English Final Exams Literary Terms

foil

A character that serves by contrast to highlight or emphasize opposing traits in another character. Ex. Hyde- Murderer, Jekyll- Doctor (Hyde kills and Jekyll saves) Hyde's evil contrasts with Jekyll's goodness. Ex. Grendel-evil and Beowulf-good Grendel: big, monsterous, evil, stupid, kills many people Beowulf: small, kind, good, smart, saves the people Ex. The Knight in Canterbury Tails ~honorable, wise, courteous, generous An ideal character that was put into the story to contrast the corrupt others. Ex. Beowulf and Unferth Beowulf who is seen as a savior insults Unferth, who is highly flawed, petty, and jealous. Ex. The pardoner is the Parson's FOIL Ex. The Parson and other church figures The Parson is seen as the "ideal church figure" while the other figures, such as the friar and monk, are going out and doing things that the church does not believe in

scanning poetry/scansion

A close, critical reading of a poem, examining the work for meter. This includes the process of marking lines of poetry to show the type of feet and the number of feet they contain.

Conceit

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A far-fetched simile or metaphor, a literary conceit occurs when the speaker compares two highly dissimilar things.

Apostrophe

A figure of speech in which an absent or a dead person, an abstract quality, or something non-human is addressed directly. Example: "Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee! I have thee not, and yet I see thee still. Art thou not, fatal vision, sensible To feelings as to sight? Or art thou but A dagger of the mind, a false creation Proceeding from the heat oppresséd brain? I see thee yet, in form as palpable As this which I now draw." (2.1)

onomatopoeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words.

oxymoron

A figure of speech that combines opposite or contradictory terms in a brief phrase.

metaphor (extended metaphor)

A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two things that are basically dissimilar. Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not use a connective words such as like, as or resembles in making the comparison. Tenor = Vehicle Tenor is what you're describing Vehicle is what the tenor is compared to (recognizable) Ex: Sword = Sweet Food (euphemism - makes it less harsh) Sword is the tenor; sweet food is the vehicle Ex Simile: He was as tall as a tree Ex Metaphor: He was a towering tree Metaphor from Canterbury Tales: The Parson calls his followers his "sheep". They are not literally sheep, but it shows that they are helpless (not derogatory) Ex: And that a monk uncloistered is a mere / Fish out of water, flapping on the pier (Canterbury Tales lines 177-178). Example: The Canterbury Tales (The Franklin) Line 340 "For he was Epicurus' very son" Explanation: The Franklin wasn't the actual son of Epicurus. He was a metaphorical father, the franklin got his values and morals from him. Epicurus was a role model for the Franklin .

quatrain

A four line stanza

Comic relief

A humorous scene or speech intended to lighten the mood example: the scene of the gatekeeper in Macbeth

satire

A kind of writing that holds up to ridicule or contempt the weaknesses and wrongdoings of individuals, institutions, or humanity in general. The aim of satirists is to set a moral standard for society, and they attempt to persuade the reader to see their point of view through the force of laughter. Ex. Chaucer stated "And I agreed his views were sound; was he to study till his head went round pouring over books in cloisters" (line 181) Chaucer is using satire here, instead of living by the oath he made to stay in seclusion and study his religion he is hunting and only spending time with the people of the higher class. Chaucer is trying to convey that the church members such as the monk and friar must become more religious figures and practice what they preach as opposed to doing things a religious member shouldn't be doing when they are outside of the church.

persuasion (persuasive speech)

A kind of writing that is intended to influence people's actions. Ex - In The Canterbury Tales, multiple social classes, genders, and perspectives are represented and each teller of tales has ample time to entertain, incite, or persuade the listener to adopt his or her point of view. Chaucer was also intending on persuading his audience to bring change to the Medieval Church by exposing the evil and corruption in his work.

Ballad

A narrative poem written in four-line stanzas, characterized by swift action and narrated in a direct style.

Caesura

A pause somewhere in the middle of a verse, some are strong some are weak. Example: The entirety (every line) of Beowulf has medial caesuras "The fort/unes of war fav/oured Hroth/gar." In line (64), the first stressed syllable of the second part of the line (the first syllable of "favoured") alliterates with the first stressed syllable of the first part: "fortunes"). Each line is really two half-lines, separated by a caesura or pause.

Free verse

A poem "free" of regular meter and rhyme. The poem may have irregular line lengths or fragments, and non-conventional uses of grammar, punctuation, and capitalization. It is "free" of conventions, yet very deliberate in its use of words and form

pastoral

A poem set in tranquil nature or even more specifically, one about shepherds. A type of poem that depicts rustic life in idyllic, idealized terms rural

Elegiac Tradition-elegy

A poem written in elegiac meter, which is alternating hexameter and pentameter lines. Example: Elegaic Tradition This type of poem mourns the passing of better times because Anglo-Saxons knew life was short "The Seafarer" (p.35) is an example because it talks about the terror and wonder an old sailor feels for the sea

heroic tradition

A popular poetic tradition that emphasizes the hero and celebrates loyalty, courage, bravery, and adventure. ex - Beowulf is classic poem of the heroic tradition. Beowulf is a brave character who, with the support of his loyal men, seeks out Hrothgar and Herot to conquer the ferocious Grendel.

rhyme scheme

A regular pattern of rhyming words in a poem ABAB CDCD EFEF GG

rhythm

A regularly recurring sequence of events or actions.

Flashback

A scene that interrupts the normal chronological sequence of events in a story to depict something that happened at an earlier time

rising action

A set of events/conflicts that lead up to the climax (turning point) of the story. Example - In Strange Case... the rising action consists of Utterson's attempts to discover the truth about the Jekyll-Hyde relationship. This builds up to the turning point/climax which could either be the moment when Utterson breaks down the door of the lab and sees Hyde's corpse or when Lanyon witnesses Hyde's transformation. Example - In MOTOE, rising action is when Hercule Poirot goes to Stamboul and must return to London on business, and he rides the Orient Express back to London, the train stops in a snow bank. The climax occurs afterwards when Ratchett is murdered.

exemplum

A short narrative that serves to teach by way of example. Especially a short story embedded into a longer sermon. It illustrates a moral principle. Example: In the Pardoner's Tale, the story serves as an exemplum because it conveys the moral that "Greed Is The Root Of All Evil" or in latin "Radix Malorum Est Cupiditas"

sestet

A six line stanza

Consonance

A special type of alliteration in which the repeated pattern of consonants is marked by changes in the intervening vowels--i.e., the final consonants of the stressed syllables match each other but the vowels differ.

paradox

A statement or proposition that seems self-contradictory or absurd but in reality expresses a possible truth.

narrative

A story, actual or fictional, expressed orally or in writing.

dialect

A variety of a language distinguished by variations of accent, grammar, or vocabulary.

internal rhyme

A word inside a line rhymes with another word on the same line A poetic device in which a word in the middle of a line rhymes with a word at the end of the same metrical line.

parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule.

Connotation

All the meanings, associations, or emotions that a word suggests An idea or feeling that a word invokes for a person in addition to its literal or primary meaning.

Autobiography

An account of the writer's own life.

Deus ex machina

"An unrealistic or unexpected intervention to rescue the protagonists or resolve the conflict. The term means ""The god out of the machine"" and refers to stage machinery." For example, the army general at the end of lord of the flies

Frame tale

(aka frame narrative) is a narrative technique whereby a main story is composed, at least in part, for the purpose of organizing a set of shorter stories, each of which functions as a story within a story. Serves as a companion piece to a story within a story. EX: In the Canterbury Tales, as a group, the tales are woven into the framework of the pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas à Becket, at Canterbury, with Chaucer the narrator reporting the tales he heard from his various fellow pilgrims. In the Frame part: Frame stays the same. It holds together what would otherwise be a collection of unrelated stories. The frame allowed Chaucer to bring together and mix the different social groups of his day. In the Center/picture part: The individual stories change.

microcosm

(n.) a miniature world or universe; a group or system viewed as the model of a larger group or system

scapegoat

(n.) a person or thing carrying the blame for others

Assonance

-takes place when two or more words close to one another repeat the same vowel sounds but start with different consonant sounds example: mEn sEll the wEdding bElls

octave

8 line stanza

imagery (literal and figurative)

: Words or phrases that create pictures. or images, in the reader's mind. Canterbury Tales: speaking of the Knight, "He wore a fustian tunic stained and dark with smudges where his armor had left mark" (71-12) - The reader is able to imagine that when the Knight takes off his armor there would be an outline of his armor made by dirt. Pardoner: This Pardoner had hair as yellow as wax (662) - it allows the reader to paint a picture of the pardoner's hair being very thin and greasy like the yellow wax

kenning

An elaborate phrase that renames persons, things or events in a metaphorical and indirect way. A kenning is a much-compressed form of metaphor, originally used in Anglo-Saxon and Norse poetry. In a kenning, an object is described in a two-word phrase, such as 'whale-road' for 'sea'. Some kennings can be more obscure than others, and then grow close to being a riddle. Example- "The shepherd of evil, guardian of crime" (Beowulf line 405) Examples: Bone Crusher- Grendel, The Geatish Hero- Beowulf Example: "Storm of swords"-Beowulf Beowulf Example: "Oh shelterer of warriors and your people's loved friend" (p.18, line 185) - Hrothgar Beowulf Example: "The famous ring giver" (p.21 line 328) - Hrothgar Beowulf Example: "Gold-shining hall" (p.23 line 369) - Herot Beowulf Example: "So mankind's enemy continued his crimes" (p.15 line 99) - Grendel Beowulf Example: "Infamous killer" (p.24 line 415) - Grendel Beowulf Example: "Almighty's enemy" (p.24 line 338) - Grendel Beowulf Example: "Sin-stained demon" (p.25 line 454) - Grendel Beowulf Example: "Afflictor of men" (p.25 line 461) - Grendel Beowulf Example: ​"Mighty protector of men" (p.25 line 443) - Beowulf Beowulf Example: "their shield" (p.29 line 566) - Beowulf Beowulf Example: "Hrothgar's gold ringed queen" (p.22 line 333) - Welthow Beowulf Example: " Bracelet-wearing queen" (p.22 line 342) - Welthow Other Examples: "Harp's rejoicing call" (13, 26-7) - music "sewing our shrouds" (18, 206-7) - stitching wounds "his far-off home" (16, 131) - Geatland "the sea hag" (27) - Grendel's mother

motif

An object or idea which reoccurs throughout a work of literature In the Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, ​there is a reoccurring theme of the duality of good vs. evil. In The Canterbury Tales there is a reoccurring theme of corruption within the church. In Beowulf there is a reoccurring theme of monsters. Ex. Sea monsters, Grendel, Grendel's mom, and the Dragon.

litotes

An understatement where something is stated as less important than it really is. It forms of ironical understatement meant to draw attention to the subject and expresses an idea by denying its opposite For Example: A student got an F on a test Literal reality: He failed Litotes = He didn't pass Examples from Beowulf: "The hall he scanned. By the wall then went he; his weapon raised high by its hilts the Hygelac-thane, angry and eager. That edge was not useless to the warrior now." This is a Litotes because the phrase is stating that Beowulf's sword is "not useless", yet he was getting ready to slay enemies.

scapegoating

Blaming an innocent person or a group for one's own troubles.

dialogue

Conversation between characters

irony (verbal, situational, dramatic)

Definition: A contrast between expectation and reality. Situational: a relationship of contrast between what an audience is led to expect during a particular situation within the unfolding of a story's plot and the situation that ends up actually resulting later on.​​ Be careful : Just because something is surprising does not necessarily mean that it is ironic Occurs when the opposite of what you were logically led to expect happens Ex. In the Pardoner's Tale, the rioters say throughout the story how they're as close as brothers, however in the end they turn on each other and kill each other. Ex. In "The Canterbury Tales", irony is used when describing the Prioress. She is a member of the Ecclesiastical group, so you would expect her to be holy. But, she wears a broach that says "Amor Vincit Omnia" (line 160), meaning "Love Conquers All". Knowing what we know about the nun, that broach does not symbolize love for G-d. It symbolizes lust. The Prioress is also more concerned with her dogs and other petty things than she is with humans, when it should be the other way around for a person like her. Ex. In Murder On The Orient Express the murder ends up being 12 of the passengers on the train rather than one single person. Ex: In the Crucible, Elizabeth Proctor lies in court when she is asked if John Proctor was an adulterer with Abigail. We expect her to tell the truth because she "cannot tell a lie". Verbal: where the writer or speaker says one thing, but means another. Verbal Irony + Overstatement The speaker may draw extra attention by using overstatement / hyperbole From hyperbole - to exceed, hit beyond the mark, From "hyper" over + "ballein" to throw, cast Verbal Irony + Understatement The speaker may downplay the situation by using understatement Litotes a special form of understatement in which we affirm something by negating its contrary Sarcasm All sarcasm is verbal irony, but not all verbal irony is sarcastic The term comes directly into English from the Greek sarkasmos, which in turn derives from the verb sarkazsein, " to tear the flesh". Ex. In Beowulf, Ironically calling Unferth his "my friend" Dramatic: a relationship of contrast between a character's limited understanding of his or her situation in some particular moment of the unfolding action and what the audience, at the same instant, understands the character's situation actually to be. In other words, when you (the audience/ reader) know something that one or more of the characters does not know. pushes audience attention into the future because it creates anticipation about what is going to happen when the truth comes out. The anticipation is known as ironic tension, and it is bracketed by a scene of revelation (the moment the audience is given information of which a character is unaware) and recognition (the moment when the character discovers what the audience has already known) Can be comic or suspenseful ​​Ex. The Pardoner attempts to create a fake image for himself as he tells his Tale of the three rioters, trying to win over the trust of the other pilgrims, while we know as readers that he's being hypocritical. Ex. Jaws theme song: we know the shark is going to attack Ex. Romeo and Juliet: we know Juliet is not actually dead

prologue

Definition: An opening of a story that establishes the setting and gives background details. -Generally speaking, the main function of a prologue tells some earlier story and connects it to the main story. Similarly, it serves as a means to introduce characters of a story and throws light on their roles. Example: The Canterbury Tales Prologue written by Chaucer that introduced each character and laid the setting.

hyperbole

Definition: exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally/ literal measure of success vs. dramatization Example: In the prologue of the Host, line 760 says, " There is no finer burgess in Cheapside" which is an hyperbole because it is exaggerated. Canterbury Tales Examples: "compared with other no man was honored more" (knight) "never borish" (knight) "he knew the whole of woodcraft up and down" (yeoman) "no morsel from her lips did she let fall" (prioress) "though there was nowhere one so busy as he" (lawyer) "and he knew all the havens as they were from Gotland to the Cape of Finisterre" (skipper)

personification

Definition: giving non-human things human characteristics or capabilities Example: "Swords raised and ready, determined To protect their prince if they could." Beowulf (lines 448-449) Example: Greed and Avarice are two of the seven deadly sins personified as the rioters in the Pardoner's Tale. Death is also personified as the old man. Example: "... as the cab crawled across the street..." Jekyll and Hyde page 56

message or moral

Definition: serves as the lesson a story teaches, most usually revealed indirectly through the actions and events of the story. Jekyll and Hyde: Although the thriller serves as a figurative example, Stevenson is sending a message to the readers that trying to repress evil thoughts forever never works, that separating your own human nature is impossible.

eye rhyme

Depends on spelling rather than sound; words that look like they should rhyme, but do not

resolution

End of the story where loose ends are tied up

radix trait

Focuses on a central characteristic; (radix- latin for "root". Not something that is necessarily said directly in the text. ex: The radix trait of the Yeoman is forestry. This is the only trait Chaucer truly focuses upon when he describes him. Chaucer says he wears a green hanging hood, a dagger, hunting horn, bow, and he wears the medal of St. Christopher (patron Saint of foresters). The radix trait for : prioress= phony monk= lazy

falling action (denouement)

French for "unknotting or unwinding". It is the outcome or result of a complex situation or sequence of events, an aftermath or resolution that usually occurs near the final stages of the plot. MOTOE: Once Poirot discovers all of them took part in the murder (climax), he gathers all of them to explain his two theories for the crime Jekyll and Hyde: when Mr. Utterson begins to read the Narratives of both Dr. Lanyon and Dr. Jekyll after the truth has come out

setting

General location, historical time and social circumstances in which the action of the work occurs. One of the settings of Pardoner's Tale is a tavern in Flanders The Strange Case of Jekyll and Hyde took place in Nineteenth century London. The Murder on The Orient Express take place on the Simplon Orient Express and they get stuck in snow on the middle of the track for most of the tale. Beowulf takes place in the herot of Geatland

Duality

It is the two-sidedness of the world -- the fact that everything has an "opposite," a polar complement. It is the quality of being two-fold. Jekyll has duality because he is composed of both good and evil. Definition - an instance of opposition or contrast between two concepts or two aspects of something; a dualism. Example: the entire story of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll & Mr. Hyde is an example of duality because it brings to life both the good and evil sides of a person Example: Light vs. Dark, God vs. Devil, Good vs. Evil In Beowulf: Good vs. Evil Light vs. Dark Beowulf vs. Grendel God vs. Devil For God vs. Scorned by God Herot vs. Swamp / Marsh Herot is described as being beautiful, light, and having a connection to Heaven. Grendel's home is then described as the dark, cold, Hell on Earth.

miracle, mystery, and morality plays

MIRACLE PLAY: A popular religious drama of medieval England. Miracle plays were based on stories of the saints or on sacred history. For instance, characters named Mercy and Conscience might work together to stop Shame and Lust from stealing Mr. Poorman's most valuable possession, a box of gold labeled Salvation. MYSTERY PLAY: A religious play performed outdoors in the medieval period that enacts an event from the Bible, such as the story of Adam and Eve. MORALITY PLAY: An outgrowth of miracle plays. Morality plays were popular in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In them, virtues and vices were personified. An example of a morality play would be Everyman which was popular in England in the 15th and 16th centuries. In it a man (everyman) goes on a journey (life) and travels with friends, family, money and good deeds. At the end of the journey (death) the only thing left is good deeds. The play symbolizes how everything else can be taken away from (friends, family, money) but at the end the only thing that counts/matters is the good deeds one did in their life.

Foot (terms for up to 8 feet per line)

Meter is measured in units called feet. A foot consists of one stressed syllable and, usually one or two unstressed syllables. A line of poetry has as many feet as it has stressed syllables.

narrator (1st and 3rd person)/point of view

Narrator - person telling the story 1st Person POV - When the narrator is a character in the story. Often uses pronouns like I, we, my, etc. ex - Chapter 1 of Grendel - Grendel narrates in the first person, conveying his inner thoughts and observations; occasionally he narrates from the point of view of another character 3rd Person POV - the narrator is not a character in the story, and his knowledge is limited to one person's thoughts or feelings. But he may be omnicient "all - knowing" meaning he knows the thoughts and feelings of all the characters in the story) ex - Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde - The narrator is anonymous and speaks in the third person. Dr. Lanyon and Dr. Jekyll each narrate one chapter of the novel via a confessional letter.

Blank verse

Poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter

end rhyme

Rhyme that occurs at the end of two or more lines of poetry

pathetic fallacy

The attribution of human emotions or characteristics to inanimate objects or to nature; for example angry clouds; a cruel wind. examples in macbeth

protagonist

The main/leading character. Example: The protagonist in Miller's Tale are Nicholas and Alisoun. The protagonist may also have all or some cases happening to them: 1. He or she has a problem that needs solving 2. Has the ability to act and react to a situation 3. Has reasons to act 4. Has something to lose 5. Has something to gain 6. Has a compelling quality 7. Has a flaw of some sort and are not ALWAYS perfect 8. Is hiding something 9. And they have someone or something trying stop them Examples of protagonist in each of the independent readings: Murder on the Orient Express: Hercule Poirot Beowulf: Beowilf The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: Dr. Jekyll Grendel: Grendel The Canterbury Tales: There is no protagonist

Climax

The moment in a play, novel, short story or narrative poem at which the crisis reaches its point of greatest intensity and is thereafter resolved. It is also the peak of emotional response from a reader and often the turning point in the action. Example 1: In Beowulf, the climax is Beowulf's final battle, where he sustains the fatal blow and hands over the reigns to Wiglaf. Example 2: In the Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde the climax can be when Dr. Jekyll realizes he does not have the will or power to change back and forth from Mr. Hyde to himself. Example 3: In the Murder on The Orient Express the climax can be when Poriot discovers that all thirteen passengers killed Ratchett. Example 4: When Simon meets the Lord of the Flies and realizes the beast is within each boy and then when he tries to tell the boys but they kill him.

Resolution

The moment when the conflict ends and the outcome of the action is clear. Jekyll and Hyde- When we find out that Jekyll and Hyde are actually one person and he dies. Murder on the Orient Express- When we find out that everyone on the train committed the murder. Beowulf- When Beowulf defeats Grendel causing Grendel to flea saving Herot and the soldiers from the evil beast.

exposition

The part of a narrative or drama in which important background information is revealed. Example: In Beowulf, it begins by describing Herot and its background. It continues to talk about how great of a leader Hrothgar, but the unfortunate events of the monster Grendel terrorizing the people in Herot. Once the story starts to pick up, we have a greater knowledge of what is happening and who the characters are.

oral tradition

The transmission of cultural material through vocal utterance. (Passing down stories through word of mouth.) This was extremely important especially for Anglo-Saxons who couldn't read or write. They relied on people to remember their stories and give them orally in order to preserve their culture and history. Anglo-Saxon poetry and literature was an oral art. Poems were usually sung, and accompanied by a harp or musical instrument. Professional poets were called scops

Foreshadowing

The use of indicative words, phrases and hints that set the stage for a story to unfold and give the reader a hint of something that is going to happen without revealing the story or spoiling the suspense. Foreshadowing is used to suggest an upcoming outcome to the story. Example 1: In Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde we see that in chapter 1 a great example of foreshadowing, when Hyde pushes the girl into the street he has to pay money as a consequence for his actions. Mr. Einfield quotes "presently came back with the matter of ten pounds in gold and a cheque...signed with a name I can't mention...but it was a name at least very well known and often printed" (41). We see that this unknown name signed on the check hold some important value and information. It gets us to think about who possibly could have signed that check, why can't Einfield say who signed that check? It provides information that will present itself later on in the novel. Example 2: The Pardoner's Tale, Line 89 : "When you are old' - if you should live till then." The Old man is foreshadowing the three rioters deaths. He's clearly giving an inkling that these three foolish drunks will not come any where near close to old age. Example 3: In Murder on the Orient Express: Conversation overheard by Poirot between Mary Debenham and Colonel Arbuthnot on the way to Stamboul, Ratchett tells Poirot someone is going to murder him, Princess Dragomiroff tells Poirot her arms are not strong and looks at her arms.

Heroic couplet

Two successive rhyming lines of iambic pentameter. The second line is usually end-stopped . It was common practice to string long sequences of heroic couplets together in a patterns of aa,bb,cc,dd,ee,ff (so on) Also called the Neoclassic Couplet for poems written during Neoclassic Period (1600 - 1790) Example: The General Prologue in Canterbury Tales A knight there was, and he a worthy man, (a) Who, from the moment that he first began (a) To ride about the world, loved chivalry,(b) Truth, honor, freedom and all courtesy. (b) Full worthy was he in his liege-lord's war, (c) And therein had he ridden (none more far) (c) As well in Christendom as heathenesse, (d) And honored everywhere for worthiness.​ (d)

parallelism

When the writer establishes similar patterns of grammatical structure and length. This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences giving ideas a smoother flow and thus can be persuasive because of the repetition it employs. Ex. She was busy washing the dishes, folding the laundry, and cleaning the house.

maxim

a SHORT, EASILY REMEMBERED EXPRESSION of a BASIC PRINCIPLE, general truth, or rule of conduct. This is similar to a moral of a story. A compact expression of a general truth or rule of conduct. Were regarded as formulaic ways of conveying the common wisdom of the people. Example: RADIX MALORUM EST CUPIDITAS. In the Pardoner's tale, the Pardoner gives a moral statement "GREED IS THE ROOT TO ALL EVIL" that sums up the tale and gives us insight to a basic moral principle.

epic hero

a brave and noble character in an epic poem, admired for great achievements or affected by grand events. Example: Beowulf because he fought for a group of people and is greatly admired.

meter (4 common types)

a definite and systematic rhythm established in a poem. The principle kinds are: monometer (one foot to a line), dimeter (two feet to a line), trimeter (three), tentameter (four), pentameter (five), hexameter (six). Example of Iambic Pentameter Canterbury Tales Prologue lines 43-46 There was a Knight, a most distinguished man, Who from the day on which he first began To ride abroad had followed chivalry, Truth, honour, generousness and courtesy.

Atmosphere

a distinctive but intangible quality surrounding a person or thing

heroic epic

a long narrative poem telling about the deeds of a great hero and reflecting the values of the society from which it originated (ILiad, Odyssey, Beowulf

Antagonist

a person or force opposing the protagonist; a rival of the hero or heroine Example: Grendel is Beowulf's antagonist in the epic poem Beowulf. Example: Mr. Hyde is Dr. Jekyll's antagonist in Strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

epic poem

a poem that is a long narrative about a serious subject which is told in elevated style of language. An epic poem is focused on exploits of a hero who represents cultural values of his nation, race and religious group. Most likely, the hero's success will be interrelated to the success or failure of a nation, and the hero usually owns a high status occupation. An epic poem focuses more on kings than peasants. An Epic Poem has a supernatural power or god(s) involved, and starts in media res (in the middle of chronological order). example- Beowulf is an example of Anglo Saxon Epic Poem. The Odyssey and The Iliad are examples of Greek epic poems.

interlocking rhyme

a rhyme pattern in which one line in a rhyming unit carries forth the rhyme for the next unit One line in a rhyming unit carries forward the rhyme for the next unit,. Ex: aba bcb cdc ded

Allegory

a tale in verse or in prose in which the characters, actions, and/or settings represent abstract ideas or moral qualities. Thus an allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning. In other words, it's a story in which the characters function as symbols. Example: In the case of "The Pardoner's Tale," the three rioters represent the deadly sins avarice, gluttony, and sloth. They meet an old man, who seems to symbolize death; in other words, these vices lead invariably to spiritual death. The old man could also symbolize the wisdom of old age.

lyric poetry

a type of emotional songlike poetry, distinguished from dramatic and narrative poetry the mood is musical and emotional. The writer of a lyric poem uses words that express his state of mind, his perceptions, or his feelings. ex - Beowulf, William Shakespeare (Sonnet Number 18,)

Alexandrine

a verse of iambic hexameter, 12-syllable iambic line The last line of a Spenserian sonnet is Alexandrine. Example: She sighed for Agnes dreams, the sweetest of the year. underlined = stressed orange highlighted = unstressed

Fate (wyrd)

according to modern usage, is an agency or power that orders and predetermines a future course of events. Fate is also seen as God's will. Wyrd is the Anglo-Saxon word for fate Example: When Beowulf decides to fight Grendel he chooses not to bring any weapons and to let his fate take over whether he survive or Grendel. Grendel's pre-determined fate was to be killed by Beowulf.

Conflict (Internal and external)

can be defined as any kind of issue, struggle, obstacle, problem, or adversity that takes place in literature. Conflict can either me major or minor and there are 4 classifications of conflict: 1. Character vs. Self: where the person who faces conflict is having an internal struggle within themselves. Ex: Dr. Jekyll battling his evil persona Mr. Hyde 2. Character vs. Character: where two different people in a story are battling each other. Ex: Beowulf vs. Grendel 3. Character vs. Nature: where the people in a story face struggles with the forces of nature. Ex: Beowulf vs. The flood when he is out in the sea 4. Character vs. Society: when any character is pitted against society. Ex: In The Pardoner's Tale where a large population is killed off by Death from the Black Plague 5. Character vs. Supernatural- when the character or characters comes up against poltergeists, aliens, divine forces, monsters, or other supernatural villains. 6. Character vs. Machine- places character against man-made entities like robots or cars. 7. Character vs. Fate- Character attempts to break free of a predetermined path chosen for him, prior to his knowledge. The conflict in the Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is that Jekyll cannot accept that there is evil inside of him no matter what. By taking the potion that turns him into Hyde, Jekyll thinks that he will lose his evil side, but it never goes away. Beowulf: In "Beowulf," the central conflicts are external -- man versus the supernatural. The poem is divided into three parts, each defined by its own central conflict: Beowulf's battle with Grendel, his battle with Grendel's mother and his battle with the dragon. Also there is character vs. character conflict with Beowulf and Unferth.

Allusion

casual reference in literature to a person, place, event, or another passage of literature, often without explicit identification. Allusions can originate in mythology, biblical references, historical events, legends, geography, or earlier literary works. Example: In The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer references how the Oxford Cleric is highly interested in Aristotle. This is an example of an allusion because Aristotle was a famous and still is a well known Philosopher. Another allusion in The Canterbury Tales is in The Wife of Bath's prologue when Chaucer references Genesis I. Example: In Canterbury Tales, The Man of Law is referenced for "knowing every case since King William's time."

Character (dynamic and static)

dynamic: character that changes example: Macbeth static: character that doesn't change example: Banquo

Animal Imagery

figurative language in which animals are used to describe or represent something or someone Example: There was a lot of animal imagery used to describe the Pardoner in the Prologue of the Canterbury Tales. -Hair: "Thinly they fell, like rat-tails, one by one. (Line 685) -Eyes: "And he had bulging eyeballs, like a hare. (Line 690) -Voice: "He had the same small voice a goat has got. (Line 694) Also seen in the Summoners prologue "As hot and lecherous as a sparrow"

literal meaning/interpretation

he literal meaning of something is in accordance with, involving, or being the primary or strict meaning of the word or words; not figurative or metaphorical: To interpret something literally would be to understand something as being nothing more than the ordinary meaning of the words. For example, the literal meaning of "He knew of every judgement, case, and crime / Ever recorded since King William's time" (Man of Law, CT line 327-328) is that the Man of Law actually knew all of the things mentioned; however, this line is meant to be interpreted figuratively and the hyperbole is supposed to suggest that the Man of Law is well educated in his field.

plot

he main events of a play, novel, movie, or similar work, devised and presented by the writer as an interrelated sequence. The plot in each novel we have read: Beowulf - Beowulf's journey to kill Grendel. The Canterbury Tales - A pilgrimage to St. Thomas à Becket's shrine in Canterbury. Murder on the Orient Express - Taking place on a Train that is stuck in a snow storm, Detective Hercule Poirot is determined to find out who killed Ratchett. The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde - A doctor in late 19th century England, drinks a potion that brings out his inner evil.

Dramatic triangle

is also known as Freitag's triangle or more commonly, PLOT DIAGRAM. A dramatic triangle consists of the exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and resolution (denouement). The purpose of this triangle is to chronologically put together the action of a plot and figure out which action goes into which category. EXAMPLE In Beowulf: The Exposition would be the introduction to Hrothgar, Herot and Grendel. The Rising Action would include all the information from the point that Grendel kills the 30 men, when Beowulf arrives in Dane and when Beowulf is faking to sleep and Grendel walks in. The Climax would be when Beowulf Kills Grendel. The Falling Action would start with the celebrations of the Killing of Grendel and include everything up to the death of Beowulf. The Resolution would be the burial ceremony and mourning of Beowulf.

Figurative meaning/interpretaion

is present in a piece of writing that is meant to be understood at a deeper level. ex - The two main characters in Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde not only represent two opposing characters, but also the duality between good and evil. Figurative interpretation would be to understand text based on the idea that all the words stand for something other than their ordinary meaning. ex - One must figuratively interpret "The Pardoner's Tale" because the characters represent something more significant than themselves. The three rioters represent avarice, gluttony, and sloth. Figurative language is a tool that an author employs to help the reader visualize what is happening in a story or poem. Some common types of figurative language are: Onomatopoeia, Alliteration, Hyperbole, Simile, Personification, Metaphor, Analogy, and Euphemism. ex - Chaucer uses a simile when he says the Squire "slept as little as a nightingale" (pg 61 in textbook). This simile helps the reader understand, using a direct comparison, that the Squire doesn't sleep much as if he were a nocturnal bird.

mood or emotional tone

mood - the atmosphere a writer creates for the reader emotional tone - the writer's attitude towards what he/she is writing about ex - The mood in chapter 1 of Grendel is depressing and melancholy. ex - The tone in MOTOE, the narrator is amused by the passengers aboard the Orient Express and seems to take pleasure in describing their predicament.

Cataloguing of Qualities

most common rhetorical technique. Using rhetoric to characterize. Listed characteristics and qualities of characters The author would introduce a character and talk about them For example- Wiglaf is Weohstan's son, a beloved shield warrior, a Scylfing's lord, Aelfhere's kinsman. Anglo-Saxon time period was a time of frequent invasion, and it made it this more important to bond and form loyalty, so in this cataloguing of qualities it talks about the relationship between other people, and what you do.

antipastoral

realistic tone used in poetry which shatters the idealism of pastoral life poems that satirize a work of literature portraying an idealized version of country life

approximate rhyme

rhyme in which the final sounds of words are similar but not identical A term used for words in a rhyming pattern that have some kind of sound correspondence but are not perfect rhymes.

rhetorical techniques

the devices used in effective or persuasive language, such as apistrophe, contrast, repetition, paradox, understatement, sarcasm, and satire For example - The Canterbury Tales is a work whose primary rhetorical technique is satire. Chaucer effectively and underhandedly attacks the Medieval Church to bring about some sort of significant change. ex - Alliteration is used often in Beowulf: "Grendel went up to Herot, wondering what the warriors would do..." (lines 52-54)

primary epic

the earliest written versions of poems which came out of an oral tradition Sung by generations of poets and put into written form by a literate poet, scribe, or monk. Most Western European cultures have epics. They stress the battle between good and evil include superhuman feats of valor and loyalty to one's king or leader. Greatest are: • Iliad • Odyssey • Beowulf

motivation

the impulse, purpose, or incentive that is responsible for the behavior of a character ex - In Grendel and Beowulf, the reader learns that Grendel is motivated to kill Hrothgar's men by his hatred for God. He wants to revenge after God banned his species for the murder of Abel.

Characterization (direct and indirect)

the personality a character displays; also the means by which a writer reveals that personality. Generally, a writer develops a character in one or more of the following ways: Through the character's actions; Example: "Hyde broke out of all bounds and clubbed him to the earth. And the next moment he was trampling his victim" (60) Example: "for the man trampled calmly over the child's body" (5) Through the character's thoughts and speeches; Example: "I have observed that when I wore the semblance of Edward Hyde, none could come near to me at first without a visible misgiving of the flesh." (Stevenson 88) Example: "... Edward Hyde, alone in the ranks of mankind, was pure evil." (88) Through a physical description of the character; Example: "The hand of Henry Jekyll ... was professional in shape and size: it was large, firm, white, and comely." (Stevenson 93) Example: "But the hand which I now saw ... was lean, corded, knuckly, of a dusky pallor and thickly shaded with a swart growth of hair. It was the hand of Edward Hyde." (93) Through the opinions others have about the character; Example: "He is not easy to describe. There is something wrong with his appearance; something displeasing, something down-right detestable" (43-44) Through a direct statement about the character telling what the writer thinks of him or her.

parallel structure

the repetition of a chosen grammatical form within a sentence. By making each compared item or idea in your sentence follow the same grammatical pattern, you create a parallel construction. example: Not Parallel: Ellen likes hiking, the rodeo, and to take afternoon naps. Parallel: Ellen likes hiking, attending the rodeo, and taking afternoon naps. OR Ellen likes to hike, attend the rodeo, and take afternoon naps.

Alliteration

the repetition of sounds, especially consonant sounds (repetition of vowel can be categorized as assonance) or beginning several words with the same vowel sound. (buckets of big blue berries) example- In Beowulf when Grendel finds the warriors in Herot: "He found them sprawled in sleep, suspecting nothing" (Line 55). In Beowulf describing Herot: "Hrothgar's men lived happy in his hall" (Line 13) Example- In Beowulf when he is fighting the dragon: "The ancient blade broke, bit into/ the monster's skin, drew blood, but cracked.." (Line 331-332) Example- "The Summoner sang deep seconds to this song," Prologue line 679 From Edmund Spenser's House of Pride in the Faerie Queen "royal robes" "bright blazing beautie" glistring gold peerelesse pretious stone

Couplet

two lines of verse, usually in the same meter and joined by rhyme, that form a unit. Example: Move not thy heavy grace, thou shalt in me, / Livelier than elsewhere, Stella's image see. Example 2: Hear it not, Duncan, for it is a knell, / That summons thee to Heaven, or to Hell.