Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution
What were the causes and effects of the scientific revolution?
causes: exploration and the expansion of trade, continued study of the ancient authorities, and development of the scientific method effects: beginning of modern science, beliefs in progress and the power of reason, and a new view on the universe (well-ordered machine)
What were the key Enlightenment ideas?
-ability to reason made humans unique -reason solved issues and improved lives -reason frees people from ignorance, superstition, and unfair government -the natural world is governed by laws that can be discovered with reason -human behavior is also governed by natural laws -government should reflect natural laws and encourage education and debate
What are the themes through time (Astronomy)?
150- geocentric theory 499- earth rotates on its axis 600- Mayan solar eclipse predictions 1453- Heliocentric theory 1610- first astronomy telescope and Galileo confirms Copernicus' theory along with moon craters 1905- Einstein's theory of Relativity 1990- Hubble telescope
What were the American colonies?
1770, the American colony population was more than 2.1 million. The colonies provided new opportunities not available in the UK. Since the class system wasn't established, someone could rise to power with hard work and intelligence. Also people in the colonies had their own government and identified with the colonies not the UK
What was the old views on science in the Middle Ages?
Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, proposed a geocentric theory which stated the Earth was the center of the universe and everything revolved around it. Everything was very small and there was no interest for new information.
How did science affect art?
Artists' work couldn't be possible without reason and science. They used anatomy, experimented with chemistry, light, used math for balance, physics and math for architecture and engineering feats. Unlike astronomy, artists didn't challenge the church's ideas.
What role did Science play in Society?
As science played a stronger role in society, the church opposed scientists' view (especially Galileo). They benefited from scientific discoveries because science is the reason Renaissance art and architecture worked, but the church grew weaker as science contradicted the church's beliefs
What was the Age Of Reason?
At that time, people began viewing reason as the best way for truth and it was the solution to all human issues. This time was also a time for optimism (the peak during the 1700's in Paris, that was also the center of intellectual activities) where many people gathered in coffee houses, public gatherings, and public spaces to debate and discuss new ideas. After they'd publish their ideas in any way possible.
What was the American Revolution?
Ben Franklin(great American Enlightenment philosopher) thought reason an intelligence improved lived and showed how scientific knowledge would do so. He was a scientist and his methodical observations and experiments made useful inventions. In 1770 Franklin and other Enlightenment thinkers had a meeting which resulted in the foundation of the idea of the USA.
Who were Brahe and Kepler?
Brahe made a book proving the supernova (a bright exploding star visible on Earth) which impressed Kind Fredrick of Denmark who gave him money to build observatories. He hired Kepler to prove the Geocentric Theory, but Kepler ended up proving Copernicus' ideas and published results of Mars' orbit
What happened with the Enlightened despots of Russia?
Catherine II (1762) wanted to establish order and justice while supporting education and culture, but her ideas were considered liberal and never used. She wanted to free serfs but would lose the support of the wealthy, so she ended up a tyrant. She imposed more serfdom than ever before to maintain her power.
What were some misconceptions?
Early scientists were superstitious: Giro Cardano (doctor, mathematician, and natural philosopher) "gift of prophecy" predicted death Isaac Newton searched the Bible for clues on the end of world
Who was Sir Isaac Newton?
English scientists was the 1st to bring physics, math, and astronomy together. He questioned gravity on other planets, and in his book, Mathematician Principles of Natural Philosophers explained the law of the universe's gravity and created calculus.
Who were Enlightened despots?
Enlightenment philosophers appeared in front of monarchs for change and a few monarchs used the ideas in the government system
How were the Enlightenment ideas used?
Enlightenment philosophers promoted the ideas which sparked reformers and revolutionaries to change society. The Enlightenment ideas sparked reforms and revolutions like the American Revolution.
Who was Nicolaus Copernicus?
He studied things like astronomy in Poland. Astronomy at the time taught only how to calculate Holy Days, so Uncle Lucas the bishop sent him to Bologna, Italy to study church law where he studied under an astronomy professor to assist in research. In 1497 he observed a moon eclipse which furthered astronomy research and he made a math formula that proved Earth went around the Sun. He died in 1543.
Who was Jean-Jacques Rousseau?
He was a French philosopher; in 1763 he wrote The Social Contract which stated people were born good but were corrupted by society. He thought government should work for a greater good, and not just the few wealthy. An individual should give up some freedoms to benefit the community and he hated inequality in society, and although everyone is equal, they recognize that in society.
Who was the Baron de Montesquieu?
He was a French thinker that thought the best form of government was through the separation of powers. Power should be divided among branches of government so no individual would abuse powers. He wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748) which was about the admiration of British government because of branches of government, The parliament made laws and the court interpreted them. His misunderstanding of British government made him to come to a rational conclusion that separation are branches are checks (checks and balances system)
Who was Thomas Hobbes?
He was an English thinker who wrote his view on government in his book Leviathan (1651). Since he experienced violence from the English civil war, he thought people were selfish and greedy. He though people needed government for order, that they would give up freedoms for a leader to ensure peace, safety, order, and that absolute monarchy was the best form of government (the kings or queens had absolute power like a Leviathan, a massive sea monster) This form of government would cause law, order, and stability.
Who was John Locke?
He was en English philosopher and he thought people were naturally happy, tolerant, and reasonable. Everyone was born with a natural right of life, liberty, and property, and that it was the government's job to protect that. Monarchs weren't chosen by god, and he though the government's power should be constrained by laws and no changes should be made without the people's consent. If they government failed their duties, the people could impeach them. This is the foundation of modern democracy.
What are the differences in Hobbes' view versus Locke's view?
Hobbes: from living in the civil war- convinced that society needed a strong and central authority to control the natural barbarism of human Locke: from idea conditions' people lived accordingly to the law of nature and because people interpreted laws differently' people needed an authority to enforce those laws.
What was the Music of the Spheres?
In medieval times, it was believed
What were "natural philosophers"?
In the 1600's those who investigates nature were called these, and their tools were called philosophical instruments.
Who was Francois-Marie Arouet?
In the 1700's he was popular for entertaining Parisian aristocrats with satirical verses that ended up insulting the Duke of Orleans. He imprisoned Arouet in Bastille prision where Arouet wrote Oedipe (considered greatest French playwright) and a poem (La Henriade, after King Henry IV) He was known for philosophical works and his pen name: Voltaire. He was the most outspoken of French philosophers and attached injustice when seen with biting wit in nobility, government, and the church. He made many enemies, was imprisoned twice, exiled for 2 years from England, and used writing to fight for justice, religious tolerance, and liberty his entire life.
What was science in the church?
In the Dark Ages, all info came from the church. They established Catholic schools, and universities that trained people to run the church. Most scientists were Christian and didn't want to contradict the church. Church- explained world through inspiration and revealed truth Science- explained world through facts and logical reasoning The church rejected the Ancient Grecian scholars' ideas because they weren't Christian and they feared reason because it was the "enemy of faith"
What are the discoveries in biology and chemistry?
In the Middle Ages, Galen (Greek physician) thought human anatomy was like animal anatomy. In 1539, Flemish doctor, Andreas Vesalius was allowed access to the bodies of executed criminals for dissection. He hired an artist to paint the anatomy of the bodies and his findings were published in On The Workings of the Human Body (1543) William Harvey (English physician, early 1600's) observed human hearts and described the circulatory system. Antony Van Leevwenhoek (Dutch scientist, mid-late 1600's) described bacteria, red blood cells, yeast, and other micro-organisms with his invention of the magnifying lenses for a microscope.
What were Copernicus' ideas and achievements?
In the early 1500's he noticed a problem with the geocentric theory, so he made his own: the sun was the center of the universe (heliocentric theory). He made the 1st a model of the solar system, but he thought that his findings were weak so he didn't publish his ideas in On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spears until his later years. After his death, his ideas were expanded by others.
What was the Diderot Encyclopedia?
In the mid 1700's English philosopher Denis Diderot compiled information into a 28 vol. encyclopedia (circle of teaching) to promote knowledge, complete with info on art, science, government, and religion. It took him 27 years to complete in 1772. French leaders didn't like it because it criticized the government so they stopped publication in 1759. Diderot completed the volumes in secret, and when it was published in 1777, it was an immediate success. It spread ideas of the Enlightenment to North America and Europe
What was the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment (1550-1800)?
It was the exchange of new ideas in society. Scientists made advances in science and math through observation, experimentation, and the Scientific Method.
Who was Galileo?
Italian scientist supported Copernicus' ideas and he built the first astronomy telescope in 1609. He first observed Saturn, moon craters, sunspots, the moons of Jupiter, and proved the Milky Way was made of stars
What happened with the Enlightened despots of Austria?
Joseph II (1780-1790 and most radical of despots) son of Maria Theresa of Austria was an emperor who started massive reforms. he abolished torture, the death penalty and serfdom (workers paid for labor)and gave free medicine and food to the poor, and religious tolerance to all religions. His changed were resisted by the nobility and church, and they forced Joseph to revoke some reforms.
What happened with the Enlightened despots of Prussia?
King Fredrick (1740-1786) ruled Prussia with power. Influenced by Voltaire, he empowered Prussia by building military and introducing reforms (established an elementary education system for children, abolished torture, reduced censorship, and supported most religious tolerance except for Jews?, but he tried to limit the Jew population in his country and didn't abolish serfdom (opposed it, but would lose the support of aristocrat population)
What were the geographical starting points?
Large amounts of letters were exchanges and compiled by Father Martin
Who were a few important people in the Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution?
Late 1400's- Copernicus studied astronomy in Poland 1609- Galileo made 1st working astronomy telescope in Padua Late 1600's- Isaac Newton lectured math at Cambridge University Mid 1700's- Voltaire's philosophical works read in Paris
What was the science of the cells?
Mary Osborne (cell biologist, Gottingen, Germany 1970's) made a new microscope that could view the whole cell instead of slicing it up and viewing it that way. She proved there were lines running through the cell and technique improved cancer treatment diagnosis
What were salons?
Parisian women used to hold social gathering that brought together philosophers, artists, and writers to discuss and spread ideas among the educated citizens of Paris.
How did people look to improve Human life?
People looked to improve human ways of life through the organization of government.
What was Galileo's trial?
Pope Urban VII called Galileo forth to appear in Rome before the Inquisition in 1663. He was pressured to dismiss Copernicus' ideas to receive a lighter sentence. He ended up getting away with a sentence of permanent house arrest. People called Galileo's sentence a huge tragedy and they made efforts to clear his name. The Vatican banned Galileo's book, Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems in 1882, and it wasn't until 1983 that his case was reopened, after gradually accepting Galileo's views. In 1992, Pope John Paul II stated the church wrongfully condemned him.
Who and what were some important chemistry events of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment?
Robert Boyle- first to define elements, 1661- The Skeptical Chemist- defined matter as a cluster of small particles and matter changed when clusters were rearranged (introduced by Boyle's Law, temperature, volume, and pressure affects gasses) Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (French chemist) made precise measurement methods in the 1700's, the Law of Conservation of Mass stated matter can't be destroyed nor made, discovered and named oxygen, and invented the 1st periodic table (33 elements)
How did the American Revolution begin?
The MA Sons of Liberty hid weapons in the countryside and towns west of Boston. On April 19, 1775, British troops confronted 75 miltamen in Lexington from searching the countryside for the weapons, which began the revolution. Colonists initially didn't want a war out of loyalty to the UK and from thinking a war was too risky. In January of 1776, Thomas Paine wrote Common Sense which reasoned why they needed freedom from the UK.
What is the Scientific Method?
The Scientific Method is based on physical evidence which includes 5 steps (state problem, hypothesis, experiment, record results, and conclusion) was made by Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes
Who was Adam Smith?
The Scottish economist used reason to analyze economic systems. (1776) The Wealth of Nations- business activities in free markets believed in laissen-faire economics (economy system without the government). If the system works, leave it alone. He thought the economy was stronger if the market forces of supply and demand were allowed to work freely.
What were the new views of the Scientific Revolution?
The large amount of exploration led to new ideas and which led to curiosity and new ideas that challenged the old ones.
How did the Americans oppose British policies?
There was trouble in 1760 when the UK imposed their laws and conflicts escalated. Since England beat France in the French and Indian war (1763) France gave up the rights to the American colonies. The war cost the UK money so they imposed taxes on the colonists to pay cost of the war. The 1765 Stamp Act passed by the UK government without America's consent made the Americans boycott English goods. The Stamp Act was repealed the next year, but in 67, there was more taxes on goods which launched another boycott. In 1770, British troops were so fed up with the Americans harassing them, they killed 5 men (Boston Massacre) The Boston Tea Party (1773) had the Sons of Liberty invade the Boston Harbor and dump hundreds of tea crates overboard. The UK retaliated with taxes and more acts.
Who was George Washington (1732-1799)
Washington's leadership was vital for the American Victory in the Revolutionary war. In 1775 he took command of American forced and fought with untrained miltamen against one of the world's strongest armies. He was strict and enforced discipline, but demanded better food, pay, and clothes for his troops from the Continental Congress because he knew meeting his troops' needs would better prepare them for attacking the UK army.
What role did science play in community?
With the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, philosophers and scholars reexamined the old ideas on religion, government, economics, and education. They wondered if reason was the solution to poverty, wars, and ignorance, ad possibly make dramatic changes.
Who was Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
Women at the time only were wives and mothers (only needed to know that nothing else). She rejected their views and demanded equality especially for women. In 1792, she wrote A Vindication of Rights of Women that argued that men and women needed education in society. In her early 20's she left home to run a school with her sisters. With the moderate success of her novel. she moved to London and found a translator job and joined an intellectual circle (with William Blake and Thomas Paine). She briefly lived in Paris during the French Revolution.
What were some other discoveries of Astronomy?
the barometer (air pressure varies with altitude) Newton and Descartes- Light occurs in waves and color is variations of light waves Boyle- chemical reactions are mechanical, not spiritual wounds are to be dressed, not cauterized women can be assisted in childbirth