English Final Grammar Review

Past Tense

used to express an action that already took place or was completed in the past. To form the past tense of a regular verb, add "-ed" or "-d" to the present form (in other words, use the past form - the third principal part - of the verb). For irregular verbs, consult the list at the beginning of this packet or a dictionary. Examples: I listened to the radio last night. She walked across the street to her neighbors' house. Arthur rang our doorbell.

Past Perfect Tense

used to express an action that took place and was completed before some other past action. To form the past perfect tense, add "had" to the past participle. Examples: I had listened for my cue before I heard yours. Javier had sung in other choirs before singing in this one.

Future Perfect Tense

used to express an action that will take place and be completed before another future action or time. To form the future perfect tense, add "shall have" or "will have" to the past participle. Examples: I will have listened to the music for three hours by Friday. By May, Javier will have sung in more than ten choirs.

Future Tense

used to express an action that will take place in the future. To form the future tense, use the helping verb "shall" or the helping verb "will" with the present form of the verb. In formal writing, "shall" is used with "I" and "we," while "will" is used with "you," "he," "she," or "it." Examples: Shall we eat at seven this evening? Jake will join us in a few minutes.

Subjunctive Mood

used to express wishes, doubts, possibilities, ideas contrary to fact, demands, or requests after the word "that." The subjunctive mood differs from the indicative form in only the following situtations: The present subjunctive uses the base form of the verb for all persons and numbers, including the third-person singular, but indicative verbs use the -s form. Examples: Indicative: Tanya runs faster than anyone on our team. Subjunctive: Mrs. Stein proposed that Tanya run in the race. In the present subjunctive, the verb "to be" is always "be." Example: She recommended that Mira be class president. The past subjunctive form of the verb "to be" is "were" for all persons and numbers. Example: If Alex were smart, he'd take Lindsay's advice.

Imperative Mood

used to give a command or make a request Examples: Wear your hat when you are outside in winter. Please shovel the sidewalk before you go to school.

Indicative Mood

used to make a statement of fact or to ask a question Examples: I am over six feet tall. How tall are you?

Comma Rules

1. Use commas to separate items in a series. 2. Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun (if those two adjectives are not joined by a conjunction). 3. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when the coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses. 4. Use a comma to set off nonessential clauses and nonessential participial phrases. 5. Use a comma after certain introductory elements. a. Use a comma after words such as "well," "yes," "no," "why," etc., when they begin a sentence. b. Use a comma after an introductory participial phrase. c. Use a comma after an introductory prepositional phrase if that introductory prepositional phrase contains four or more words OR if there are multiple introductory prepositional phrases. d. Use a comma after an introductory adverbial clause. 6. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt. a. Appositives and appositive phrases are usually set off by commas. b. Words used in direct address are set off by commas. c. Parenthetical expressions are set off by commas. 7. Use a comma in certain conventional situations. a. Use a comma to separate items in dates and addresses. b. Use a comma after the salutation of a friendly letter and after the closing of any letter. c. Use a comma after a name that is followed by Jr., Sr., Ph.D., etc. 8. Do not use unnecessary commas.

Compound-Complex Sentence

a sentence which contains two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction or semicolon, and one or more subordinate clauses Example: Bob is a doctor, and he is a man who cares about people. "Bob is a doctor" and "he is a man" are independent clauses joined by the conjunction "and," and "who cares about people" is a subordinate clause.

THE PROGRESSIVE FORMS

Each of the six tenses has a progressive form. These forms are used to express continuing or ongoing action. To from the progressive, add a present or perfect tense of the verb "be" to the present participle. All progressive forms end in "-ing." Present Progressive, Past Progressive, Future Progressive, Present Perfect Progressive, Past Perfect Progressive, Future Perfect Progressive

Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when the coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses

Example: Do your homework every day, and you certainly will pass English II Pre-AP. There wasn't much time to be done, but there wasn't much time in which to do it. e. Independent clauses joined by and, but, or, or nor need not be separated by a comma when they are very short. If clauses are joined by the conjunctions yet or for, they must be separated by a comma. Example: We knocked and Nilda opened the door. Laura pulled hard, yet the lid stayed on the jar. I remained there, for Gwen hadn't come.

Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun (if those two adjectives are not joined by a conjunction)

Example: Sally was an energetic, mischievous girl. d. When the last adjective before the noun is thought of as part of the noun, the comma before the adjective is omitted. Example: We found an old wooden chest in the attic. A single electric bulb illuminated the long hallway.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Examples: Active Voice: Cal has cleaned the animal cages. Passive Voice: The animal cages have been cleaned by Cal. Active Voice: Cal gave the tiger its lunch. Passive Voice: The tiger was given its lunch by Cal. NOTE: When you write, use the active voice as much as possible, as the active voice adds directness and impact to your writing. Use the passive voice, however, when the doer of the action is unclear or unimportant or when you want to emphasize the receiver of the action.

THE PERFECT TENSES

Present Perfect Tense, Past Perfect Tense, Future Perfect Tense

THE SIMPLE TENSES

Present Tense, Past Tense, Future Tense,

Relative Pronoun

Pronouns which relate the adjectival clause to the word the clause modifies (the antecedent of the relative pronoun) NOTES • In addition to relate the clause to a noun or pronoun, the relative pronoun will also fulfill a function in the adjectival clause as the subject, direct object, object of the preposition, or modifier within the clause. Examples: Sarah Boone was the woman who invented the ironing board. The relative pronoun "who" relates the adjectival clause to "woman." It also functions as the subject of the adjectival clause. Ellen is one of the people whom I invited. "Whom" relates the adjectival clause to "people;" it also functions as of direct object of the adjectival clause. The answer for which you have been searching is obvious. "Which" relates the clause to "answer;" it functions as the object of the preposition "for" within the adjectival clause. The boys apologized to the man whose window they had broken. "Whose" relates the clause to "man." Within the adjective clause, it functions as a modifier of "window." Sometimes, the relative pronoun is omitted because it is understood. In such cases, refer to the first page of this packet for a list of relative pronouns.

Raise

to move something in an upward direction; transitive - may take an object Infinitive (Present) Present Participle Past Past Participle raise (is) raising raised (have) raised Examples: Tom is raising his hand. Jessica has raised the level of expectation among her peers.

Lay

to put or place (something); transitive - takes a direct object Infinitive (Present) Present Participle Past Past Participle lay (is) laying laid (have) laid Examples: Lay the book on the table. Workers laid the foundation. He has laid the package on the desk.

Set

to put; to place (something); transitive - may take an object Infinitive (Present) Present Participle Past Past Participle set (is) setting set (have) set Examples: Set the case down. He sets them on a shelf.

THE EMPHATIC FORMS

The present and past tenses of verbs have emphatic forms which are mainly used to show emphasis or force. Present Emphatic and Past Emphatic

Lie

to rest or recline; intransitive - does not take a direct object Infinitive (Present) Present Participle Past Past Participle lie (is) lying lay (have) lain Examples: The rug lies on the floor. The tree lay across the path. The tree has lain there for months.

Comma

a punctuation mark that is used to a.) separate items or b.) enclose items; they are necessary for clear expression of ideas

Simple Sentence

a sentence which contains one independent clause Example: The man standing in the doorway is my Uncle Fred.

Use a comma to set off nonessential clauses and nonessential participial phrases

When a clause or participial phrase is essential, you do not use commas. If the clause or participial phrase is nonessential, however, commas must be used to set off the nonessential element. Examples: The girl whom we saw last week drives the delivery truck for the florist. [essential] Coral Sing, whom we saw last week, drives the delivery truck for the florist. [nonessential] The bold sea raider who helped destroy the Spanish Armada was Sir Francis Drake. [essential] Sir Francis Drake, who was a bold sea raider, helped destroy the Spanish Armada [nonessential] A magazine that has good news coverage helps me in WHAP. [essential] Newsweek, which has good news coverage, helps me in WHAP. [nonessential] Examples: Esther, running at a slow, leisurely pace, easily finished the marathon. [nonessential] The woman running at a slow, leisurely pace easily finished the marathon. [essential] Vicky's silkscreen, wrapped carefully in a cardboard box, arrived today. [nonessential] The silkscreen wrapped carefully inside a cardboard box was not damaged. [essential]

Lie and Lay

When faced with a lie-lay problem, ask yourself two questions: 1. What is the meaning I intend? (Is it "to be in a lying position," or is it "to put something down"?) 2. What is the time expressed by the verb? (Only one of the principal parts will express this time accurately.)

Relative pronouns

Who, whose, whom, which, what, that, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever

Complex Sentence

a sentence which contains one independent clause at least one subordinate clause Example: Before he went to the job interview, he got a haircut. In this sentence, "he got a haircut" is an independent clause, while "Before he went to the job interview" is a subordinate clause. Note that the subordinate clause opens the sentence and is followed by a comma.

Use a comma to separate items in a series

Words in Series The examination proctor distributed scrap paper, test booklets, and pencils. The cat hisses, bites, scratches, and shreds. Phrases in Series We have a government of the people, by the people, and for the people. Subordinate Clauses in Series I can go camping in Yellowstone National Park if my grades are high, if I save enough money, and if my parents approve. a. Some words appear so often paired with one another that they may be set off in a series as one item. Example: The breakfast menu contained bacon and eggs, lox and bagels, and bread and butter. b. If all items in a series are joined by and or or/nor (in other words, if the sentence contains a polysyndeton), you need not use commas to separate items. Example: We danced and sang and listened to records. A volunteer addresses envelopes or answers phones or files correspondence. c. Independent clauses in a series are usually separated by semicolons. Short independent clauses, however, may be separated by commas. Example: We played records, we danced, and we watched television.

subordinate clause

a clause that does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone EX: BECAUSE TODAY IS WEDNESDAY, I set out the trash. although "Because today is Wednesday" contains a subject (today) and a verb (is), it does not make sense alone. It depends on the independent clause, "I set out the trash" to make sense and form a complete thought. NOTE: Subordinate clauses may be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Subordinate clauses will usually begin with either a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction.

independent clause

a clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand alone (a simple sentence) EX: TODAY IS WEDNESDAY, so I SET OUT THE TRASH. "Today is Wednesday" and "I set out the trash" are both complete thoughts that can stand alone as simple sentences.

clause

a group of words that contains a subject and a verb

Nonessential participial phrase

a participial phrase that is not essential to the meaning of a sentence (In other words, they can be removed without fundamentally altering the meaning of the sentence)

Essential participial phrase

a participial phrase which cannot be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence

Compound Sentence

a sentence which contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or a conjunctive adverb Examples: Marty is the leader of the group, but he is not the best person for the job. "Marty is the leader of the group" and "he is not the best person for the job" are both independent clauses which can stand alone as complete sentences. In this case, they are joined by the conjunction "but" to form a compound sentence. I like dogs; he likes cats. The independent clauses, "I like dogs" and "he likes cats," are joined by a semicolon to form a compound sentence. He is an expert in this field; therefore, the company hired him. The independent clauses, "He is an expert in this field" and "the company hired him," are joined by the conjunctive adverb "therefore." NOTE: • Coordinating conjunctions are "for," "and," "nor," "but," "or," "yet," and "so." • Common conjunctive adverbs which join independent clauses in compound sentences include "moreover," "nevertheless," "therefore," "however," and "consequently." PUNCTUATION: • If the independent clauses are joined by a conjunction, the conjunction should be preceded by a comma. • If the independent clauses are closely related, they may be joined by a semicolon. • If the independent clauses are joined by a conjunctive adverb, then the conjunctive adverb will be preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma.

Nonessential clause

a subordinate clause that is not essential to the meaning of a sentence (In other words, they can be removed without fundamentally altering the meaning of the sentence) Helpful Hint: Most adjectival clauses which modify proper nouns are nonessential and require commas. Example: Robert Brill, who lives across the street, graduated from Kingwood High School three years ago.

Essential clause

a subordinate clause which cannot be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence Helpful Hint: Adjectival clauses introduced by the relative pronoun that are almost always essential. Example: All girls that march with the honor guard are required to be members of the senior class.

Noun Clauses

a subordinate clause which is used as a noun and can be the subject, direct object, predicate nominative, or object of the preposition in the sentence; a noun clause usually begins with a relative pronoun. In addition to relative pronouns, noun clauses may begin with words like "how," "if," "when," "where," "whether," and "why." Example: What you think is important to me. The subordinate clause, "what you think," is the subject of the sentence. Do you know what the answer to the question is? The subordinate clause, "what the answer to the question is," is the direct object of the sentence. The truth is what I want to hear from you. The subordinate clause, "what I want to hear from you," renames "truth" and is the sentence's predicate nominative. Give the money to whomever you wish. The subordinate clause, "whomever you wish," is the object of the preposition "to."

Adjectival Clause

a subordinate clause which is used as an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun and which begins with either a relative pronoun or the adverbs "when" or "where;" it will never occur at the beginning of a sentence, since it usually modifies the noun or pronoun that immediately precedes it Example: He read the book that I gave him. The subordinate clause, "that I gave him," modifies the noun, "book," by telling us which book he read. The clause begins with the relative pronoun "that." The relative pronoun "that" also serves as the direct object of the adjectival clause. PUNCTUATION: If the adjectival clause is needed to identify the word being modified, then the clause is essential and no commas are used. If the clause only adds information and is not needed to identify the word being modified, then the clause is set off by commas. Example: The novel that I borrowed from the library is about the Irish revolt of 1798. In this case, the adjectival clause, "that I borrowed from the library," is necessary to understand the specific novel to which the speaker refers. Our town's civic center, which was renovated last year, has just been declared a landmark. The adjectival clause, "which was renovated last year," is not necessary and is set of by commas.

Adverbial Clause

a subordinate clause which is used as an adverb and usually modifies the verb in the independent clause; it begins with a subordinating conjunction or with an adverb. Unless it is very short, an adverbial clause that begins a sentence will be followed by a comma. Examples: Because the water was cold, we did not swim. The subordinate clause, "Because the water was cold," modifies the verb phrase, "did not," by answering the question, "Why?" After we had bathed in the stream, we felt refreshed. The subordinate clause, "After we had bathed in the stream," modifies the verb, "felt," by answering the question, "When?" PUNCTUATION: Place a comma after an introductory adverbial clause. If you win the music competition, what will you do with the prize money? If an adverbial clause interrupts an independent clause, set it off with two commas. The audience, after the band finished the medley, gave a standing ovation. When an adverbial clause follows an independent clause, no comma is needed. Call me as soon as you get there.

Regular Verb

a verb that forms its past and past participle by added ¬-ed or -d to the infinitive form. Examples: Infinitive (Present) work receive burn Past worked received burned/burnt Past Participle (have) worked (have) received (have) burned/burnt

Irregular Verb

a verb that forms its past and present participle in some way other than a regular verb. There is no consistently predictable pattern, so the most common irregular verbs and their principal parts need to be committed to memory. Common Irregular Verbs and Their Principal Parts: 1. Infinitive (Present) = Inf. 2. Present Participle = PP 3. Past = Past 4. Past Participle = Past P Inf. PP Past Past P begin (is) beginning began (have) begun blow (is) blowing blew (have) blown break (is) breaking broke (have) broken bring (is) bringing brought (have) brought burst (is) bursting burst (have) burst buy (is) buying bought (have) bought catch (is) catching caught (have) caught choose (is) choosing chose (have) chosen come (is) coming came (have) come cost (is) costing cost (have) cost do (is) doing did (have) done draw (is) drawing drew (have) drawn drink (is) drinking drank (have) drunk drive (is) driving drove (have) driven fall (is) falling fell (have) fallen feel (is) feeling felt (have) felt fight (is) fighting fought (have) fought find (is) finding found (have) found freeze (is) freezing froze (have) frozen get (is) getting got (have) got or gotten give (is) giving gave (have) given go (is) going went (have) gone grow (is) growing grew (have) grown hit (is) hitting hit (have) hit hold (is) holding held (have) held hurt (is) hurting hurt (have) hurt keep (is) keeping kept (have) kept know (is) knowing knew (have) known lead (is) leading led (have) led leave (is) leaving left (have) left let (is) letting let (have) let lose (is) losing lost (have) lost make (is) making made (have) made put (is) putting put (have) put ride (is) riding rode (have) ridden ring (is) ringing rang (have) rung run (is) running ran (have) run say (is) saying said (have) said see (is) seeing saw (have) seen seek (is) seeking sought (have) sought sell (is) selling sold (have) sold send (is) sending sent (have) sent set (is) setting set (have) set sit (is) sitting sat (have) sat shrink (is) shrinking shrank (have) shrunk speak (is) speaking spoke (have) spoken spread (is) spreading spread (have) spread steal (is) stealing stole (have) stolen swim (is) swimming swam (have) swum take (is) taking took (have) taken teach (is) teaching taught (have) taught tell (is) telling told (have) told think (is) thinking thought (have) thought throw (is) throwing threw (have) thrown weave (is) weaving wove (have) woven win (is) winning won (have) won write (is) writing wrote (have) written

Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt

a. Appositives and appositive phrases are usually set off by commas. Examples: Nancy Landon Kassebaum, the senator from Kansas, was the principal speaker. The Aegean Sea, the highroad of ancient Greece, is sprinkled with small islands. I lost my watch, a present from my mother. I am Sam Spade, detective. b. Words used in direct address are set off by commas. Examples: Tina, shut the window. Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus. Won't you run for office, Mrs. Perkins? c. Parenthetical expressions are set off by commas. Parenthetical expressions are expressions which enclose matter that is added to a sentence but is not considered of major importance. Examples: The movie, in my opinion, was terrible. The book, on the other hand, was excellent. To tell the truth, I don't remember was she was talking about. Fran, I think, was elected.

Use a comma after certain introductory elements

a. Use a comma after words such as well, yes, no, why, etc., when they begin a sentence. Exclamations like wow, good grief, gee whiz, etc., if not followed by an exclamation mark, must also be set off by commas. Examples: No, you can't go. Well, I've heard that story before. Why, he isn't old enough to drive! Wow, this pavement is hot! b. Use a comma after an introductory participial phrase. Examples: Calling for a timeout, the referee began waving her arms. Exhausted after three hours of continuous swimming, Diana emerged from the water. c. Use a comma after an introductory prepositional phrase if that introductory prepositional phrase contains four or more words OR if there are multiple introductory prepositional phrases. Examples: At the next ring of the bell on the timer, you may start the examination. In our local public library, books are arranged according to the Dewey decimal system. d. Use a comma after an introductory adverbial clause. Examples: Although the Winnebagos are now in Nebraska, they first lived on the shores of Lake Michigan. If you read the accounts of early travelers to the West, you will learn of their productive lives. Population in the area increased, and after the tribe ceded their land, the people moved westward.

Use a comma in certain conventional situations

a. Use a comma to separate items in dates and addresses. In addresses the street number and the name of the street are NOT separated from each other by a comma, and neither are the name of the state and the zip code number which follows it. Commas DO go between the city and state. In dates the day of the month and the month itself are considered one item. A comma DOES go between the city and state. When written in a sentence, a comma will always follow a date. A comma will also follow a partial or full address (including when only city and state are identified). Examples: On June 30, 1981, my father's business moved to 837 Main Street, Seattle, Washington 98104. Our last trip to Tucson, Arizona, was most enjoyable. On Wednesday, January 20, I shall be sixteen years old. Our address is 718 Alvern Street, Los Angeles, California 90045. b. Use a comma after the salutation of a friendly letter and after the closing of any letter. Examples: Dear Delia, Affectionately yours, Sincerely, c. Use a comma after a name that is followed by Jr., Sr., Ph.D., etc. Examples: Dr. Juanita Montez, Ph.D. John Q. Adams, Jr. Daniel Hale Williams, M.D.

Past Emphatic

add "did" to the present tense of a verb Example: I did swim yesterday.

Present Emphatic

add "do" or "does" to the present tense of a verb Example: I do swim every day.

Subordinating conjunctions

although, after, before, unless, when, whenever, while, where, wherever, provided, in order that, so that, as much as, in as much as, since, now, until, as, if, as if, whether, because, than, though, that

Present Tense

used to express (1) an action that is going on now, (2) an action that happens regularly, or (3) an action that is usually constant or the same. To form the present tense, use the present form (the first principal part of the verb) or add "-s" or "-es" to the present form. Examples: Listen to the music. (current action) I sing the scales every day to warm up before the show. (regular action) The bells in the church ring very loudly. (constant action)

Future Perfect Progressive

shows a future ongoing action that will have taken place by a state future time Example: By this time next week, Bill will have been working as a museum guide for three months.

Past Perfect Progressive

shows an ongoing action in the past that was interrupted by another past action Example: Valerie had been working in the studio when the storm began.

Present Perfect Progressive

shows an ongoing action that is continuing in the present Example: Stephanie has been working on a new painting for three weeks.

Present Progressive

shows an ongoing action that is taking place now Example: I am working on a big project for art today.

Past Progressive

shows an ongoing action that took place in the past Example: Jill was working on the final phase of her painting when I called.

Future Progressive

shows an ongoing action that will take place in the future Example: Kyle will be working on his sculpture during summer vacation.

Passive Voice

the action of the sentence is being performed on the subject; consists of a form of the verb be plus a past participle

Present Perfect Tense

used to express (1) an action that was completed at some indefinite time in the past, or (2) to express an action that started in the past and is still going on. To form the present perfect tense, add "has" or "have" to the past participle. Examples: I have listened to your music with great pleasure. (action completed at an indefinite time) Javier has sung in our choir for three years. (action that is still ongoing)

Principal Parts

the four basic forms of a verb from which all other forms are made. They are the infinitive (present), the present participle, the past, and the past participle. The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the infinitive form. Examples: Infinitive (Present) play go smile Present Participle (is) playing (is) going (is) smiling Past played went smiled Past Participle (have) played (have) gone (have) smiled

Mood

the manner of action conveyed by a verb; the way in which a verb expresses an idea

Active Voice

the subject of the sentence performs the action

Verb Tense

the time expressed by the verb; the four principal parts of a verb are used to form six tenses of a verb: present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect.

Sit

to be in a sitting position; almost never takes an object Infinitive (Present) Present Participle Past Past Participle sit (is) sitting sat (have) sat Examples: Please sit here. Books sit on the shelves.

Rise

to go in an upward direction; intransitive - does not take an object Infinitive (Present) Present Participle Past Past Participle rise (is) rising rose (have) risen Examples: Some students rise very early to catch the bus each morning. She has risen early all week.