Liz inadvetedly contributed to it by expelling Dutch pirates, Sea Beggars, from english ports who then landed in another dutch one, angering spanish garrisons- sparking revolt) By 1576, all 17 provinces had risen against Spanish army- called for autonomy and expulsion of foreign forces (situation favoured by liz). Provinces however quarrelled and french were prepared to invade- Liz contemplated marriage to French Duke of Anjou to keep influence in Nlands- gave Duke 10k to fight Spanish but plan failed. Dutch divisions led to emergence of 2 separate entities/ Unions: Utrecht= north and protestant and Arras= south and Catholic, with whom spanish made peace and Duke of Parma (govenor general), tried to reconquest northern provinces. Annexation of Portugal by Spain in 1580 strengthened spain- had use of large fleet and ports. Liz supported Portuguese pretender, Don Antonio and knighted Francis Drake on circumnavigating the globe= irritated Spanish. Parma's reconquest of the north gained momentum- only 2 provinces left in Protestant hands + William of Orange, rebel leader, assassinated in 1584. TREATY OF JOINVILLE= 1585 WAS FINAL STRAW: Philip II and Catholic League of France/ Guises came into agreement. - gives Spain more reason to support Mary Q of S.

Mary's catholic councillors accepted Elizabeth's succession and didn't try to interfere with it, easing her path to power- what showed this?

Nicholas Heath, Mary's Lord Chancellor, announced Mary's death and proclaimed Elizabeth successor. Within a few days of Mary's death (17th Nov 1558), 9 of Mary's councillors rode to Hatfield to assure Elizabeth of their loyalty- did not attempt to deny her succession - wanted to retain royal favour by recognising lawful succession

How can change be seen in the position of nobles under Elizabeth?

No dukedoms created after 1572- each of the 4 Ducal titles existing from 1547-72 (Somerset, Northumberland, Suffolk, Norfolk) met a bloody end- traitors deaths. Ranks of peerage indulged in huge building projects of country houses to enhance prestige. Elizabeth chose herself not to emulate such grandeur on cost grounds. Less opportunity to fulfill military roles. nobility had become more peaceable, less concerned with defense. - seen by abandonment of fortified castles to build essentially indefensible country houses

what are the years of her reign?

Nov 1558- March 1603

Aside from Dudley, who were the other potential suitors for queen to marry ? why did she not?

Philip II of Spain- offered his hand as polite gesture, lacked serious intent and was catholic- couldn't be trusted after events under Mary I but was a powerful monarch. Archduke Ferdinand or Charles- sons of Emperor Ferdinand- but both catholic. Prince Erik of Sweden- protestant, liz gave little encourgaement. Later in 1576, possible marriage to Francois, Duke of Anjou, brother of King Henry III of France and heir- suggested by Burghley and Sussex but most worried this might lead to an infant child, under french influence, as successor- also huge age gap and suspicions he was a transvestite. Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, considered but formed rebellion

Name the different religious groups who can be regarded as opposing Elizabethan religion?

Puritans Presbyterians Separatists Catholicism

How significant was the Northern rebellion of 1569? What responses followed?

Rebellion revealed the London government's lack of comprehension of the differences existing between north and south and the problems of managing localities. Rebellion was however geographically limited- few from outside Durham/North ridings- didn't gain support from other nobility in area, little enthusiasm to get rid of Elizabeth or to keep her but no consensus of a replacement. C of the N reconstituted in 1572 under puritan Huntingdon- outsider with no local ties. He implemented laws against Catholics- rebellion generally prompted harsher treatment of them and ended power and influence of Percy and Neville families in north - otherwise crown relied on Lord Lieutenants and JPs to maintain law and order. revolt may have encouraged the Pope to excommunicate Elizabeth wish a papal bull- english catholics no longer had to obey her. also meant Mary Q of S was moved to Coventry- away from catholic strongholds on north.

What was the Treaty of Hampton Court? How did England intervene in France?

Sept 1562- gave assistance to French Hugenots- 3000 troops sent, loan of 30k and control of Le Havre port as security.

At same time as campaign in Netherlands against Spain, following the Treaty of Nonsuch, Francis Drake continued to attack spanish ships- WHAT WAS DRAKE'S ATTACK ON CADIZ IN 1587?

Since 1586, Spain had been gradually building up Armada- Philip IIs enormous invasion fleet due to help invasion of England. 1587, liz orders Drake to attack spanish navy- attacks Cadiz, major Spanish naval port- destroys 30 ships and many supplies- called the 'singeing of the King of Spain's beard' - Drake then continued to attack Spanish coastal ports and treasure ships. Attack meant Spain had to take a break from building Armada to defend itself- didn't stop Armada but delayed it by a year, bought England time to prepare.

How was parliament managed under Elizabeth? role of Cecil and his son?

Sir William Cecil played an important role in framing and shaping bills- orchestrated proceedings. Cecil assisted by the councils 'floor managers' in Commons- Francis Knollys and and later Christopher Hatton- Cecil used his own men of buisness to help him manage the commons- (used experts and lawyers who could promote measures Cecil wanted emphasis on). However, despite attempts at control, were times when parliament irritated the queen- mainly when they challenged royal prerogative e.g. over issues of marriage and succession. Cecil died in 1598, young Robert Cecil did not have the same skill as parliamentary manager and had considerably fewer resources to undetake task than father did. By 1590s generally traditional methods of management had less success- liz tried to use charm and flattery. - relations worsen significantly at end of reign- e.g. over monopolies also, over half MPs had university education or were lawyers= created a more self confident parliament able to argue more.

Use evidence in cards above to suggest there was growing conflict with parliament- what evidence suggests that in fact there was not conflict between crown and parliament?

Some historians believe opposition in parliament was infrequent and disunited, never posed serious threat. was also a considerable level of agreement over many issues- where disagreements did exist, did not signify a crisis within the ruling elite- also for most of the time, queen did not need parliament to rule- used privy council elizabeth did show authority- resisted attempts to name successor and to marry. Puritan choir in reality not very powerful or united also despite MPs like Peter Wentworth opposing limitations on freedom of speech- most did not support free speech due to queens opposition. Most parliaments summoned money and queen got it. Much of the commons work was mundane.

In what sense did Elizabeth gain some international confirmation of her accession?

Spanish ambassador, the Court of Feria was sent by Philip of Spain a few days before Mary's death to try and broker a marriage between P and E- nothing came of this but shows Philip's recognition of Elizabeth as legitimate successor

What evidence is there of factional rivalry earlier in the reign (before Essex vs Robert Cecil)?

Structure of government in early reign did help prevent factional rivalry getting out of hand- no single minister had complete control of patronage and various influential families at court and in council balanced one another. Leicester and Cecil did disagree but tended to cooperate over most issues- disputes were occasional and on specific issues e.g. marriage. Some historians argue there were clear divisions between Cecil and his allies who favoured modern pragmatic policies and a Protestant faction led by Dudley - however others challenge this and see Cecil as a more radical religious figure than has been acknowledged and because they did usually cooperate.

What are the reasons/ how did the English defeat the Spanish Armada?

Superior English ships- galleons, easier and faster to maneuver, advised by Hawkins, cannons mounted on smaller gun carriages, decks had space for cannon to recoil, could be quickly loaded- English could fire more than the Spanish. Were only 24 galleons by 1588- not sole explanation. Poorly supplied Spanish ships- Drake's raid on Cadiz destroyed many barrels- new ones made of inferior wood. Delay in setting sail meant by the time they engaged with English, had been at sea for over 10 weeks. Communication issues between Spanish and Dutch fleets- Duke of Parma did not control any deep-sea ports needed for larger war ships, had to use lots of small ships- took longer to load. Communication had to go by sea, unreliable, took a week for word to reach Parma that Medina Sidonia was in the English channel- too late to respond. English tactics- seen at Battle of Gravelines, kept safe distance generally. The weather- delayed Spain in setting sail, heavy winds scattered the Armada at B of G, unfavorable winds meant Armada returned via dangerous root- lost more ships. Elizabeth listened to key advisors- inc Francis Drake. Philip II ignored many of his commanders suggestions.

How did Anglo-Spanish relations deteriorate further from 1585-87/ outbreak of Anglo Spanish war? What was the TREATY OF NONSUCH IN 1585?

To counteract T of J= T of N= Liz made an alliance with Dutch Protestant rebels.- sent troops to the Nlands under command of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester- paid for army of around 7000 English soldiers. NOT A GREAT SUCCESS: troops were ill disciplined, alienated the Dutch, 2 of them deserted and joined Parma's army on Spanish side, English commanders quarrelled, Leicester not given enough resources and had differing aims to Queen, Leicester quarrelled with Dutch- was distrust. Dudley only managed to disrupt Parma's forces- couldn't defeat them. - fiasco encouraged Philip that he could exploit divisions between english and dutch. At this time, Francis Drake continued to attack spanish- SEE NEXT CARD

How did Spain try to exploit rebellion in Ireland?

To prevent Spanish from landing in Ireland (Ireland was in rebellion against English rule and had Spanish support), a fleet sent under Earl of Essex to attack Spanish fleet in harbor in Spain in 1597- Essex's fleet was driven back due to adverse winds. Spanish fleet succeeded in setting sail to Ireland but was frustrated by adverse weather- further fear of Spanish invasion in 1599, created panic in England- prompted by false intelligence- thereafter, naval activity direct almost entirely at the need to prevent Spanish landings in England. - little achieved, great cost (LINKS TO EVENTS IN IRELAND, SEE LATER CARD)

Who was appointed principal secretary? did Elizabeth make many household appointments?

William Cecil - political partnership lasted for almost 40 yrs- he enjoyed her trust- in 1572 became Lord Treasurer made some household appointments but not many further appointments- wanted to keep Mary's councillors guessing

Describe the nature of the privy council in the Queen's early reign- up until 1562?

William Cecil, key minister- dominated council. Council relatively united as they tried to persuade Elizabeth into marriage. Contained some of Cecil's close associated e.g. Bacon, Francis Knollys and Russel- and some conservatives inc Sussex and Shrewsbury and Duke of Norfolk- conservatives usually given offices to keep them away from court and reduce direct political influence.

what were Elizabeth's motivations/ aims behind her 1559 religious settlement?

a major priority of her regime to decide on the form of religion the country would experience -following Mary who made England lawfully under Catholic Church of Rome again solution needed regarding the legal status of the church and the form of church services/ liturgical books she wanted to create uniformity and heal rifts

What evidence is there of economic prosperity under Elizabeth?

agricultural production increased overall- disrupted by bad harvests cloth making in rural areas increased new urban settlements developed- London grew, provided market for internal goods Shipbuilding and ports grew south-east flourished Legislation to regulate trade and industry proliferated- gov realised that taxes and duties levied on manufacturers brought wealth to whole country- 2 Navigation Acts promoted use of English ships 1563 Statute of Artificiers: fixed prices, wages, restricted workers freedom of movement, controled apprenticeships. Landoweners benefited from rise in landed incomes, many acquired range of material posessions and profit from land acquired through dissolution of church property earlier in Tudors- huge proliferation in building. Farmers benefited from rise in agricultural prices- improved living standards.

who are the 'puritan choir'?

allies of radical clergymen in the house of commons who are thought to have pressured elizabeth to accept a much more protestant prayerbook.

how many Marian/ catholic bishops refused to take the oath of supremacy and were deprived of their posts as a penalty?

an estimated 2000

Who were Presbyterians? what did they believe?

aspect of broader Puritan movement- calvinist, wanted further reform in church structure and worship, church already calvinist in doctrine but wanted more. Emerged partly in reaction to Vestiarian controversy- beleived bishops had no place and that all ministers should be of equal status. wanted greater reliance on scriptures for church authority. - made distaste known in 2 pamphlets known as the Admonitions- 1st attacked book of common prayer, 2nd gave detailed description of a Presbyterian church system- pamphlet war began between Thomas Cartwright (presbyterian) and John Whitgift - Cambridge vice chancellor who argued Presbyterian attitude was destructive and caused splits- forced Cartwright out academic post. movement grew in 1580s, but was geographically narrow, did attract some high ranking support e.g. Leicester and Burghley saw advantages, ideas developed in local synods, attempts to change via parliament failed: 1584 Peter Turner, 1587 Anthony Cope failed to introduce bills to replace prayerbook with new one. Whitgift, once A of C from 1583, issued the Three Articles with aim of destroying movement: had to acknowledge royal supremacy, accept prayerbook and 39 articles contained nothing contrary to word of God- 2nd article caused crisis of conscience for many clergy- felt parts of prayerbook lacked spiritual justification- Whitgift forced to back down under pressure from councillors, reduced 2nd article to simple acceptance of prayerbook- By late 1580s influence in decline, few Puritan clergy willing to break with church by refusing to accept 3 articles. death of John Field in 1589 satirical writings harmed reputation

What was the 1583 Throckmorton plot ? what as the 1584 Bond of Association?

attempt by english catholics to murder Elizabeth, replace her with Mary- also envisaged coordinating assassination with invasion by Duke of Guise, financed by Pope and Spain. Francis Throckmorton, english catholic, involved- acted as intermediary between Mary and Spanish ambasssador, Mendoza. foiled by efficiency of Sir Francis Walsingham's espionage network- had Throckmorton under surveillance for 6 months, arrested him- led to creation of 1584 Bond of Association- obliged the execution of anyone who attempted to usurp the throne/ assassinate the queen- drafted by Cecil and Walsingham- targeted at Mary. worsened anglo-spanish relations and tightened control of Mary's captivity.

In what sense did Elizabeth come to the throne at a bad time for English economy and society? inc poverty

bad harvest= food shortages, old and infirm especially suffered high mortality rates= reduced supply of labour, high taxation, cut in real wages- lower than previous century- wage rates fell behind prices problems of poverty and vagabondage widespread- due to reasons above Private donations from benefactors did continue despite religious change but weren't enough- FEAR OVER SOCIAL STABILITY- Large nos of homeless and unemployed people threatened law and order.

what happened with Elizabeth and Thomas Seymour? how did she learn from this?

brief/ turbulent relationship with Thomas Seymour (D of S's brother) - married Katherine Parr- he sexually assulted her/ were rumours of affair - Seymour executed in 1549 for this and for plotting to kill ED VI- elizabeth showed a clear head in interrogation and wrote letter to Mary with diagonal lines so it couldn't be faked- shows intelligence- she learnt from temporary disgrace of relationship also learnt from wyatt rebellion where she was arrested but later released DUE TO HER TRAUMATIC ADOLESCENCE, DEVELOPED POLITICAL SKILL TO ENSURE SURVIVAL= reflected in her involvement in governance.

what was the state of religion in england by 1603?

broad consensus surrounding C of E- ensured a substantial degree of religious unity. Level of popular catholicism declined - country house religion - catholics divided between those who tried to accomodate conflicting loyalties of crown and faith and others who give all to catholicism and wanted a catholic succcession Puritanism faded into main church, separatisim disappeared

what was the political condition of england by 1603?

broadly successful and effective government for most of reign- was decline in authority and administration quality in 1590s- anxieties over succession, factionalism- earl of essex indicative of issues. death of long standing ministers most english people broadly loyal to crown apart form militant catholics queen had reigned too long- reputation tarnished by last years, seemed out of touch with younger gen who looked forward to accession of a king

What was introduced in the later years of the reign (from 1570s) to relieve poverty? What was the 1601 Poor Law?

by 1570s some urban areas had systems of poor relief. 1572- Act required local ratepayers to pay a rate for the relief of their own poor. Poor Law Act of 1476- first attempt at national system, towns required to make provision for employment of deserving poor - further acts in 1498 and 1601 completed legislative process. 1601 ELIZABETHAN POOR LAW ACT: parish became designated institution to administer poor relief- each parish appointed overseer of the poor- to ensure efficient collection of poor rates and distribution of relief. Were to relieve the impotent/ deserving poor. Able bodied poor given work in a 'House of Industry', poor children apprenticed to a trade- supervised by JPs. government took it upon itself to ensure a minimum level of subsistence for deserving poor - legislative achievement, despite harsh treatment of undeserving poor, the creation of a national system shows a more enlightened attitude to relief than earlier reigns. Was also an increase in donations from wealthy secular benefactors who left money to charitable houses

by how many votes was the act of uniformity passed in the house of lords? what does this suggest?

by 3 votes- shows the opposition coming from conservative peers and catholic bishops.

What are recusants?

catholics who pay fines rather than attend Anglican services

What is meant by the concept of the MID-TUDOR CRISIS? How is Elizabeth marked as different and how do historians views vary?

concept usually used to explain reign of Edward VI, Mary I and sometimes end of HVIII and start of Elizabeth. Rests on assumption that reigns of Ed and Mary pale into insignificance compared with solid achievements and distinctive long, dramatic reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth I. mid-Tudor years seen as unproductive, uncreative and strife-ridden, as having inefficient governments, failures in foreign policy, economic and social distress. However, some more modern historians have challenged this idea and stressed positive features of Ed and Mary's reigns/ argue same issues seen under HVIII AND LIZ.

In what sense was there an English Renaissance and a 'golden age' in art?

culture flourished high culture of elites also transformed popular culture, patronage of court ensured arts thrived- many arts celevrated the virgin queen= propaganda for Gloriana myth, sustained support for queen at a time when reputation was slipping.- ENGLISH RELIGION AND CULTURE TRANSFORMED English paintings influenced by Flemish models formal portraiture important but lacked a artist like Holbein. The portrait minature = most culturally important aspect of painting.

How did contemporaries differentiate between deserving and undeserving poor?

deserving= entitled to some form of limited assistance inc elderly, widows, disabled- prevented them from securing employment. undeserving= should be punished

What was the 1601 Golden Speech?

elizabeth able to demonstrate political skill one last time to parliament closed 1601 parliament, eased tensions as she admitted a 'lapse or error' and yet maintained prerogative- delivered to 140 MPs, a form of farewell - performance was masterly, stated 'you have had and may have mightier and wiser princes sitting in this seat, vet you have never had nor shall have any that love you better'- many MPs reportedly left chamber in tears.

What was the final succession of Elizabeth's reign? who succeeded?

elizabeth took political decision not to marry- could see disadvantages, right till the end refused to name successor- execution of cousin M Q of S left her son, James VI of Scotland with best claim- was protestant and had 2 sons by 1600. One successor was in place, councillors began wooing James to remain in royal favour- Essex in regular contact with him as was Robert Cecil- Cecil ensured his succession- was affected very smoothly. is still no conclusive proof liz accepted james' succession on her deathbed- but arrangements already in place as her authority ebbed away.

How did exploration and colonisation develop in Elizabeth's reign?

extension of trade to North America and attempt to form colony in Virginia of little importance at time but became significant- 1580: Francis Drake back from 3 year circumnavigation - showed opportunity to acquire new trading lands. - other explorers also highlighted the potential of North America- 1584: Charter granted to Sir Walter Raleigh to establish English control over territory in north America - gained investment from Walsingham - 1585: Raleigh received patent to colonise what would be known as Virginia- after 2 expeditions eventually made land on Roanoke Island (became known as North America) - disastrous: poor organisation, ill luck, reluctance by the queen to give the matter priority when faced with war with Spain - problems of native hostility, insufficient support

How did Elizabeth try to deal with range of economic and social problems IN EARLY REIGN, why were attempts ineffective up until 1570s? (stabilising the currency not included here- this was more successful)

first parliament proposed legislation- none passed into law. Government had 2 ineffective mechanisms for dealing with situation: instructions issued to JPs/ officials and royal proclamations (effectively admission of government impotence)- government dimly understood problems. Many local authorities/ counties tried to establish wage rates e.g. Council of the North charged 133 labourers with unlawfully high rates. THE STATUE OF ARTIFICERS- 1563- national attempt- established rules of compulsory labour, minimum period to hire workmen in which they could not leave masters, prohibition of craftsmen who had not served 7-year apprenticeship, JPs in every county set maximum wage rates. BUT GOVERNMENT LACKED POWERS OF ENFORCEMENT- couldn't investigate wage rates in every county, hard for JPs to manage. POOR RELIEF- Before reformation, provided by Church but was destroyed mostly- parliament made failed attempts- ineffective acts under Mary and in 1563- national legislation lagged behind local provision- not until 1570s parliament managed to tackle problem.

In what sense was there a golden age in music?

flourished religious music preserved by music, herself skillful musician, in face of protestant reforers who emphasised importance of word of god- queen saved musical culture of cathedrals. great composers- Thomas Tallis and William Byrd wrote for church but were catholic. renaissance convention that courtiers should be skilled musicians development of madrigals- italian form of part song for mixed voice choirs e.g. 1601 Triumph of Oriana collection of 25 by 23 composers- honoured queen, Gloriana reinforced. in terms of popular music, instrumental music and song flourished- many towns had official bands, performed on formal occasions

what are the different historians views on the settlement?

for many years dominant view- NEALE- that queen faced pressure from radical clergymen and puritan choir that she backed down and accepted a more protestant prayer book than wanted. Others suggest she saw the settlement as final but Neale suggests it is a precursor to final reform. Some state she always intended the settlement to be firmly protestant and that she only accepted some guidelines from 1549 Edwardian prayer book to maintain support from conservatives in House of Lords. - they suggest the main opposition came not from puritan choir but from catholic bishops and conservatives in H of L.

what issues did elizabeth face upon coming to the throne?

government populated by powerful Catholics- England's faith had reverted to Catholicism: Mary's councillors feared their careers were over. England was facing impacts of bad harvests, ravages of flu epidemic, inflation. England's pride, economy and security hampered with due to disastrous war with France and loss of Calais Question of who she will marry- subject of endless speculation DELICATE POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS SITUATION

How can continuity be seen in the position of nobles under Elizabeth?

great landowners dominant political and social role- remained under aristocratic domination senior military positions

How did trade develop in Elizabeth's reign? (economic developments)

grew considerably foreign trade surpassed in value by internal trade e.g. growth in shipping coal from River Tyne to Thames. External trade involved a flourishing cloth trade with the Netherlands- in 1580s main wool market moved from southern to northern Netherlands (protestant region) Oversees markets broadened- increase in trade with Ottoman Empire, India, Russia- range of foreign luxury goods imported- more affordable for wider population. 3 expeditions by John Hawkins- from 1562, acquired African slaves to transport to south america and exchange for goods- backed by London merchants, English slave trade. 3rd expedition: suffered Spanish blockade at Mexican port of San Juan de Ulna in 1568- worsened relations with Spain, even liz saw potential gains in riches abroad. formation of trading companies- Muscovy Company, formed under Mary I to trade with north Europe and Russia- failed to compete with Dutch, Eastland Company in 1579 trade with Baltics, Turkish Company (Levant company) set up in 1581, trade with Ottoman Empire, East India Company in 1600 to trade with Asia- Dutch company better funding- struggled to compete: RELATIVELY MODEST ORGANISATIONS- all joint-stock companies owned by shareholders - future of capitalist development.

How can change be seen in the position of gentry under Elizabeth?

growth in numbers proportion who were seriously wealthy increased.

What was Elizabeth's early life/ years before she was queen like?

had been named a royal bastard along with Mary after her mother died in 1536- lived in Hatfield, her needs were neglected and rarely called to court- Lady Bryan wrote to ask king for new clothes Bryan replaced with Kat Champernowe (later Ashley)- mother figure, key influence Katherine Parr, stepmother, appointed Lutheran Roger Ascham to tutor Elizabeth - taught public speaking and rhetoric

What evidence is there of economic depression in the reign?

harvest faliures could be disasterious: 4 successive bad harvests 1594-7 led to serious poverty. 9/44 harvests in reign poor By 1596, real wage collapsed to less than half level of 9 years earlier 1596-97 subsistence crisis: distress widespread, bad in far north and rural areas- death from starvation Mixed economic record- ministers simply reacted to situations they confronted, main priority was the maintenance of public order

What was the role and structure of the royal court under Elizabeth?

important to decision making and advice- part theatre and place for patronage (distributed favour to those loyal). existed wherever queen happened to be- 2 main areas: Presence Chamber= more open to anyone of right status. AND Privy Chamber= carefully guarded, more important and private but less influential that under kings as no Gentlemen of privy chamber had access. Came under jurisdiction of Lord Chamberlain- appointed from nobility and 3 of hers close relatives. Ceremonial aspects of courtly life important- queen increasingly turned politicians e.g. Cecil into courtiers, and courtiers e.g. Leicester, into politicians

what was the economic condition of england by 1603?

in some respect, continuity in 16th century- expansion in trade and industry. by 1603, some of the structures contributing to England's commercial dominance in Europe established- trading companies. - still not a match to Dutch. Domestic demand thrived- cottage industries rose. only way to avoid poverty through hard work and multiple employment- inflation was a problem but stability of era did much to aid commercial prosperity.

How can continuity be seen in the position of gentry under Elizabeth?

included wide social range- influential knights and figures of national importance e.g. Hatton, to modest local landowners and gentlemen and lawyers. prominent in local government- through work as JPs, often took on burden of local office without tangile rewards, MPs.

How did England intervene in Scotland? What was the Treaty of Berwick, why did France withdraw?

initially sent money and armaments, end of 1559 sent navy to stop French landing. Lords of Congregation offered conditional support in T of B in Feb 1560- army then sent north= it blockaded Leith near Edinburgh where most of the French force was- this failed BUT French fleet damaged by storm and Mary of Guise reagent died= forced a French withdrawal anyway- death of Francis II later meant Guises fell from power.

What was the 1571 Ridolfi plot?

involved conspiracy for Mary Q of S to marry the Duke of Norfolk (Thomas Howard)- plan was to have the Duke of Alba from the Netherlands invade, form a rebellion of nobility, murder Elizabeth and secure marriage. Roberto Ridolfi- Italian merchant played leading role. Norfolk felt undervalued and was ambitious. William Cecil gathered intelligence through network of informers and through torture- leaders and accomplices sentenced to death, Norfolk executed for treason. Spanish ambasssador, De Spes, expelled. Mary kept in prison- to agree to her death would make war with spain inevitable despite council wanting it.

How did the war with Spain continue on land in the Netherlands after the Armada?

main arena for war remained Nlands after 1588. relations between Dutch and English improved- In 1589, Sir Francis Vere made commander of English forces- highly capable- forged positive relationship with Dutch leader. Also Spanish faced problems- troops mutinied regularly. These factors ensured gradually territories lost to the Duke of Parma were recovered. By 1594, Spanish expelled from all lands in north Nlands, became an independent state and south Nlands still under Spain but with some autonomy. - Dutch Revolt proved successful. English objectives achieved.- was however costly but Dutch paid some of it.

Where did the northern rebellion of 1569 take place? By who? what were the motives/ causes?

mainly in Durham and North Ridings of Yorkshire in 1569- subsequent rising in Cumberland in 1570. Headed largely by leading northern nobility- earls of Northumberland and Westmorland= a 'noble' rebellion. MOTIVES: Religious- north more religiously conservative, disliked Elizabethan settlement. Succession related- presence of M Q of S in England gave hopes for alternative future- Norfolk was Westmorland's brother-in-law- conspiracy for him to marry Mary? Economic- north economically deprived- resentment. Political- leaders resented their exclusion from their traditional aristocratic role in the north.

How did Mary, Queen of Scots, meet her death? how was she viewed in the eyes of English Catholics?

met her end with great dignity and composure was a painful death- took 3 strikes to cut head. Eyes of catholics= she died a martyr to the catholic faith.

How did Elizabeth use the council? what was her attitude towards it?

met regularly, 3-6 days a week at different stages. was slimmed down in size in her reign- never had more than 19 members. she picked members based on loyalty- importance as decision making body shouldn't be overestimated- she often consulted ministers on an individual basis. e.g. William Cecil key minister at start of reign She fully intended to rule as well as reign- use intelligence and political skill. Was conscious of importance of her royal prerogative- wouldn't restrict it. Is clear that it was still an age of personal monarchy- queen took important decisions and had final say. Council unable to exert much pressure on Liz over marriage and Mary Q of S issues- that she felt infringed on royal prerogative/ were personal. Otherwise, she wasn't unreasonable and listened to Council

How did Elizabeth successfully begin to STABILISE THE CURRENCY in her early years?

more successful than area of poor relief- Northumberland and Mary had tried Elizabeth announced scheme to withdraw debased coins early in reign and replace them with soundly minted ones- some people suffered but mainly good- gov wisely did not resort to debasement again for rest of century. Government could no longer be held responsible for rising prices.

How prevalent was social disorder and rebellion in the reign? what was the 1596 Oxfordshire Rising?

mostly a period of social stability. even in mid-1590s- desperate situation of harvest failure, rising prices, outbreak of plague- was religious division particularly after 1570 excommunication. Economic discontent lead to sporadic foot riots- Oxfordshire rising 1596, provoked by high food prices and harvest failure- led by 4 men, seized weapons, marched on London- ill thought out scheme. also food riots in Kent, London, Hampshire, Norfolk. authorities responded harshly- FEAR OF SOCIAL DISLOCATION, didn't reflect reality. Genuine concerns over poor- poor law. one significant rebellion in the north in 1569 - little to do with economic and social aspirations of the poor.

How large was Philip IIs fleet for the Armada? what were his aims/ plan of action?

organisation was highly complex- took 2 years. Philip believed he was doing God's work, was engaged in a catholic crusade. Armada had 130 ships, over 2000 guns, around 30,000 men. Under command of Duke of Medina-Sidonia. Setting sail of army delayed due to Drake's attack on Cadiz- set sail July 1588: objective to reach port of Gravelines in Netherlands and join up with Spanish army under Duke of Parma- would board ships and launch English invasion. - All forces would combine at Calais, would land in Kent, march on London- hoped English Catholics would rise up against Elizabeth, she would surrender and would impose new catholic government.- was going to require good communication and timing for ships to link up

Why did councillors and parliament specifically worry about the succession? what were the reasons to doubt the potential successors?

particularly 1563 parliament experienced full-scale succession crisis after Elizabeth was ill with smallpox- serious level of panic, could predict disasters of her death. 1566 parliament also pressed to marry, prompted by MPS- infuriated liz- she summoned both houses to angrily disapprove of actions- was within royal prerogative. no consensus of who successor would be, were reasons to doubt potentials: Lady Catherine Gray, Jane's sister, protestant- heir presumptive according to HVIII law- she disgraced herself with secret marriage to Edward Seymour- earl of hertford (somersets son)- demoted to presence chamber from privy and imprisoned in tower. Also ardent catholic Mary Q of S! Elizabeth characteristically refused to commit herself to a successor- perhaps lucky this did not lead to total disaster.

Why did Puritanism decline in the late 1580s?

partly due to deaths of Leicester, Mildmay, Walsingham- political supporters in court. Due to defeat of spanish armada- reduced percieved threat of catholicism Harsh penal laws against catholics also reduced threat Disappearance of presbyterianism meant puritan atittudes were more acceptable within trad church structure - fundamentally Calvinist beleifs of church reaffirmed in 1595 Lambeth Articles. 1559 Book of Common Prayer accepted.

What was agreed in the treaty of cateau cambresis?

peace treaty- Elizabeth came to throne with england in conflict with France, England had lost Calais. all countries involved were financially struggling reached agreement over Calais- France would retain it for 8 years, would then be restored to english control if england kept peace in meantime and if calais wasn't returned, french would pay 500,000 crowns to England

Why was there speculation/ concern over how protestant or catholic the religious settlement would be? / what evidence shows this?

people did not doubt she would break from Rome - as she did exist as a result of this. Many Protestant radicals hoped she would be an 'English Deborah'- an Old Testament heroine who protected Israelite's from bad religion of the Canaanites However, Elizabeth could not ignore that 70% of the population are not protestant. Her personal faith is contested- she believed the two faiths could not exist together without war- in Mary's reign had accepted Catholicism (showed distaste for marriage of churchmen) but in other ways was protestant- Anne Boleyn's daughter so grew up connected to wider network of reformist thinkers and tutored by Lutheran Ashcham

What was the 1585 Parry plot?

plot to assassinate queen Parry = Welsh courtier and spy, covertly joined catholic church, make links abroad, he tried to win queens favour by manufacturing plots against her and appearing to have discovered them- arrested and executed for high treason. led to acceleration of parliamentary proceedings of bill to ensure queen's safety 1585- excluded Mary from succession.

How does Elizabeth's appointment of bishops reflect religious nature of her reign?

protestant emphasis can be seen in appointment of new bishops- all but 1 of Mary's bishops refused to continue holding office. some early appointments were moderates particularly Matthew Parker as Archbishop of Canterbury. (he had been married- was trusted as was A Boleyn's chaplain.) However, most of the new bishops were returning exiles - appointment part of a conscious strategy to reshape the hierarchy of the church along more evangelical lines

How successful was Elizabeth's foreign policy?

proved broadly successful, despite many shortcomings and expense. Adopted hard-headed approach, national interest- changed emphasis from desire for glory. war with Spain was long and expensive- but English fared better, enhanced queens reputation. Foundations of English empire laid in the form of trading with India and beyond. War did however come at huge cost- economic depression of 1590s, sold crown lands, unpopular finance methods e.g. sale of monopolies provoked opposition in parliament.

In what sense was there a golden age in architecture?

queen reluctant to commission new buildings but courtiers made up for it= afforded extravagent building projects due to families acquiring monastic land- emergence of first named English architect not anonymous masons= Robert Smythson, country houses

What was Elizabeth's character like?

quite different to Mary better educated shrewder grasp of political processes calculating and intelligent made clear she was in charge, more than Mary- looked to her father, HVIII, as an example took an informed interest in decision making processes in government - not to the same extent as H VII upon consolidation showed herself to be familiar with customs associated with new monarchs by going to Tower and showing herself to her new subjects- early years, despite problems in foreign policy, established herself as queen with remarkable success.

Who were the Separatists?

radical, most extreme puritans- wanted to separate from C of E all together and create independent church congregations without Queen as supreme govenor- felt current church not capable of reform. Emerged in 1580s only had small following, led by Robert Browne in Norwich, barrow and greenwood in london - Activities sufficient to alarm authorities, led to passing of 1593 Act against Seditious Sectaries (members of sects)_ brought arrests of separatists. Leaders of London movement executed- movement destroyed- Whitgift's harsh measures

What were the events of the northern rebellion 1569?

rebels seized Durham- heard Mass in cathedral= clear indication of catholic character. marched as far as York- headed north again and took Barnard castle. However, suffered lack of clear objectives, disorganization and poor leadership, didn't get mass popular following or gain foreign support. Crown decisively sent force north- earls disbanded forces, fled to Scotland. Subsequent rebellion in Cumberland led by Leonard Dacre- Northumberland's cousin- put down by royal command of Lord Hunsdon. Crown's servents acted sensibly- Cecil studied maps of Durham to decide action. Gov. ordered mass executions of rebels- Northumberland executed in 1572, Westmorland exile in Spanish Nlands- crown took over rebel leaders lands.

What were relations between England and Spain like in the 1560s/ early reign?

relations usually friendly- Catholic Spain was most powerful country in the world. - Philip II event proposed marriage to liz. BY END OF 1560S HOWEVER RELATIONS DETERIORATED- trading/ piracy activites, situation in Netherlands and Philip's encouragement of catholic plots.

Generally how unified and peaceful was England under Elizabeth?

relatively- despite trouble in Ireland and one serious rebellion in England, Northern Rebellion, which quickly collapsed more unified than France of Spain. tendency of aristocracy to abandon fortified castles and build comfortable, indefensible country houses suggests a confidence in social order and peace.

How were the Undeserving Poor treated?

remained harsh repressive and unenforceable act passed in 1547- was repealed but notion remained that they should be whipped. 1572- act added branding to range of punishments available to authorities. idle poor and vagrants sent to 'House of Correction' or prison- repeat offenders, executed.

what was the state of society by 1603?

remained socially divided, differences in living of wealthy few and poor majority. however nobility were taxed, most people fed- only one subsistence crisis in 1590s where there were deaths from starvation poor harvests in 1590s- helped shape poor laws.

what was the Act of Supremacy (1559)?

restored the royal supremacy of the church/ reformation legislation established under HVIII restored. papal supremacy rejected Mary's heresy law repealed Queen described as the 'supreme governor' of the church not 'supreme head- (trying to make some concession to catholic opinion) oath of supremacy to be taken by all clergymen- penalties for refusing

What were the royal injunctions (1559)?

set of instructions about conduct of church services and government of the church emphasised the suppression of superstition and catholic practices- described candles and pilgrimages as 'works devised by men's fantasies'. emphasised Eucharist to be administered at simple communion table. reluctantly permitted clergy to marry all parish churches required to buy an English bible visitors nominated by Cecil to enforce injunctions were strong Protestants attack on traditional catholic practices.

Summarise the nature of the religious settlement? how did people view Elizabeth based on this? in what sense was there a paradox ? (impact of religious developments, 1558-63)

settlement was undoubtedly protestant but how protestant is argued. - emphasised Erastin nature of the Church =: from queen's view was an act of State which defined the relationship between Crown and church. Others felt the settlement represented the starting point of a process of spiritual renewal to establish a true church of England which saw the English as God's elect nation. Many returning Protestant exiles initially saw Elizabeth as an 'English Deborah'- protecting the godly from what they regarded as evils of Catholicism.- She was however a somewhat reluctant 'Deborah'- issues later stemmed from her unwillingness to fulfil role.- created a fundamental paradox: her enthusiastic supporters often showed protestant zeal to ensure their loyalty to the queen but this was variant to her own sceptical and sometimes conservative approach to religious matters. religious developments generally proved unsuccessful in achieving wider aims of many reformist leaders concerning the remaining features of Catholic practice within the church - their vision of reform was not shared by the queen. C of E though becoming Calvinist in its official doctrine was 'but half reformed' in its structures.

How often did Elizabeth prevent the passage of bills from parliament- how many did she refuse the royal assent to?

she readily intervened to prevent passage of bills she disapproved of - refused royal assent to over 60 bills across reign- even some passed through both houses.

How did the size of parliament change under Elizabeth?

size of commons had been increasingly steadily due to royal needs and pressure from below for years- under HVII had 296 members, in 1545 349 members then in 1559 402 and 462 by 1586- House of lords had between 75-88 members Some suggest growth in size made divisions more likely

What was the Act of Uniformity (1559)

specified use of single Book of Common Prayer- modified version of Cranmer's 1552 firmly Protestant version. tried to create uniformity of services and appearance of churches. Mixed together wordings of Eucharist belief- permitted more conservative 1549 'body of our Lord' wording and more reformist 1552 'eat in remembrance' wording. stated ornaments and ministers should be those in place in 2nd year of Ed VIs reign guidelines for interiors followed 1549 prayer book- alters to be replaced with plain tables but crucifixes, candles and other catholic articles could be placed on them. (bothered radical reformers) Laid out what priests could wear- seen as a catholic preoccupation.- ultimately little changed in appearance of church attendance at services compulsory- attending catholic mass led to imprisonment or death for organising it

What did a papal pronunciation in the 1580s state?

that anyone who assassinated Elizabeth with the intention of doing God's service, not only does not sin, but gains merit- this changed the situation. Also in 1580s, catholic priests joined by Jesuit missionaries and activities of Elizabeth's seamen against Spanish Empire made war with spain seem inevitable. - Mary saw spanish invertention as best way of her gaining english throne.

How did the majority of the population respond to the settlement?

the majority accepted the royal supremacy - was broad acceptance of the 'via media' (compromise) most accepted changes in their parish e.g. plain communion tables but hard to know how people felt- the more rural the community the more conservative was concern among clergy and others concerning whether the settlement was 'complete' or if there was scope for further change was difficult for Catholics to publicly practice their faith - Some recusants refused to attend new church Anglicans= accepted the settlement However, were some with strong religious convictions and worked actively against the settlement (SEE LATER CARDS- PURITANS, PRESBYTERIANS, SEPARATISTS, CATHOLICS INC RECUSANTS) by the end of the reign, religion was no longer a serious political issue- puritans accepted within church

How can change be seen in the position of the bulk of the population under Elizabeth?

the period witnessed the start of a consumer society- growing mercantile and professional classes in towns, with some political influence, sometimes bought landed estates, entered ranks of gentry. Some families married up, increasing social mobility. Widening gap between rich and poor- 60% of pop. below poverty line. decline in real wages increase in landless poor.

What were the key functions of the Privy Chamber?

to advise on matters of state. adjudicate on legal matters ( when sitting as the Star Chamber and oversaw local court hearings). Manage finances. Manage national defence- many councillors served as Lord Lieutenants and responsible for militia. Administered the realm- instructed range of officials inc Lord Lieutenants, sheriffs, JPs, tax commissioners. Oversee regional councils. enforce the reformation and religious settlement- JPs investigate compliance. Regulate major state affairs and enforce laws and regulations. Manage parliament smoothly- in reality factional rivalry among councillors often played out in parliament. RESPONSIBLE FOR POLICY ADVICE AND ADMINISTRATION

what were her aims upon coming to the throne?

to consolidate her position and claim to the throne to settle religious issues and divisions to pursue a peaceful settlement with the French and settle foreign policy

How did Elizabeth treat catholics near the start of her reign?

tolerated until 1570s then increasingly persecuted. elizabeth wished not to make 'windows into men's souls'- toleration conditional on obedience- not all practices accepted: had to pay recusancy fines for not attending anglican service, many outwardly conformed despite inner beleifs- All but 1 catholic bishop refused to conform to 1559 Oath of Supremacy. energy spent on removing catholic imagery from parish churches, many catholic exiles went into exile- many to Netherlands- some priests survived as private chaplains to catholic nobles.

for how much longer did the war with spain continue after the Armada?

war dragged on for further 16 years- great expense. Not concluded until after deaths of Elizabeth and Philip - fought on several fronts, at sea, off Western Europe, in Caribbean, on land in Netherlands and in Ireland.