ENG 391 Midterm 3
Ethical issues in translating & interpreting:
-error correction -modification -omission -additions to the message -confidentiality
Professional translators' knowledge
-lexical (words) and grammatical (rules) competence in SL & TL -thorough metalinguistics of both & pragmatic "context" mapping --knowledge of both languages -styles, genres, registers dialects, varieties of both -subject matter, cultural context of expresser, and audience awareness (their knowledge, socio-political practices & values/norms), etc.
discourse: a continuous stretch of language -above the sentence or clause -______________________ -_________ determined by ___________
-meaningful, unified, purposive -social practice, social structures
Human Translation in 3 steps
1. *Comprehension* of the original SL text 2. *Expression* of the comprehended message in TL 3. *Revision* of the TL text-- consideration of audience
Children's first words are similar all over the planet...
1/2 are objects (pets, food) actions, routines (up, go) social words (hi, bye)
At about _________, infants start to utter recognizable words. For the most part, recognizable words are used in a context that seems to involve _________
10 months naming
When do one-word utterances occur?
12 months
10 words at...
13-15 months
10 words
14 months
50 words at...
17-20 months
50 words
18 months
Two-word stage
18-24 months "Mini-sentences" with simple semantic relations
During the period from about _________, infants begin making "comfort sounds" The earliest comfort sounds may be grunts or sighs, with later versions being more "coos" Laughter appears around _________
2-4 months 4 months
250 words
24 months
Vocabulary at...
24 months 186-310 words
Telegraphic stage or early multi-word stage
24-30 months "telegraphic" sentence structures of lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemes
During the ________, word combinations begin to appear
2nd year
There is often a spurt of vocabulary acquisition during ______. Early words are acquired at a rate of _________ (as measured by production diaries); in many cases the rate may suddenly increase to _______ new words per week, after _______ words have been learned. However, some children show a more steady rate of acquisition during these early stages. The rate of vocabulary acquisition definitely does accelerate in the _______ and beyond: a plausible estimate would be an average of _________ during pre-school and elementary school years
2nd year 1-3 per week 8-10 40 3rd year 10 words a day
Later multiword stage
30+ months grammatical or functional structures emerge
During the period from ________, infants typically engage in "vocal play" , manipulating pitch (to produce "squeals" and "growls"), loudness (producing "yells"), and also manipulating tract closures to produce friction noises, nasal murmurs, "raspberries" and "snorts"
4-7 months
Clever experiments have shown that most infants can give evidence (for instance, by gaze direction) of understanding some words at the age of ____________, often even before babbling begins. In fact, the development of phonological abilities begins even earlier. __________ can distinguish speech from non-speech, and can also distinguish among speech sounds ( [t] vs. [d] or [t] vs. [k]); within a couple of months of birth, infants can distinguish speech ____________________________
4-9 months newborns in their native language from speech in other languages
What is the first critical period of language acquisition
5-7 years old -have to acquire grammar by puberty or it will never be fully developed
When does word comprehension begin?
6 months
Babbling
6-8 months repetitive CV patterns
At the time when children were producing 10 words, they were estimated to understand ________
60 words
Babies are "geniuses" until age... (Ted Talk)
7
At about _______, "canonical babbling" appears: infants start to make extended sounds that are chopped up rhythmically by oral articulations into syllable-like sequences, opening and closing their jaws, lips and tongue. Vowels tend to be low and open, at least in the beginning. ________ are often produced, such as [bababa]
7 months repeated sequences
At what point can babies discriminate any sound of any language?
8 months
One-word stage or holophrastic stage
9-18 months single open-class words or word stems
corpus linguistics
A linguistic research method based on the quantitative analysis of collections of naturally occurring language data, usually very large.
Conversation Analysis (CA)
A meticulous analysis of the details of conversation, based on a complete transcript that includes pauses, hems, and also haws. sequences of talk why say that at that moment?
systemic functional linguistics
A model for linguistic analysis developed by Michael Halliday. It describes language as a network of a small fixed set of choices. It also describes the conditions for choosing among each set of choices. Identifies language as having 3 main (mega) functions that are realized at every level of analysis: experiential ideational: language expresses the way we experience the world. interpersonal: language is used to act upon the world and to interact with other people. textual: language can be used to make connections between a text and its context, or to make connections within the text. Underlying this model of language is the claim that the grammatical system is determined by the social functions for which langauge is used.
What is the argument for nativism/generativism/universal grammar?
Argument #1: Babies go through the same stages of development no matter what language they are learning Argument #2: Infants master language way faster than they should if they are a blank slate Noam Chomsky: universal grammar
Language ability is ____, but it requires ______ ______ to emerge
Innate Human interaction
Is babbling random? Why or why not?
No -babies of all languages prefer sounds that are labial, stop, and low vowel
S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G (Hymes)
Setting, Participants, Ends, (goal of convo) Act Sequence, (order) Key, (tone) Instrumentalities, (register/style) Norms, (rules) Genre
communicative approach
Teaching materials used with this approach teach the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions, such as requesting, describing etc. Emphasis is on the processes of communication.
Communicative Competency Model
The model that assumes that the communication-related skills and abilities of members are what help groups overcome obstacles and achieve their goals.
Do babies acquire language the same way for any language? Why or why not?
Yes, it's hard-wired biologically in the brain
What is a phoneme?
a meaningful, distinct unit of sound
"shirt" and "wet" might be combined as "shirt wet". However, these combinations tend to occur in _______ that is appropriate for the language being learned. This period is sometimes called the _________
an order 2 word stage
Discourse analysis examines ________* to reveal ________ of a ________ *has to be naturally occurring/spontaneous discourse
analyzing language in use for different purposes (social and cognitive) a communicative event* characteristics person or group
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
analyzing language use as a socio-cultural practice how are power relations established and reinforced in society through language?
Common speech acts
assertion, question, request, order, promise, threat
When does phoneme perception develop?
at 1 month old
Ethnography of Communication (EOC)
communication as cultural behavior -communicative competence grammatical-functional-cultural-social-interactional how does discourse reflect culture?
phatic communication
communication not intended to convey information, but rather to establish or maintain social contact, e.g. Nice day today!
speech acts
communicative acts that carry meaning beyond the words and phrases used within them, for example, apologies and promises how to do things with words? each speech act consists of: locutionary act: the actual words/utterances illocutionary act: the intention of the speaker perlocutionary act: the effect on the hearer
What is the difference between communicative and semantic translation?
communicator's message vs. literal meaning example: beware of the vicious dog! (CM) vs. beware of dog! (ST) ^idk if this right
Open class words
content words nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
What is the difference between shift and equivalence?
cultural knowledge vs. literal meaning example: he is one of the people running for president vs. he is someone in an election ^ idk bout this
What is the difference between functional and formal translation?
differences between focusing on text vs. reader a continuum example: literal translation vs translation that's adapted make sense in context
As time passes, the difference disappears entirely, and then emerges again in the opposite direction, with males showing larger average vocabularies ____________
during college years
When does the decline in the ability to discriminate non-native phonemes occur?
end of 1st year
Context clues (over context)
example: Airport (intonation, British v. Indian ENG) -intonation, pauses, non-verbals, etc.
During __________, infant vocalizations are mainly expressions of discomfort, along with actions such as coughing, sucking, swallowing, and burping
first 2 months of life
What does word learning look like age-wise?
first words around 10-12 months old for any language 50 words at 18 months 500 words around 24 months 10 words a day around 2 1/2 years old
Closed class words
function words conjunctions, prepositions , articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs
Against a background of enormous individual variation, _________ tend to learn more words faster than ________ do; but the difference disappears over time
girl babies boy babies
What is the difference between domesticating and foreignizing?
ideal conditions vs. staying true to SL Culture example: forcing one culture's colloquialisms onto another vs. translations not making sense to foreigners
Both vocal play and babbling are produced more often in ________ but also alone
interactions with caregivers
Key concept #2 of language acquisition
language acquisition proceeds in stages
What do professional translators need to know?
lexical + grammatical competence in SL + TL
Pragmatics
meaning in interaction what does the speaker mean?
Morphemic Gloss
morpheme-by-morpheme presentation in the reader's language of the grammatical information and lexical meaning expressed in lines of text from another language
nipumu
place of the big house Nipomo
tsitqawi
place of the dogs morro bay
tsitkawayu
place of the horses cambria transliteration: place of where animals gather
tsitukunits
place of the rabbits carrizo plain
tsitpxatu
place of the whales Avila beach
Several studies have shown that children who regularly omit grammatical elements in their speech, nevertheless expect these elements in what they hear from adults, in the sense that their ________________ suffers if the grammatical elements are missing or absent
sentence comprehension
Interactional Sociolinguistics
social and linguistic meanings created during communication what are they doing?
Influences on discourse analysis
sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, other non-linguistic disciplines, computational linguistics, pragmatics, other linguistic disciplines
SL stands for...
source language
Distinguish simultaneous and consecutive interpreting
speaker doesn't pause for translator vs. speaker paying for translator (switching off)
Newborn speech
speech from non-speech distinct speech sounds cry in the prosody of their native language can distinguish speech in their native language from speech in another language at 2 months old
TL stands for...
target language
The pattern of leaving out most grammatical/functional morphemes is called "_________". At about the age of ___, children first begin to use grammatical elements
telegraphic 2
What do babies need to figure out about their native language?
the rules, sounds, and vocabulary of the language
Equivalence Translation (Text-Focused)
the translation does not contain any meaning which is not in the original
Foreignizing Translation (Text-Focused)
the translation maintains as many elements of the SL and source culture as possible, even when the result does not sound colloquial in the TL or familiar in the target culture
Shift Translation (Reader-Focused)
the translation modifies the content of the SL text in the interests of the reader's - and translator's - cultural knowledge and needs
Word-Based Translation (Text-Focused)
the translation process operates on the level of the sentence
Text-Based Translation (Reader-Focused)
the translation process operates on the meaning of the whole text
Communicative Translation (Reader-Focused)
the translation seeks to communicate the original expresser's message, whether it enjoyed explicit linguistic expressions in the SL text or not
Formal Translation (Text-Focused)
the translation seeks to render as close to as possible the form of the SL text, which might sometimes require sacrificing aspects of its function
Functional Translation (Reader-Focused)
the translation seeks to render the functions of the SL text, independently of its original linguistic form
Semantic Translation (Text-Focused)
the translation seeks to render the literal meaning of the original text, leaving unexpressed any meaning which was only implicit in the original
Domesticating Translation (Reader-Focused)
the translator adapts the translation to local conditions (I.e. localization)
Key concept #3 of language acquisition
there are critical (sensitive periods) of acquisition
Why are babies "geniuses" until age 7? (Ted Talk)
they can discriminate sounds from foreign languages until they're 1 year old -they absorb statistics on their native language/other languages -2 month critical period for sound development -need a human being for babies to take statistics (audio/TV experiment failure) babies are focused on phonetics/phonology from 0-12 months
What functions do you use language for?
to share experience education build relationships assertions/questions requests/orders promises/threats
Young children often use words in ways that are ________________: "bottle" used only for plastic bottles; "teddy" used only for a particular bear; "dog" used for lambs, cats, and cows as well as dogs; "kick" used for pushing and for wing-flapping as well as for kicking. These _________ and ________ develop and change over time in an individual child's usage
too narrow/too broad under extensions, over extensions
(T/F): a lot of (perhaps most) translation happens outside of the professional realm
true
(T/F): absolute equivalence at all levels is not possible
true
(T/F): equivalence at one level has effects at other levels
true
(T/F): second language learners, particularly at the beginning stages, automatically (without conscious control) translate vocabulary and make memory connections between the two languages' equivalents
true
(T/F): translation is a multi-billion-dollar industry
true
In nearly all cases, children's language development follows a predictable sequence. However, there is a great deal of _______ at which children reach a given milestone
variation
What is the difference between text-based and word-based translation?
whole text vs. sentence example: he is one of the few supporters of (this/should) (sentence) vs. he is one of the few supporters of (this tax increase plan/of the tax plan)