Entire Textbook Glossary AP Psychology

Motherese

"baby talk" - distinct pronunciation, simplified vocab, short sentences, a high pitch, and exaggerated intonation and expression

identity foreclosure

( No Doubt) has no doubt about ideas, values, occupation. Appears self-assured and isn't troubled by doubts of fear. Some people make their decisions at a very early age and Have not been troubled with identity stages and choices.

post conventional morality (Kohlberg)

( adolescence and Beyond) actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principlesThat represent the rights of all people. " people have the right to live" Protesters take precedent over laws

preconventional morality (Kohlberg)

( before age 9) self-interest, obey rules to avoid punishment or gaming concrete Rewards. " If you save your wife you will be a hero"

conventional morality (Kohlberg)

( early adolescence) upholds laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order. Trying to fit in, if Society thinks it's wrong then you do too. " if you steal the drug, everyone will think you are a criminal"

1. Trust versus Mistrust (Erikson)

( infancy-18 months old) (feeding) ( if needs are dependently met, infants develop a sense of basic Trust) Basic trust: world is predictable and you have predictable interactions with your caregiver

identity achievement

( made some choices and commitments) Beacon to make some commitments, it may be a firm occupational choice but is not set on other beliefs or values. Any trauma will bring back the identity crisis but the hope of recovery is good. They pretty much stick with their ideas

Adulthood

( usually around mid twenties, but people are all very different) is when you are completely independent from your parents.

Sleepwalking and sleep talking

(NREM3): childhood disorders that run in families.

Mental set

(a prime example of fixation) a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

5. identity versus role confusion

(adolescence (teen-20's)) (peers) (Teenagers work at with finding a sense of self by testing rules and their integration of them the form of single Identity, or they become confused about who they are) Some people take their identity early by sharing their parents values and expectations, while some will adopt a negative idea that's opposing to society but conforms to their peer group.

Alcohol use disorder

(alcoholism) alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdraw, and a drive to continue problematic use.

Identity diffusion (Marcia)

(avoidance) little self-direction, lack of getting involved in relationships, school, work. They don't consider major issues. They have not gone through much thought about a future occupation or value.

Behavioralism

(believed by Watson and Pavlov) The view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists agree with 1 but not with 2

Divergent thinking

(brainstorming) expands the number of possible problem solving.

4. competence vs. inferiority (Erickson)

(elementary school (6-puberty)) (begins school) (evaluation by a formal system (report card)) ( children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior) (poor self-identity)

Moratorium (marcia)

(identity crisis) (Working on figuring it out) Has not found satisfactory answers to the identity questions. They are aware of being in crisis. They tend to change majors in college, have short intense relationships, and reject parental values and ideas

8. integrity versus despair (Erickson)

(late adulthood (late 60's-death)) ( reflecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure) Acceptance of one's lifetime accomplishments and sense of fulfillment.

7. Generativity versus stagnation (erickson)

(middle adulthood (40's-60's)) ( in middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose) Start questioning if life went the way you planned, and if they are happy. Can begin a period of midlife crisis.

Pro social behavior

(positive, helpful) positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

3. initiative versus guilt (Erickson)

(preschool (3-6)) ( preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent) (No changes to why as they try to understand the world. You should encourage curiosity as a parent)

Convergence thinking

(required in intelligence tests) narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

Narcissism

(self-esteem gone a-wire, very self focused) often prevalent in social networking, as people with a high score on a narcissism test, are especially active on social media

2. autonomy versus shame and doubt (Erickson)

(toddlerhood (1-3 years)) (toilet training) ( toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves or they doubt their abilities) ("NO" with tantrums: power over their world)

6. intimacy versus isolation (Erickson)

(young adulthood (20's-40's)) ( relationships) ( young adults struggle of form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated) pair bonding is a trademark of humans. More enduring when you have similar interests and values where there is emotional and material support. Intimate self disclosure and a 5 to 1 ratio of positives and negatives in a relationship.

Right and Left Brain

- left brain: structure, logical, critical thinking. thought to be an interpreter that instantly constructs theories to explain behavior. speaking and calculation more - right brain: unstructured, free-flowing, intuitive, creative. preceptual tasks (bloodflow, glucose levels, etc.). helps orchestrate our sense of self. makes inferences, helps make meaning of speech clear.

Environmental Reasons for teen pregnancy

-Minimal communication about birth control, as they are afraid to discuss this with their parents and peers -Guilt related to sexual activity -Alcohol use -Mass media Norms of unprotected promiscuity

Subtests of WAIS

-Similarities: reasoning the commonalities to objects or concepts, such as "in what way are wool and cotton alike ." -Vocabulary: naming picture objects, or defining words -block design: visual abstract processing, such as " use these four blocks, make one just like the picture" -letter number sequencing: on hearing a series of numbers and letters, repeat the numbers in ascending order, and then letters in alphabetical order.

Sleep Theories

-Sleep protects. A species sleep pattern tends to suit its ecological niche -Sleep helps us recuperate. It helps restore and repair brain tissue. All of the energy being used and calorie burning creates Free radicals (molecules that are toxic to neurons ) which is why we need recuperation. -Sleep helps restore and rebuild our fading memories of the day's experiences. It strengthens memories and almost re-runs over them to consolidate them. -Sleep feeds creative thinking. Dreams on some occasion have inspired noteworthy achievements. Helps you think smart and see connections -Sleep supports growth: The pituitary gland releases a growth hormone for muscle development. Sleep causes better athletic ability ( faster reaction times, more energy, and greater endurance)

Hierarchy of needs (specifics)

1. Physiological needs (hunger and thirst needs) 2. Safety needs (feel that the world is organized and safe) 3. Belongingness and love needs (need to feel love and belong to avoid loneliness) 4. Esteem needs (need for self esteem, achievement, independence, and respect) 5. Self actualization needs (need to live up to our fullest potential) 6. Self-transcendence need (need to find meaning and identify beyond the self)

Responses to traumatic stress, especially in the face of catastrophic situations, people often goes through these five stages

1. Psychic numbness: shock/confusion/lack of understanding 2. And automatic action: little awareness of experience/poor memory 3. Communal effort: people work together with little planning 4. Let down: the setting in of the magnitude/impact of the situation 5., Recovery: survivors adapt to changes caused by the disaster

The seven sins of forgetting

1. Transience (we forget because things decay) 2. Absent mindedness (you didn't pay attention) 3. Blocking (forgetting because of interferences) 4. Miss attribution (memory faults that occur when memories are retrieved but details are wrong) 5. Suggestibility (The process of memory disorientation as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion) 6. Bias ( The influence of personal believes attitudes and experiences on memory) 7. Persistence (unwanted memories that can't get out of your mind. Can be strengthened by emotions)

Ernst Weber

1795-1878; Field: perception; Contributions: just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law; Studies: 1st study on JND

Gustav Fechner

1801-1887; Field: perception; Contributions: stated that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportionate to the # of JND's that the stimulus causing the experiences above the absolute threshold

Michael Gazzaniga

1939-present; Field: cognition (neuroscience); Studied of the neural basis of mind with primary responsibility for initiating human split-brain research. In his subsequent work he has made important advances in our understanding of functional lateralization in the brain and how the cerebral hemispheres communicate with one another.

Self-Serving Bias

A Readiness to perceive oneself favorably. People accept more responsibility for Good Deeds rather than bad, and for success rather than failure. most people see themselves as better than average

Trait perspective

A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports. Description and measurement of Personality differences. It is a relatively stable predisposition to behave a certain way

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Intellectually disabled

A condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life. Formally known as mental retardation.They have difficulty with conceptual skills, social skills, and practical skills

Down syndrome

A condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and Associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. (We no longer like to go to school because grades are now attached) believing to gain external reward or avoid threatening punishment

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interactions and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors They have an impaired theory of mind An often lack the brain areas involved in mirroring others High functioning individuals: generally have normal intelligence with an exceptional skill or talent in a specific area. But they lack social and communication skills and are often distracted by unimportant stimuli Lower functioning individuals are unable to use language at all. More often occurs in the male brain Because women are more predisposed to be an aesthetic, something that autistic people do not have. This is why testosterone levels often relate to the likelihood of autism

Clever Hans

A horse that was claimed to have been able to perform math and other intellectual tasks. It was determined that the horse wasn't actually performing these mental tasks but was watching the reaction of the human observers. Oskar Pfungst

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory ex: too much of this (and too little GAMA, is associated with epileptic seizures) oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food)

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter (inhibits brain activity) ex: Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia. Huntington's involves loss of neurons that utilize GAMA

Mental age

A measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does well as the average 8 year old is said to have a mental age of 8

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

associations

A mental connection or relation between thoughts, feelings, ideas or sensations.

Intelligence test

A method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance. helps us tell the further away something is, the smaller looking it is.

Neuron

A nerve cell and the basic building block of the nervous system. It is composed of a cell body and branching fibers

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. forms new memories

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. Memories of facts and episodes are processed in the hippocampus and frontal lobe, and then fed to other brain regions for storage.

reinforcement schedules

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Projective tests

A personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger protection of one's Interdynamics (inner thoughts and feelings

Higher order conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one containing experience . is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second, often weaker, conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food made then learned that a light predicts the tone and begins responding to the light alone. Also called second order conditioning

brightness

A psychological sensation caused by the intensity of light waves.

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

double-blind procedure

A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups. They are ignorant to the placebo

Emotion

A response of the whole organism involving... - Bodily arousal; heart pounding - Expressive behaviors; quickened pace - Conscious experience: thoughts like "is this kidnapping?" Or feelings like panic joy and fear

Stereotype threat

A self-confirming concerned that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype example: when women and men were given a difficult math test, women did worse on it then men did, because they believed that men were better. But when they were told that men and women typically score the same, they did better Competence + diligence = accomplishment

The empirical approach uses...

A set of standards to conduct a study, emphasis on careful observations and scientifically-based research. Empiricism is the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should therefore, rely on observation experimentation

Insecure anxious attachment:

A side effect of Insecure attachment to others as a child in things like foster care constantly craving acceptance but remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection

nsecure avoidant attachment:

A side effect of Insecure attachment to others as a child in things like foster care feeling such discomfort over getting close to others that they employ avoidant strategies to maintain their distance

Factor analysis

A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score

somatic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles (also called skeletal nervous system)

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function. have been able to 80% accurately map out what people are doing because of were the work load is

Empirically derived test

A test ( such as the mmpi) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

Achievement test

A test designed to assess what a person has learned. A measure of what you have learned

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Terror management Theory

A theory of death related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death. Death anxiety increases contempt for others and esteem for oneself

shape

A two-dimensional contour that characterizes an object or area, in contrast to three-dimensional form.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Operant behavior is behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli

classical conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Pavlov introduced some of the most famous research for classical conditioning, which brought the believe that psychology should be an objective science based on observational behavior.

acronym

A word formed from the first letter of each word in a series. ROY G BIV

Basic trust

According to Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers. Belief that our early attachment forms the foundation for our adult relationships and our comfort with affection/intimacy.

Self-actualization

According to Maslow and his hierarchy of needs, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arise after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential. Deficiency needs our psychological needs such as food and safety as well as love and esteem, and we try to fulfill these if they are not met. Growth needs are those in higher levels that include the desire for truth, goodness, Beauty, and justice

Unconditional positive regard

According to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance towards another person

Serotonin

Affects mood control hunger, sleep, and arousal ex: undersupply linked to depression. Some antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels and is involved in pain control

Coping

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

explicit memories

Also called declarative memory, explicit memories are simply memories that you have to learn. You have to make an effort to encode these facts and experiences.

repeated self-testing

Although it takes a bit more time, repeated self testing is a better method than cramming and re-reading because it helps generate recall instead of recognition, making for lasting memories

electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Critical period

An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

Ethics an animal use

Animals are "replaced" with invertebrates when can be, "refinement" minimizes the harmful effects, and "reduction" allows the experimenter to never do more than necessary There has to be a justifiable reason for using animals, animals are bred for experiments, the personnel working with the animals knows guidelines, the animals are not an agonizing pain, the animals have humane and adequate housing, and the experiment follows federal guidelines

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

competent newborn

Babies will look longer at face like objects. In the womb, you produce a quarter million brain cells per minute, but this is basically all you will ever develop

Self efficacy

Belief that people have about their ability to meet demands or control aspects of a specific situation. Developing new behaviors and strengthening self-efficacy by mastering and observing others The Little Engine That Could, I think I think I know I can

Social-Cognitive Perspective

Between peoples traits ( including their thinking) and their social context. Importance of beliefs about self. It relies on experimental findings, there is an emphasis on conscious self regulating behavior, and there is an emphasis that our sense of self can vary depending on our thoughts feelings and behaviors in a given situation. Developed by Bandura

Cell disruption

Brain production of new cells slows in some neural connections degenerate. The telomeres at the end of the chromosomes shortened, not allowing cells to divide and then quickly dying

the extent to which intelligence is related to neural processing speed

Brain scans reveal that smart people use less energy to solve problems. Agile Minds come with agile brains. People who score higher on intelligence tests tend to also have agile brains and score high in speed of perception and speed of neural processing The correlation between intelligence score and speed of taking in perceptual information tends to be about +.3 to +.5, But some third-party Factor May influence both intelligence and processing speed.

The stability of IQ scores over life span

By Age 4, children's performance on intelligence tests begin to predict their Adolescent and adult scores. The consistency of scores over time increases with the age of the child. Studies have shown that more intelligent people live longer. Explanations include the intelligence facilitated better education, jobs, and a healthier environment. Another is that intelligence encourages Healthy Living, no smoking, better diet, more exercise. Another is that prenatal events or early childhood illnesses might have influenced both intelligence and health. And finally a well wired body as evidenced by fast reaction speeds, perhaps Fosters both intelligence and longevity

David Hubel

Canadian neurophysiologist noted for his studies of the structure and function of the visual cortex

The psychology of hunger

Carbs boost level of serotonin which has a calming effect which is when we crave things like oreos when sad.

Collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species history.

Assessing the Self

Carl Rogers did a test where he asked people to describe themselves both as they would ideally like and what they actually were. Science who had nearly the same answers, we're determined to have a positive self-concept

Critics of kohlberg

Carol Gilligan pointed out that he only tested boys who tend to have a more absolute value of morality based on rules and justice, for example when you think of military.

Reasons for obesity

Changing food consumption and our world's activity levels are also at fault for overall growth in obesity. Additionally, friends who are obese can often cause their best friend to gain weight, and there is an increased chance of beoming obese if those around you are. Obesity is especially prevalent because of the highly palatable foods that we have, supersized foods, cafeteria diet effect, snacking, BMR, and our sedentary lifestyles

Assessing behavior in situations

Chart for psychoanalytic, psychodynamic, humanistic, trade, and social cognitive theories. Pg 593 chart for research methods case study, survey, projective tests, personality inventory, observation, and experimentation. Ph 593 Social cognitive researchers tend to believe that the best way to predict someone's behavior in a given situation is to observe the person's behavior and similar situations They have been salted for under emphasizing the importance of unconscious Dynamics, emotions, and inner traits. Their response is that the social cognitive perspective Builds on psychology while established concept of learning and cognition and reminds us of the power of situations

chunking

Chunkiness when you organize items into a familiar and manageable unit. This often occurs automatically, and it's a great way to study lists of information

Broca's Area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. speech production

The extent to which intelligence is related to brain anatomy

Correlation of +.33 between brain size and intelligence Some Studies have found a positive correlation especially in the parietal and frontal lobes. Ample gray matter and white matter enable efficient communication between brain circuits.

Psychology subfields

Counseling psychologist, clinical psychologist, and psychiatry (know that this one requires going through med school. They are the only ones that can prescribe medication. But they often work with psychologists.)

working memory

Created by Alan Baddeley, working memory is considered a newer understanding of short-term memory. It focuses on the conscious and active processing of incoming noise and visual information, and of information coming in from the long-term memory

General intelligence (g)

Created by Charles Spearman. It is thought to be a general intelligence factor, that according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. He thought that what we see as many different skills is actually one's GI. -A basic intelligence predicts our abilities and varied academic areas. Spearman believed that if you are good at one subject, you are usually good at many others. -Different abilities, such as a verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate -human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence Factor

The stability of intelligence scores over the life span Phase 1

Cross-sectional evidence for intellectual decline older adults give fewer correct answers on intelligence tests than younger adults. The decline of mental ability is part of the general aging process. One reason why corporations established mandatory retirement periods.

defense self esteem

Defense self-esteem is fragile, it focuses on sustaining itself which makes failures and criticism feel threatening

Standardization

Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pre-tested group. It establishes a basis for meaningful comparison with equitable questions and responses.

Creative intelligence

Demonstrated by reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas. Many inventions result from such creative problem solving Creativity requires expertise, imaginative thinking, venturesome personality, a creative environment, and intrinsic motivation.

IQ Intelligence quotient

Derived by William Stern, IQ was defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age x 100 (ma/ca x 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance of a given age is assigned a score of 100, with scores assigned to relative performance above or below average -Scores reflect innate mental abilities, education, and familiarity with culture assessment of test -Now, the test that is used is more representative of the test-takers performance relative to the average performance of others the same age.

context effects

Describes how the context in which a stimulus occurs can contribute to how people perceive that stimulus then can radically alter perception

Ways to boost your creative process

Develop your expertise Allow time for incubation Set aside time for the mind to move freely Experience other cultures and ways of thinking

Goleman (Salovey)

Developed a test to assess more emotional intelligence components. Send an emotionally intelligent (emotional quotient) people are both socially and self-aware. Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotion. The EI test measures overall EI and its 4 components

Gender differences in mental abilities

Differences between gender are observed across cultures, stable over time, influence by prenatal hormones, and observed and genetic boys raised as girls Males and females tend to have the same average intelligence test scores. They different and some specific abilities -girls are better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at dealing with emotions, and more sensitive to touch taste and color -boys outperform girls and spatial abilities and related mathematics, the girls outperform boys in math computation. Boys also outnumber girls at the low and high extremes of mental abilities

Lateralizarion of emotion

Different parts of our brain deal with different t emotions. The right side more deals with negative emotions and the left side more deals with positive emotions.

Culture and emotional expression

Emotions are generally universal across the word so no matter your culture, it is likely going to be the same. Cultures do however, rely on different gestures and differ in the amounts of emotion they express Expressions work to communicate emotion as well as amplify and resulate it. So fake it until you make it. We also mimic others' expressions, which helps us empathize.

mood congruent

Emotions that are good or bad can become retrieval cues. If you're feeling bad, you're more likely to remember more bad events. Vice versa with good feelings. However this often poses a problem for depressed people, because they only think of more depressing things when they're upset. It is difficult for them to overpower their mind and start to rearrange their life to think more positively

Humanistic psychology

Emphasis on unique qualities of humans and the potential of humans. There was a lot of self words that came out of this movement, such as self-esteem. A question what is good with humans, which caused an emphasis on mental health and processes as the root of our behavior. It was led by Rogers and Maslow, and said how current environmental issues can nurture or limit our growth potential, and the importance of love and acceptance in human lives

Freudian Psychology

Emphasized the ways unconscious thoughts and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior. A.k.a. psychodynamic approach

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Five concepts of creativity

Expertise: a well developed base of knowledge. Imaginative thinking skills: provides the ability to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns, and to make connections A venturesome personality: seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risks, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles Intrinsic motivation: being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge than by external pressures. A creative environment: sparks, supports, and refinance creative ideas.

bulimia nervosa

Extreme overeating followed by self induced vomiting and laxatives

obesity and weight control

Fat is the ideal form of stored energy, and is a high-calorie fuel reserve to carry the body through periods when food is scarce. People who suffer from sleep loss are more likely to be obese. Sleep deprivation causes leptin (reports body fat to brain) level to lower, and ghrelin (appetite) to rise.

sympathetic nervous system

Flight or fight the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

The Modern Unconscious Mind

Freud was right about the idea that we have limited access to all that goes on in our minds, But the current view of the unconsciousness is not that of a hidden store house filled with repressed feelings and thoughts. Researchers see the unconscious as a separate and parallel track of information processing that occurs outside our awareness, such as schemas that control skills, instantly activated emotions, self Concepts and stereotypes that filter information about ourselves and others, and mechanisms that defend their self esteem and deter anxiety, such as False Consensus Effect /projection and Terror management

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory if personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions. -Importance of unconscious processes and childhood experiences -Both an approach to therapy and a Theory of Personality (Provides insight into one's thoughts and actions)

Scientific method

Generate a question, formulate a theory, develop a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, replication of the results

Disadvantages of IQ tests

Group IQ tests are fairly accurate but rely on verbal testimony. The average error of an IQ test is 7 points, and the Supreme Court said IQ tests cannot determine placement of children and schools. Cultural bias and creation of questions May discriminate against minority groups though.

Longitudinal studies

Groups or subjects studied for extended amounts of times. The same subject is used the entire time to see development

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. - In phase 1, he thought that you have an alarm reaction, as your sympathetic nervous system is suddenly activated. - In phase two resistance, your temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high. Your adrenal glands pump hormones into our bloodstream so you are fully engaged to fight - In phase 3, you reach exhaustion, and you become vulnerable to illness and even death.

Harry Harlow (Margret Harlow helped)

Harlow raised baby monkeys with two artificial mothers, one made out of wire and one made out of cloth, and discovered that infants much preferred contact with comfortable cloth mothers then they did from the nourishment of the other They used the cloth mother as a secure base. And would be more curious to explore their surroundings, but more timid if placed only with the wire one

Lev Vygotsky

He believes that the child's mind grows through interaction with the social environment. For example if a parent tells a child no, the child might tell them self no to the same situation as a way to gain self control. he thought that parents and caretakers provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step to higher levels of learning, such as introducing them new words

Alan Baddeley

He challenged Atkinson and Schifferns view of short term memory by creating the model of working memory. Essentially he said that there's an essential exclusive area that has focused attention. Auditory visual and long-term memory will come into the central exclusive and go out.

Aristotle

He countered Socrates and Plato by saying knowledge isn't pre-existing because it grows from experiences and memories.

John Locke

He created "an essay considering human understanding", where he said mind at birth is a blank slate and builds as we gain experience. This formed modern empiricism.

Titchener

He introduced structuralism, which looked at elements of the mind by engaging people and self reflective introspection. They would recall details of their immediate sensations. Unfortunately this required smart verbally people, and it was still on reliable because peoples recollections frequently errored

Stanley Hall

He studied under Wundt. In 1884, he put a research lab and John Hopkins. He had the first American journal created, and was the first APA president

Francis Bacon

He was appreciated of of the minds hunger to perceive pattern. He was the founder of modern science

Wilhelm Wundt

He was the first psychologist. He created the first psychology lab in 1879 to know how information gets to the mind. In 1881 he released the first journal to publish psychology research. He believed in structuralism.

Psychodynamic/psychoanalytical view

Headed by Sigmund Freud. Developed from his work with mentally disturbed patients. It views a person as being pushed or pulled by complex network of inner and outer forces. It discovers the conscious versus unconscious

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal and stimulates flight or flight response ex: undersupply can depress mood

Factors that predict sexual restraint

High intelligence religious engagement father presence participation in service-learning programs

Five factor model

Human behavior is the result of interaction between traits and situations 1. Neuroticism (stable emotion versus unstable) 2. Extroversion (extroverted versus introverted) 3. Openness to experience (people who have travel plans laid out versus those who wing it) 4. Agreeableness (versus arguing) 5. Conscientiousness (awareness of yourself)

Evaluating Humanistic Theories

Humanistic psychologists emphasize individualism, which is the act of trusting and acting on one's feelings, being true to oneself, and fulfilling oneself. However critics have said that this will lead to Self Indulgence, selfishness and erosion of moral restraints. Humanistic psychology helps to renew interest in the concept of self. Critics have said that humanistic psychology Concepts were vague and subjective, its values were vague and self-centered, and its assumptions naively optimistic (they aren't realistic of evil).Rogers said that evil was from toxic cultural influences, but critics thought it was from nature

iconic memory

Iconic memory is a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli. This could be a photograph or picture image that last no more than a 10th of a second

The law and statistics of IQ tests

In 2002, the US Supreme Court ruled that it was cruel and unusual punishment to execute people with an intellectual disability (for people under the score of 70 on their IQ test) People who scored in the top 1% of the SAT by age 12-13 were more likely to receive doctorates. (only 1% of Amerians do so, and of the 10,000 tested 12-13 yr olds, more than half did so) High-scoring people tend to be healthy and well-adjusted, as well as unusually successful academically. Schools sometimes track such children, separating them from students with lower scores. Such programs can become self-fulfilling prophecies as both groups live up to, or down to, others perceptions and expectations

Grit

In Psychology, grit is a passion and perseverance and the pursuit of long-term goals the recipe for Success combines Talent with grit, however highly successful individuals also are often conscientious, well-connected and energetic

Secure attachment (Ainsworth)

In a secure attachment, children will play comfortably with their mother's presents and happily explore their new environment. When she leaves they become distressed and when she returns they seek contact with her but they can be consoled. Predicts social competence because they are more confident than others. Comes from more relaxed and attentive parents

environmental influences, via adoption studies

In adoption studies, we find that children who are adopted correlate modestly with their adoptive siblings. Over time, as they accumulate experience, mental similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families wane until the correlation approaches zero by adulthood -Studies of twins, family members, and adoptee's also provided evidence of environmental influences. Among those economically and Provost, environmental conditions can oppress cognitive development. -Test scores of identical twins raised apart are slightly less similar then the scores of identical twins raised together -no evidence supports the idea that normal, healthy children can be molded into Geniuses by growing up in an exceptionally enriched environment

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Self

In contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

Variable ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Slot machine. Very resistant to extinction

Behavioral approach

In personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development For example, a child with a very controlling parent May learn to follow orders rather than think independently

Behaviorism view

In the 1950s, it was a time of conformity, so this view focuses on how you acted. It's stated that if you change your behavior how you feel doesn't matter. Watson argued that you can only observe what is observable behavior. Skinner responded to softening the behavioral list impact, which led to the return of Stricker focus on observable behavior. Organisms repeat what gives them a positive outcome, and they don't want it's negative. Pavlov's research led to the development of the first experimental model of learning, which is classical conditioning

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Introduced by Henry Murray, a projective test in which people Express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Stranger anxiety

Is a fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age and usually right after they develop object permanence It is because children this age form schemas for familiar faces

Critics of Social-Cognitive Perspective

It is well grounded in empirical lab research, but it is simple and doesn't reflect human interactions. It ignores influences of unconscious, emotions, conflicts instead placing responsibility on behavior.

Developmental view

It looks at the changes that occur across our lifespan. Piaget explained how children construct a mental model of the world through theory of cognitive development.

Cognitive learning

Learning new behaviors by observing events and by watching others and learning things in language we have never experienced or observed. We learn by association Behaviors become habitual after 66 days on average is the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language Observational learning lets us learn from others' experiences

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be to stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Classical conditioning

Learning to expect and prepare for significant events such as food or pain. Learning where a stimulus gains the power to cause a response because it predicts another stimulus that already produces the response. Form of learning by association.

Operant conditioning

Learning to repeat asked that bring rewards and to avoid acts that have unwanted results

echoic memory

Like an "echo", this is a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli. If your attention is focused elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within three or four seconds. That is why when a teacher calls on you even though you weren't fully focused, you have somewhat of an idea of what was being asked

long-term memory

Long-term memory is the third and final stage of our working memory process. This section of memory is essentially limitless, and it includes knowledge skills and experiences. Long-term memory can go back to short term memory and this is what is called retrieval. Unfortunately, long-term memory does have decay long-term memory is the third and final stage of our working memory process. This section of memory is essentially limitless, and it includes knowledge skills and experiences. Long-term memory can go back to short term memory and this is what is called retrieval. Unfortunately, long-term memory does have decay, interferences, or retrieval failures.

Psychoticism (Eysenck)

Low in this means warm and caring towards others, high in this means antisocial, cold, hostile, and unconcerned about others. Generally considered as too few traits

mass vs distributed practice

Mast practice, or cramming, produces speedy short-term learning and a feeling of confidence. But those who learn quickly often forget quickly. Distributed practice produces better long-term recall

Self-transcendence

Meaning, purpose, and communion between the self.Refers to the development and fulfillment of one's unique human potential. They perceive reality accurately, are independent, have a sense of self, value quality relationships, and report peak satisfaction and joy He studied his ideas by studying healthy creative people rather than troubled clinical cases.

Memory

Memory is simply information that has been encoded, stored, and is retrievable over time. Memory is limitless, though most things will go through decay over time.

Intelligence

Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. In all cultures it has also been operationally defined in some research studies as whatever the intelligence test measures, which has tended to be school smarts. Is socially constructed thus can be culturally specific

mnemonics

Mnemonics are memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Psychodynamic theories

Modern day approaches that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences. Retains some aspects of the Freudian Theory, such as the importance of the unconscious mind, but it rejects other aspects such as childhood emphasis

Convergent thinking

Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Naturalist Linguistic logical mathematical Musical Spatial bodily kinesthetic Intrapersonal interpersonal

Rationalization

Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions. A habitual Drinker says that she drinks with her friends just to be sociable

Self-esteem

Once feeling of high or low self-worth High self-esteem is beneficial, but unrealistically High self-esteem is dangerous, linked to aggressive behavior, and fragile

Fluid intelligence

Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Crystallized intelligence

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Evidence that points to our need to belong

Our affiliation need, the need to belong, seems to be a basic human motivation. This is why people who are obese may be bothered as much as or more by the social stigma attached to them then the health concerns. Many people find a relationship and family/friends to make their life meaningful. people who feel the need to belong often pass on their genes Social isolation can put us at risk for mental health decline and ill health

Memory Change with age

Our teens and twenties are typically a time of many memorable "firsts", which is why when we look back at an older age, this is the time where we remember the most of. How will people remember depends on the task they're trying to remember. If information is meaningless, the older we are, the more errors we are likely to make. If the information is Meaningful, older people's existing knowledge will help them hold it.

Spotlight effect

Overestimating others noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blenders ( as if we presume a spotlight Shines on us). Considering possible selves does help motivate us towards positive development though.

Parent v Peers on children development

Parents are more important when it comes to education, discipline, responsibility, orderliness, charitableness and ways of interacting with authority figures. they may influence religious and political beliefs, but they do not impact personality Peers are more important for learning cooperation, finding the road to popularity, inventing styles of interactions among people the same age. They tend to adopt their peers culture ( style, accidents, slang, attitudes)

Authoritarian (Baumrind)

Parents impose rules and expect obedience. "because I said so ''. Their kids are likely to go crazy when they're out of their parents control and can make the wrong decision.

Curiosity

Passion to explore and understand

Evaluating Freud's Psychoanalytic Perspective

People really disagree that infant's neural networks are mature enough to sustain as much emotional trauma as Freud assumed. They also don't think that suppressing sexuality causes psychological disorders. It also offers after-the-fact explanations of any characteristics that failed to predict such behaviors and traits. A good theory makes testable predictions and he did not. He did however draw our attention to the unconscious and irrational, to our self-protective defenses, to the importance of human sexuality, and to the tensions between our biological impulses in our social well-bein

self-referencing effect

People tend to have a very good recall of information when it relates to themselves. When you can take meaning and put it into context of your own life, it becomes more relatable and thus is easier to remember for the long-term

Personality and Personality theory

Personality: an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. Personality theory: attempt to describe and explain how people are similar and how they are different, and why every individual is unique.

Physical changes that occur during middle and late adulthood

Physical peak at early twenties, which is why you don't see many olympic competitors older than that. There is also a gradual decline in fertility, as it is much harder to get pregnant at 35-39 than at 19-26. Men experience a gradual decline in sperm count, testosterone level, and speed of erection and ejaculation.

Beliefs of Plato and Aristotle

Plato believed the mind was in the head. Aristotle though that the mind was in the heart.

occidental lobe

Primarily the visual cortex at the back of the head, includes areas that receive info from the visual fields

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

Proposed a model to explain our memory forming process Sensory=>Short Term=>Long Term

Alfred Alder

Proposed to still popular idea of the inferiority complex. He believed that much of our behavior is driven by efforts to conquer childhood inferiority feelings that trigger our strivings for superiority and Power.

Skepticism

Questioning results, retesting

self-report inventory

Questionnaires on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors. Used to assess selected personality traits. Must be standardized questions with validity and reliability. They are more accurate and concrete than projective tests

To make sense of neural static (neural activation)

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories.

Racial and Ethnic Differences in mental ability scores

Racial groups differ in their average intelligence test scores high-scoring people and groups are more likely to attend high levels of education and income individual differences are more contributed by heritability, group differences in heritable traits may be entirely Environmental. -Genetic research reveals that Under the Skin, races are remarkably alike -When braces receive the same pertinent knowledge, they exhibit similar information processing skills. Points to the fact that school and culture manner Because countries with large economic well Scouts, also tend to have a large rich/poor IQ gaps

basal ganglia

Receiving input from the cortex, the basal ganglia is a deep brain structure involved in motor movement. It facilitates the formation of our procedural memories for skills

Denial

Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities A partner denies evidence of his loved one's affair.

Regression

Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated. A little boy refers to sucking his thumb in a car on his way to the first day of school.

Emotional wheel

Robert plutchick said we have our primary emotions and then we have blended emotions and then we have blended emotion which creates more emotions.

Descartes

Said human behavior and sensations are connected to the nervous system. He thought that the mind was separate from the body, so he dissected animals and found animal spirits to describe how the brain flows and connects with the body. He was only right that nerves are important and that they enable reflexes

Secure self esteem

Secure self esteem is less fragile, because it is less contingent on external evaluations.

shallow processing

Shallow processing is in coding on a very basic level. This means the words letters, or at an intermediate level, the words sound

Washburn

She studied under James. She wrote the animal mind, which served as beginning of behavioralism, and it is now standard reading for generations of psychologist. She was it the first female to receive a psychology PhD, and became the second APA president.

Calkins

She was mentored under James, and she pioneered memory research. She also founded labs in wellesley college and invented widely spaced tap for studying memory. Although she attended Harvard, they refused to give her a diploma because she was a woman. She was the first woman to be president of the APA

Displacement

Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses towards a more acceptable or less threatening object or person A little girl kicks the family dog after her mother sends her to her room

emergenic traits

Similarities in identical twins may result from unique configurations of interacting genes. These are the genes

sleep deprivation

Sleep loss is a predictor of depression, difficultly studying, diminished productivity, tendency to make mistakes, irritability, fatigue. Essentially makes you stupid. Can make you fatter. Deprivation increases ghrelin (hunger a rousing hormone) and decreases lepton (hunger suppressing hormone). Also increases cortisol (stree hormone that stimulates the body to make fat) Can suppress immune cells that fight off cancer and viral infections.

Sleep Spindles

Sleep spindles: bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity

NREM 2

Sleep stage characterized by its periodic sleep spindles, or bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity. About half the night is spent in this phase.

Storage

Storage is taking the encoded information and retaining and storing it into the memory for later retrieval.

Stress and AIDS

Stress and negative emotions can speed up the transition from HIV to AIDS in someone already affected. And stress can predict a faster decline in those with AIDS.Efforts to reduce stress will also help control the disease

Stress and Cancer

Stress does not create cancer cells. At worse, it may affect their growth by weakening the body's natural defenses against multiplying malignant cells

Inflammation

Stress hormones do enhance one immune response, the production of proteins that contribute to inflammation. Inflammation fights infections, but persistent information can produce problems such as asthma or clogged arteries or even worse and depression. The system sends out an army of chemicals called pro inflammatory cytokines to attack invaders. PIC are supposed to go away after stress is done, but if it's chronic then they will stay around and eventually perpetuate themselves and then the body deteriorates.

Examples of immune system reactions

Surgical wounds heal more slowly in stressed people Stressed people are more vulnerable to colds. Stress response diverts energy from your disease-fighting immune system and sends it to our muscles and brain, making you more vulnerable to illnesses. Naturally, women are more immunologically stronger than men, but this also makes them more susceptible to self-attacking diseases.

Reaction Formation

Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites repressing angry feelings, a person displays exaggerated friendliness.

Factor analysis

Taking the things that have something in common and Chungking them together Putting nice, courteous, kind, compassionate together Putting funny, enthusiastic, funny together

Expectancy bias

Tendency to distort recalled events to fit expectations

Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions -Perceiving emotions; to recognize them and faces, music, and stories -understanding emotions; to predict them and how they change and blend -managing emotions; to know how to express them and varied situations -using emotions to enable adoptive or creative thinking

neural communication

The body's information system is built from billions of interconnected cells called neurons. starts at cellular level - organ level - system level neurobiologists understand that humans and animals operate similarly when processing info

cerebellum

The cerebellum plays an important role in our forming and storing of implicit memories. This includes motor skills and classically conditioned skills

cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye and protects it. It blends light together to help us focus.

intelligence tests inappropriately biased

The debate over race differences divided over 3 ideas -there are genetically disposed race differences in intelligence there are socially influenced race differences in intelligence -there are race differences in test scores, but the tests are inappropriate or biased Aptitude test interpreted how well test takers will perform in a given situation. So they are necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to Performance differences caused by cultural experience By inappropriately biased, psychologists mean that a test predicts less accurate for one group than for another. In this sense, most experts consider the major aptitude test unbiased -Ex: if the SAT predicts college achievement of women but not men

Introversion and extroversion (Eysenck)

The degree to which a person directs their energies inwards towards themselves, or outward onto others

resting potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane (outside is more cations + and the inside axon fluid is more anions -)

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. also releases oxytocin (birthing, milk flow, orgasm, and promotes pair bonding, group cohesion, and social trust) Feed back system: brain->pituitary->other glands->hormones->body and brain

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. For example, this could be children who watch TV versus children who don't watch TV in an experiment

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

The thinking high road

The fear stimulus travels to the thalamus then to the sensory cortex then to the prefrontal cortex to the amygdala and then to the fear response.

Learned helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated adverse events Exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable adverse events produces passive behavior. The animal will give up to escape the bad result. To overcome this, you must establish a sense of control over ones environment to see some success.

Scientific process of stress going through our bodies

The hypothalamus in the limbic system links the nervous system to the endocrine system, and controls production of stress hormones. Then chemical messengers are sent down the spinal cord to the adrenal glands. Then there is a trigger of production of epinephrine, which then is released into the bloodstream, which interacts with norepinephrine. The stress releaser will also release corticotropin releasing hormone or CRH, into the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland and releases adrenocorticotropic hormone also known as ACTH, into the blood. Which then travels down to the adrenal glands triggering the release of the glue Koradine, cortisol then produces stored energy in the form of fats and sugar.

Reciprocal determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment. In other words, this perspective proposes that our personalities are shaped by the interactions of our personal traits, environment, and behaviors. For example, we might have thoughts and feelings about risky activities, and then we learn to rock climb, and then we have rock climbing friends . Different people choose different environments. our personality shapes how we interpret and react to events. our personalities help create situations to which we react

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. cerebral hemispheres come as a pair contains 20-30 billion nerve cells and 300 trillion synaptic connections

Rorschach inkblot test

The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 ink blots, designed by Hermann Rorschach, seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. Some regard it as a helpful diagnostic tool for a source of suggestive leads, however it is very dependent on the therapist giving it exam, so it's not accurate.

A terminal decline

The near-death drop in which the last three or four years of life your cognitive abilities typically decline fastly.

limbic system

The neural system (included hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) the newest and highest regions are the cerebral hemispheres

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. For example, in an experiment, this may be the height. When someone was to drawl a model of themselves after feeling put down or brought up

External locus of control

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing ( 11 for girls, 13 for guys) There is selective pruning. frontal cortex: hormonal surges in the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness.

recency vs primacy

The primacy effect is when we recall the first items of a list mainly because were focused and it's the first item. The recency effect is our tendency to recall the last item of the list because it is what is currently on our mind

P value

The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance). Statistical significance states that you are 95% sure that there is nothing due to chance by less than 5% For example, the level of power on the avatar is not due to chance on a factor of less than 5%

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early life critical period with the first moving object they see (though best with their own mothers and species). As determined by Lorenz's experiment.

Learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. Experience at one time can alter an individual's behavior at a later time.

heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. -refers to the extent to which differences among people are attributed to genetics -heritability would increase if differences due to environment decrease

Two-factor theory

The schachter-singer theory that to experience emotion one must 1) be physically aroused and 2) cognitively label the arousal Arousal fuels emotion, cognition channels it Ex: We may interpret or arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context

Psychometrics

The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

spacing effect

The spacing affect is essentially when you take more time to study something. Instead of cramming every single thing into one sitting, it's best to spread apart your workload, which will improve your memory in the long term.

Psychoneuroimmunology

The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting

Normal curve

The symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

False consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and our behaviors People who always get speeding tickets tend to think that others do so too.

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Produces the same CR to a similar stimuli (CS).

Cannon Bard theory

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers 1) physiological responses and 2) the subjective experience of emotion Ex: my heart pounding did not cause my feeling of fear nor did my feeling of fear caused my pounding heart

state dependent

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., drunk, tired, sober) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

lymphocytes

The two types of white blood cells that are a part of the body's immune system.

Deprivation of Attachment

The unloved may become the unloving when it comes time for them to be the caregiver. Such as an extreme burst of over population in places like Romania, where children in orphanages outnumbered caregiver 15:1, we have found that people who grow up in orphanages are often less intelligent and more anxious than those who grow up in homes. Because there is no break, as many people who survived the hollacaust or sexual abuse as a child eventually caught a break and grew into normal adults, people who grew up without care bore lifelong scars.

Negative correlation

The variables go in opposite directions. The more heroine you use, the worse your grades

Positive correlation

The variables go in the same direction, the more you study the better you do

Stanford Binet

The widely used American revision of Benes original intelligence test. Created by Terman

Overjustification

There have been cases where excessive rewarding can destroy this feeling of motivation. This over use of bribes has lead people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally appealing. the effect of promising a reward for doing what someone already likes to do. The reward may lessen or replace the persons original, natural, motivation, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated (the person may now see the reward, rather than entrinisc interest, as the motivation for preforming the task)

Bias

There is personal and experimental by us, which is when your personal beliefs get influenced. There is also expectancy by us, which is one expectations of felt affect the outcome, such as you believing that your hypothesis is right. There's also a sampling bias, where there's a representative sample lien. You can reduce bias with double by and procedures.

Cognitive Development

They begin to reason more abstractly, and imagine what other peoples' thoughts are about them (spotlight effect: all they need is one person to make a mean commentary and they believe everyone sees and thinks that of them) These formal operations may cause them to think about what is ideally possible and compare it with the imperfect reality of their society, their parents and even themselves. They may debate Human Nature, Good and Evil, truth and justice. They have left behind the concrete images of early childhood and may now seek deeper conceptions of God and existence.

anterograde amnesia

Think of antiques and anterograde. This type of amnesia is when you can only remember old memories, you no longer can create new memories.

emotional stability-instability (Neuroticisms)

Think stable emotions versus unstable emotions. A persons predisposition to behave emotionally upset or stay emotionally even

Biopsychosocial approach

This considers biological influences of genes hormones and brain. Psychological influences of emotion learning info and cognitions. And the social cultural influences of other people, culture, family and groups, media.

Evolutionary view

This focuses on genetic adaptations, and looks at individuals behaviors through the lens of natural selection.

Z score

This is a unit that measures the distance of one score from the mean. Positive numbers are above the mean, and negative or below the mean.

hierarchies

This is a way of categorizing process information. It divides info not only into chunks but also into hierarchies composed of very broad concepts which will be subdivided into narrow facts.

Functionalism

This is an early school of thought promoted by James and influence by Darwin. Explored how mental and behavioral processes function, and how they enable the organism to adapt survive and flourished

long-term potentiation

This is an increase in the cells firing potential after brief, rapid, stimulation. It is believed to be the basis for learning and memory, as drugs that block the LTP interfere with learning.

Connectionism

This is an information processing method that explains how many different memories are intertwined and connected in the brain. Thinking about one of them will spark the thoughts of the other because they were remember through the channels that connected them in the first place. Every time you learn something new, the brain changes and makes stronger or different pathways.

Cross-sectional studies

This is designed to cut down time and expense. You look at a cross-section of the population and study them at one point in time. But the problem is is that they are different people, so there is confounding variable's next time you bring a cross-section back.

deep processing

This is encoding somatically based on the meaning of words. The deeper the processing, the better our retention because we actually understand the meaning of the words were trying to remember.

deja va

This is the eerie sense that you have experienced something before. Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. Thanks to the Temporel lobe processing, we experience a feeling of familiarity before we actually remember details which is thanks to the hippocampus in the frontal lobe processes.

Sensory Memory

This is the first level of our memory forming process. Generally, the information is a very brief, immediate, recording of sensory information.

infantile amnesia

This is the inability to remember anything before the age of three. Many scientists believe that this is because children do not understand language yet, so any memories that are formed would be visual or auditory, which often decay in long-term memory

Parallel Processing

This is the process of doing multiple things at once or multitasking. However, this process is more like the brain doing multiple things at once even if some are unconscious efforts.

Retrieval

This is the process of taking encoded and stored information and memories and being able to recall them later on. This often determines how well you know something because recall is the ability to remember.

Short-term memory

This is the second level of our memory forming process. Short term memory holds information that went through sensory memory, but only for a brief few seconds. This could be a phone number while dialing, or a ZIP Code. Right after we see these numbers or digits, the information will be stored or forgotten.

Trait view

This is the study of human personality and habitual patterns.

The Barnum affect

This is the tendency to except very general or vague characterizations of oneself and take them to be accurate. For example zodiac signs

effortful processing

This is the type of encoding of memory which involves your entire focus and effort. You will not remember what is inputted unless you put in the effort.

critical thinking

This is thinking that doesn't blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Placebo

This is when experimental results are caused by expectations alone, and well documented in reducing pain depression and anxiety

overlearning

This is when you master something so much, that you no longer need to learn the information because it has become part of your long-term memory, and as long as you keep using it, it will not decay. It is easily recallable

Cognitive view

This looks at how our actions are a direct result of the way we process information from our environment. There are thoughts expectations perceptions and memories and states of consciousness. This is borrowed theories from linguistics

Social cultural view

This talks about social interactions, social learning, and a cultural perspective. Culture, is a complex blend of beliefs customs values etc. developed by a group and shared amongst them. Psychology used to be blind to the influence of culture on behavior

Biological view

This talks about the make up in operation of our body. It focuses on the hereditary and nervous and endocrine system. Neuropsychology also falls under it.

automatic processing

This type of memory processing is completely automatic. You don't have to put in any effort to remember the information. This often includes knowing our relative space in consideration of the surroundings, the time, frequency of events, and of well learned information (such as the meaning of words).

Elizabeth Loftus

This woman spent years studying the miss information effect. In one of her experiments, she had two groups watch the same video of cars hitting each other. When she asks one of the groups how fast was the car going when it hit the car versus when it smashed the other car, they gave two different results. She soon discovered that information can often be tweaked simply because we don't encode everything that happens unless it's truly important to us

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. Skinner elaborated on Thorndike's work

retrieval cues

Through associations, retrieval cues might help us later access information.

What main things control our emotions?

Together, the amygdala which drives flight or flights and the hippocampus with drives memory control our emotions.

leadership roles

Traditionally, societies will give leadership roles to men, they will likely have a high pay check, and they are more likely to be a political leader/ elected leader. Men leaders tend to be more directive and even autocratic. Female leaders are more democratic and welcoming for others input in decision making. They are more concerned with making connections, as they are sometimes more interdependent than males. They take pleasure in talking face to face.

Sublimation

Transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives a man with aggressive urges becomes a surgeon

STD and STI

Two-thirds of STDs and STIs occur in people under 25 Condoms have found to help decrease the rate of STIs and they also have been 80% effective in preventing transmission of HIV that can cause AIDS later on. AIDS ( acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus HIV. AIDS the police in the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable for infections. There's a significant link between oral sex and transmission of STIs such as HPV. Risk Rises with the number of sexual partners. A vaccine administered before sexual contact can prevent most HPV.

Friedman and Rosenman's theories

Type a: Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger prone people Type B: Friedman and Rosenman's term for easy-going, relaxed people Type a people are more susceptible to getting a heart attack, and the core reason for this was found out to be because type a people more negatively expressed emotions. when we are angry, our active sympathetic nervous system redistributes blood flow to our muscles, pulling it away from our internal organs. Thus type a individuals are more combat ready, and excess cholesterol and fat will continue to circulate in their blood and then may get deposited around the heart. Stress can also trigger altered heart rhythms.

Neuropsychology

Underneath the biological view, this is the notion that cognition and psychology are intricately interrelated and they are inseparable. It is a single patient empirical studies

Humility

Understanding humans limitations and possibility for error

archetypes

Universal ideas or images found in the collective unconscious

Humanistic Theorists

View personality with a focus on potential for healthy personal growth. They believe that personality is driven by needs to adapt and learn, rather than unconscious conflicts or defense mechanisms and anxiety. They believe that mental disabilities occur when a person is in an unhealthy situation that causes low self-esteem and unmet needs.

Self consistency bias

We believe we are more consistent in our attitudes and beliefs over time then we actually are

what we fear

We fear what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear (ex: snakes lizards and spiders and heights). We fear what we cannot control (driving we control, flying we do not). We fear what is immediate. We fear what is most readily available in memory.

Two pathways of memory

We have a fast and mainly unconscious pathway of emotion. (Ex. We see a snake and we run in fear. We have an emotion to survive and fast) The other is slower and linked to explicit memory because it delivers more complex information to our consciousness. (Ex. People will pick up a snake if they're a zoologist)

Unconscious Mind

We repress unacceptable passions and throuts from our consciousness because they are too unsettling to acknowledge. Includes Freudian slips, which are inappropriate things that slip out of our mouths at inappropriate Times. They're thought to be our true feelings

Gestalt psychology

Wertheimer and Perls focused on how we experience the world. They said that human mind and behavior are connected

the autonomic nervous system

When crisis passes the parasympathetic division of your AND gradually calms your body, stress hormones slowly leave your bloodstream. Sympathetic is arousing, and parasympathetic is calming. Emotions may be similarly arousing, but some subtle physiological responses, such as facial muscle movement, distinguish them Negative moods and depression tend to show more from right frontal lobe activity, and positive moods tend to trigger more left frontal lobe activity

The physiology of hunger

When people are so hungry, they ignore the other things that used to interest them (like sex) and become addicted to thoughts of only food. Appetite is increased by more ghrelin and orexin levels, but is decreased by more insulin and leptin and PYY

Sensory changes with age

With age, visual sharpness diminishes and distance perception in adoption to light level changes are less accurate to see as well as a twenty-year-old when reading or driving, a 65 year old must get three times as much light. This is one reason for buying cars with untinted windshields when you're older In older people, it takes more time to react, solve puzzles, and even remember names. Slower neural processing combined with diminished senses can increase accident risks. This is why most people get their license taken away when they're old, or drive really slow.

Thurstone's primary mental abilities

Word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perception speed, number facility, inductive reasoning, and memory A single G score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities even Thurstone's 7 mental abilities show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying G Factor

Wiesel

Worked to expand knowledge of sensory processing and perception.

ethics in research

You must give consent, only slight deception is allowed but a must be debriefed, you have the right to with drawl from a study, you will not be put under psychological and physical harm, and you have confidentiality and privacy

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span Focuses on -nature v nurture -Continuity and stages -stability and change

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study. Ex. Human intelligence or sleep deprived. Essentially you are taking words and describing them better so the exact procedure can be replicated.

Psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. For example, many people remember very vividly 9/11

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

Instinct

a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species. Failed to explain most human motives The new name, evolutionary psychology, however, assumes that genes predispose species-typical behavior.

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Savant Syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing Focused on by Gardner

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them leaves you with two separate minds

Case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment For example, if you were studying children's happiness, their families might become a variable.

Sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Undoing

a form of unconscious repentance that involves neutralizing or atoning for an unacceptable action of thought with a second action or thought. (rewriting the wrong) If someone did something bad, they might try and donate to the church to make up for the thing they did bad

reward deficiency syndrome

a genetically disposed deficiency in the natural brain systems for pleasure and well-being that leads people to crave whatever provides that missing pleasure or relieves negative feelings

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables Little scatter = high correlation, slope = direction of the relationship

cohort

a group of people from a given time period

Ghrelin

a hunger arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach.

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. It suggests that the ability to perceive depth is at least partially innate (when babies start to crawl, then they start building depth perception)

Polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes accompanying emotion.

Concept hierarchy

a means to keep mental info organized from basic concepts to specific ones

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. You will learn something more quickly when you learn it a second time. For example, children who learned a different language as a child may forget it when they're older, however if they try to relearn it, they have a better chance at retrieving that information

Prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (can influence what we hear, taste, feel, and see)

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, once we learn it, we have a hard time unlearning it

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For Example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule of procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier, but also more error-prone, use of heuristics.

antagonists

a molecule that binds to a receptor site and inhibits or blocks a response decrease likelihood that post synaptic neuron will activate ex: Botulin (in botox) smooths wrinkles by paralyzing facial muscles ex: Curare can be applied to darts to paralyze the animal when hunting because ACh receptors are blocked

agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response excitatory message- increases likelihood that postsynaptic neuron will activate some opiate drugs are agonists and produce a high by increasing sensations of pleasure or arousal

relative size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. Motivation connects observable behaviors to internal states, it accounts for variability in behavior, it creates perseverance despite adversity, and a relates biology to behavior

Insula

a neural center deep inside the brain. It is activated when we experience various social emotions such as lust, pride, and disgust.

Acton potential

a neural impulse a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon anywhere between 2 mi/h to 180 mi/h (Nonetheless, even though the brain is more complex than a computer, this reflex is still vastly slower) positive goes in and negative goes out in equal increments

all or none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. we detect intensity of stimulus because strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire and fire more often (NOT strength or speed)

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron, which applies the brake system

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjective melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (nonadrenaline)) that help arouse the body in times of stress. produces fight or flight response

Refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. There are easy (Cheerful, relaxed, predictable), slow to warm up (Resist or withdraw from new people and situations), and difficult (irritable, intense, and unpredictable) babies. There are also average babies: 1.3 of babies are this, they are a little bit of everything.

Latency (6-puberty)

a phase of dormant sexual feelings, As children start to focus on Hobbies

Incentives

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid. Emotions vary from euphoria to detachment to panic.

Personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true false or agree disagree items) On which people respond to items designed to gauge at wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates in the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification, and doesn't distinguish between reality and fantasy -Ex. A baby will cry out to demand satisfaction of their desires, not caring about the rest of the world. -"I want"

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatiory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamers delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it. Most dreams are marked with at least one negative event or emotion, and few are sexual. We can associate a sound with a mild electric shock, but we don't remember recorded information played with we are asleep.

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan.

Heuristics

a simple thinking strategy that often allows up to make judgement and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms (use this through experience)

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high atousal and an appearance of being terrified. Unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM3, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered. In children this can cause them to sleep walks nd talk incoherently and appear terrifyed with screams, though they will typically not remember.

Sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakened. Means you don't really get sleep even though it seems like it. Associated with obesity and often times men, loud snoring, daytime sleepiness, irritability, and possibly high blood pressure which can cause heart attacks. An air pump can aleve symptoms.

Narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The suffer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune Times. Through the genes that cause narcolepsy in dogs and humans, relative that here is an absence of the hypothalamic neutral center that produces orexin which is a neurotransmitter liked to alertness. Shows this is a brain disease and makes hope that a drug can be used to fix in the future.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) A correlation doesn't prove causation

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. Important to realize that this is how "likely" it will happen, not "important"

conditioned/ secondary reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. Something that a person has learned to value as rewarding to get signs of respect or approval (grades, money)

personal unconscious

a storehouse for experiences, feelings, and memories, that are unique to each person.

Cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

nucleus accumbens

a subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction (dopamine-related) located infront of hypothalamus

Health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions. No sense of "getting warmer" it just happens.

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle psychological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group It can change simply because of wording or an unrepresentative sample

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. reveals enlarged ventricles (fluid filled brain areas) in people with schizophrenia

Homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. Ex: if our body temp cools, then our blood vessels constrict to conserve warmth and we feel driven to seek warmer clothe

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. A predictor of what your abilities are on a new skill.

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

Spinal cord

a two was info highway connecting the peripheral nervous system and brain. Ascending neural fibers send up sensory info and descending fibers send back motor-control info to produce pain or pleasure, sensory info must reach the brain through the spinal cord

procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits. This type of memory includes automatic skills and classically conditioned associations among stimuli. For example when you visit your dentist, you might feel nervous because of past experiences.

Pruning process

a use-it-or-lose-it process shuts down unused to links and strengthens others as you develop The peak of neural connection is 28 billion at 7 months, then pruned to 28 billion

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task (active neurons hog glucose)

Displacement

ability to communicate about items, ideas, and activities that are not physically present.

Generative

able to generate an unlimited number of different phrases and sentences

Belief bias

accept only info that conforms to beliefs

New Freudians

accepted Freud's basic ideas such as personality structures of id ego and superego and the importance of the unconscious and shaping of personality in childhood. But they broke off from his ideas because they placed more emphasis on the conscious Minds roll and interpreting experiences and coping with the environment. And they didnt relieve sex/aggression were all-consuming motications, as they opted for loftier motives and social interactions. Contemporary psychodynamic theorists and therapists reject Freud's emphasis on sexual motivation. They stress, with support from Modern research findings, The View that much of our mental life is unconscious, and they believe that our childhood experiences influence our adult personality and attachment patterns.

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. The boys must imitate their father, identification, but then the boys superego teaches them that they cannot marry their mom because it is taboo

Fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure- seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved. 55.4 Freud's thoughts on defense mechanisms

Unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Positive reinforcement

add a desirable stimulus. increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Adds something that you do like so behavior increases.

Accommodation

adopting or current understandings or schemas to incorporate new information. We realize that there is a difference between small dogs and big dogs even though they fit into the same schema.

sensory neurons

afferent; takes info from senses (environment)to the brain carry incoming info from sense receptors to CNS

Memory disruption

alcohol can disrupt memory formation and heavy drinking cab have long term effects on brain and cognition.

Slow neural processing

alcohol relaxes the drinker by slowing sympathetic nervous system activity.

Cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. Cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make

Self concept

all of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question of who am I? Has developed around the age of 12 Self-esteem is how they feel about who they are at 15 to 18 months old, children recognize themselves in the mirror by school-age, they can describe many of their own traits, and by ages 8 to 10 their self-image is stable. Their view of themselves tends to affect their actions.

self concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, and answer to the question "who am I". Rodgers even interviewed people with a questionnaire to determine if they believe they're real and ideal self for the same or different

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating (acquiring, fetching, and using knowledge)

Motor development

all things of movement. Such as grasping, walking, skipping, and balancing We create neural networks rapidly in the first two years. Explains why we quickly develop from smiling (3 months), Rolling over, sitting up unsupported, crawling, and then walking

Sternberg

also agrees with Gardner's idea of multiple intelligence, but he proposed a triarchic theory of three intelligences that predict real world successes. These three factors can be reliably measured. These three facets maybe less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying G Factor, additional testing is needed to determine whether these facets can reliably predict success. Uses Analytical, Creative, and Practical Intelligence

Near death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (like heart attack) often similar to drug induced hallucinations.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Expectancy

an awareness of how likely it is that the US will occur

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind. It involves reporting ones unconscious mental experiences, but it wasn't very accurate

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. Coming to the conclusion without conscious awareness of thought process involved. However, representativeness and availability heuristcs can even lead smart people into dumb decisions.

Electro convulsive therapy

an electrical shock is sent through the brain to try to reduce symptoms of mental disturbance. Once LTP has occurred, old memories won't be disrupted, but very recent memories can be wiped out

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation Lots of this attachment works through touch (contact) especially during a sensitive period. Familiarity Separation anxiety: peaks at 13 months. Exists because of survival

Sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction towards members of either one's own sex ( homosexual orientation), the other sex ( heterosexual orientation), or both sexes ( bisexual orientation) -3% of men and 1% or 2% of women are homosexual -Many psychologists think of homosexuality as neither willfully chosen or willfully changed -Brains differ with sexual orientation because everything psychological is simultaneously biological. -Sexual orientation is not an indicator of Mental Health there is no evidence that environmental influences determine sexual orientation -evidence for biological influences include the presence of same-sex attraction in many animal species; straight gay differences in body and brain characteristics; higher rates in certain families and an identical twins; exposure to certain hormones during critical periods of prenatal development; in the Fraternal birth order effect.

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows Positive punishment administers an adverse stimulus. Adds something that you do not like so behavior decreases A traffic ticket for speeding Negative punishment withdrawal of rewarding stimulus. Takes away something that you do like so behavior decreases. Take away at teens driving privileges

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. It explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize what we have observed.

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Fixation

an inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective a mental set that hinders the solution of a problem. One needs to think beyond the mental set to solve a problem but they cant.

Primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. Something that is naturally reinforcing (food, warmth, eater)

Biopsychosocial

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis we are all biopsychosocial systems

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior successive approximations are when you reward responses that are even closer to the final desired behavior and tell you eventually get there

Habituation

an organisms decrease in response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. For example, a sea slug withdrawals it's girls if it is squirted by water, but if the squirts continue the withdrawal response goes away

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex Sexual orientation: the direction of one's sexual attraction. Very different than sexual identity!

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Bottoms up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information sensation= senses

Basic archetypes

anima ( female principle), animus ( male principle), self ( individual; most important and stresses unity), shadow (opposite of ego, unconscious)

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy Men admit to be more aggressive than women, however women can be relationally aggressive in regards to gossip.

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations the more sensitive the body region, the larger the area devoted to it's soma cortex

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking specialized areas involved in higher mental fuctions -under rt. temporal lobe is the ability to recognize faces -memory language and attention all result from synchronized activity among distinct brain areas

Satoshi Kanazawa

argues that general intelligence evolved as a form of intelligence that helps people solve novel problems, such as how to stop a fire from Spirit riding. More common problems, such as how to read a stranger's face, require a different sort of intelligence. She asserted that general intelligence scores do correlate with ability to solve various novel problems but do not correlate with individuals skills in evolutionarily familiar situations, such as married, parenting, and forming close friendships. This might be why some people are more academic and others are more social

Spillover effect

arousal from a soccer match can feel anger, which can dissent into rioting or other violent confrontations right afterwards

retina disparity

as an object comes closer to us, the differences in images between our eyes become greater (i.e. finger sausage)

Analytical (academic problem solving) intelligence

assessed by traditional intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems having a single right answer. Such tests predict so school grades reasonably well and successes more modestly

Psychological testing

assessing a person's abilities, aptitudes, interest, or personality based on a systematically obtained sample or behavior

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Peg-words

associate numbers with an item it rhymes with or resembles

Emotion focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction.

Problem focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly (by changing the stressor or the way interact with the stressor (problems))

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution). Along with the miss information effect, it is the heart of many false memories for example, many songwriters believe they're riding their own pieces when in fact they have heard the tune or lyrics from another artist, they are just forgetting.

Edward Thorndike and the Law of effect

author of law and effect. Said behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently. Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently. Created puzzle boxes for research on cats. skinner and thordike believed that cognition (thoughts), perceptions, and expectations have no place in psychology. Because they cannot be studied through observation and therefore were seen as not being objective.

Productive language

babies ability to produce words, matured after their receptive language. Also recognize noun-verb differences.

Receptive language

babies ability to understand what is said to and about them.

Routine effect

babies turn towards touch, open their mouth, and root for the nipple of a woman They begin sucking: tonguing, swallowing, and breathing together.

basic research vs. applied research

basic: quest for knowledge for its own sake. Applied: designed to solve specific practical problems. Applied research comes in experimental, non-experimental, and psychometric forms

Two word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

Theory of mind

begins to develop in children when they stop being egocentric. This is people's ideas about their own and others mental states, feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors that they might predict.

Respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Immediate reinforcers

behaviors that immediately preceded the reinforcer because more likely to occur (especially good with animal training)

B. F. Skinner

believed that internal factors like thoughts, emotions, and beliefs could it be used to explain behavior. Instead, he said that new behaviors were actively chosen by the organism. He looked at operates or active behaviors that are used on the environment to generate consequences. He created the skinner box with rats who pressed a lever to get a treat.

choice blindness

believing you are tasting two different things, but it is actually the same thing (aka two of the same jams in different containers)

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in Behavior, relatively influenced by experience Maturation (nature) sets the basic course of development while experience (nurture) adjusts it. Example: you don't walk until you crawl

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord - the body's decision maker

Neural networks

brains neurons cluster into work groups. neurons network with near by neurons they can have short and fast conversations with

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Inner speach

by 7 years old, children become increasingly capable of thinking in words and of using words to work out solutions to problems. Helps them think about controlling emotion (Vygotsky)

types of drugs

can be agonists (make neurons fire), antagonist (stop neural firing) or reuptake inhibitors (block reuptake)

Signals

can be excitatory or inhibitory

soma

cell body serves as neuron's control center

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. they may also play a role in learning and thinking they provide nutrients and insulating myelin, guide neural connections and mop up ions and neurotransmitters more complex than the brain, > proportion of glia to neurons

Surface traits

characteristic that can be inferred from observable Behavior

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues -influence interest in sex, food, and aggression -slower than nervous system communication but often longer lasting (ex. we are upset for a long time)

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons and bind to receptor sites to influence if the neuron will generate a neural impulse in a key-lock system they will unlock tiny channels where ions will flow in, which will excite or inhibit the neuron's readiness to fire.

Over generalization

child will generalize grammar rules so they apply the rules too broadly "we goed to the store" vs. "we go to the store"

Allostatic load

chronic stress that wears down the body. (such as catastrophes, significant life changes and daily hassles)

Belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discovered. Tendency for pre existing opinions to distort our sense of whether a particular conclusion is logical. The more we appreciate why our beliefs might be true, the more we cling onto them.

Coronary heart disease

clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries. Stress can cause cholesterol and clogging measures to rise to dangerous levels.

Lazarus

cognitive appraisal (is it dangerous or not?)- Sometimes without our awareness - defined emotion. For example, the sound is "just the wind"

Gender expression

communication of gender identity through behavior and appearance

Addiction

compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences.

Interneurons

connect two neurons have reflexes and use interneurons to help survive

substance use disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.

medulla

controls heartbeat, breathing the slight swelling base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing

Broca's area

controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

cerebellum

coordinated, voluntary movements/procedural memory the "little brain" at the rear of the brain stem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Cattell

cute looks at those eighteen thousand words and used factor analysis to come up with 16 key personality dimensions or factors to describe personality said each factor was measured on a continuum.

Dopamine

deals with motor movement and alertness influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion ex: oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Alcohol

depressant- initial high followed by relaxation and dis inhibition depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions Reduced self awareness and self control: distracts attention from normal inhibitors and future consequences Expectancy effects: you can be tricked to think you are consuming alcohol even if you aren't, and then behave like you are bc of the mind's powerful sexual desires.

Heroin

depressant- rush of euphoria, relief from pain depressed physiology, agonizing withdrawal

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

describes how some of our needs take priority over others. (introduced by Abraham Maslow): Maslow's pyramid of human needs. Begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. Maslow was a humanistic psychologist. Now we understand that you may bounce around on this ladder because of cross cultural needs versus individualistic versus collectivist cultures

Working backwards

determine the steps to reach your goal starting from the end point

Gender schema theory

develop schema for gender from our environment and what is told. (Boys don't do ballet)

Kubler-Ross

developed a five-stage theory of the psychology surrounding death. the speed and repetition and getting stuck in one stage depends on the person.

Kubler-Ross greif theory

developed a five-stage theory of the psychology surrounding death. the speed and repetition and getting stuck in one stage depends on the person. Denial: it can't be true anger: why me, it is not fair bargaining: I'll change everything depression: I've lost everything accepting: I know my time is near

Robert Rescorla (1940-)

developed a theory emphasizing the importance of cognitive and mental processes in classical conditioning. also looked at how predictability and unpredictability has a factor in our classical condition. He also looked at Habituation: learning by association. An organism decreasing behavioral response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it (ex: alarms, needles, in his case he looked at the experiment where people got shocked with sounds playing randomly or with the noise.

Mary Ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment she discovered secure and insecure attachments that children form with their parents.

PPY

digestive tract hormones saying I'm not hungry to the brain.

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation (our nerve cells fire less frequently). Helps us focus on informative changes.

Carl Wernicke

discovered a brain area responsible for interpreting meaning of language

Paul Broca

discovered area in the brain (named for him) in the left frontal lobe responsible for language production

negative identity ( role confusion)

disdain, hostility, or anger against what Society is telling them to do. They tend to repel because they have been confirmed by parents and Society. Hopefully they go on to find themselves instead of stain rebellious. For example they might find themselves in a gain or cold because it gives them an identity and relieves them appchoices.

Projection

disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others The thief thinks that everyone else is a thief

Neophobia

dislike for things that are unfamiliar. We tend to stay away from things that are new.

Conscientiousness

disorganized, careless, impulsive. vs. organized, careful, disciplined

Sub goals

divide the problem into smaller, more manageable part

Jean Piaget

dominated the field of cognitive development. He developed an IQ test and at certain ages they got the same answers wrong. This showed that children think differently at certain ages of life became convinced that children's Minds saw life differently. The child's mind is not a miniature model of an adult's, we know now that children reason differently than adults. Lead us to believe that a child's mind develops through a series of stages. He first realized this when he saw that young children got the same answers wrong that adults would find to be very easy. For example children might try and sit on a miniature chair well adults would obviously know they couldn't fit.

To reflect cognitive development (cognitive development)

dream content reflects dreams cognitive development - their knowledge and understanding. Emphasizes the top down control of our dream content.

To file away memories (information processing)

dreams may help sift, sort, and fix it he days experiences in our memory. Brain scans confirm the link between REM sleep and memory

To satisfy our own wishes (Freud's wish fulfillment)

dreams provide a psychic safety valve that discharges otherwise unacceptable feelings.

Stimulant

drug's (such as caffeine, nicotine and more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Drop in appetite, increase in energy, and confidence can rise.

Barbiturate

drug's that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but imparing memory and judgment Along with tranquilizers, Can be percribed to induce sleep or reduce anxiety and can impart memory of judgment. And if combined with alcohol can be lethal.

Amphetamines

drug's that stimulate neural activity, casusing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes (cocaine, ecstasy, and methamphetamine)

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. Urges you feel sober will be the ones you likely act upon when drunk include alcohol and heroine

Telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - "go car" - using mostly nouns and verbs.

motor neurons

efferent; takes info to the rest of the body, and tells the body to do something carries outgoing info from CNS to muscles and glands

Encoding

encoding is the process of taking in information and processing it so that the information can be stored and retrieved later.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

context dependent

environment in which something is learned serves as cue for retrieval

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness) we presume such events are common. Example: people fear flying because they don't want to be, but they don't fear car accidents that kill considerably more people. Idea that the more who dies the less we care.

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Natural concept

everyday experience and do not have boundaries that are sharply defined (ex: goog dresser)

Population

everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in because they fit into all of the criteria

Culture

everything shared by a group and transmitted across generations. They shape power in gender roles: a set of expected behaviors for males or for females. - Role: a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. Cultures will determine the intensity and equality of gender roles. For example, Australia has some of the more equal opportunities for both genders, while the middle east still clings to some of the least equal ideals.

Drawbacks

examiner May influence response, scores are subjective, test fail to produce consistent results (reliability problem). tests are poor predictors of future behaviors.

Narcissism

excessive Self-love and self-absorption

Anorexia nervosa

excessive weight loss because People deprive oneself of food. It is a psychological disorder as well.

Divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges into different directions)

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

hallucinations

false sensory experiences such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

amygdala

fear and aggressive emotions 2 lima-bean sized neural cluster in the limbic system linked to emotion damage here makes reading others expressions hard

sex glands

female - estrogen male -androgen

Arousal theory

focuses on finding the right level of stimulation

Instinct theory (aka the evolutionary perspective)

focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors. This is a theory that all behaviors will be determined by and then it factors in biologically-based behaviors that genetically lead to survival. The term instinct has been overused so now we have changed it to fix-action patterns

Cyberostracism

for example, having few followers or being unfriended Increase his activity in places like anterior cingulate cortex that activates in response to physical pain Acetaminophen: for example, Tylenol, lessons social and physical pain

proximity

for example, if there are II II II, we count 6 lines by counting by twos

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties (18-25), Bridging the Gap between adolescent dependence and full Independence and responsible adulthood. Stages found mostly in today's Western cultures, as the transition from adolescence to adulthood is now taking longer. People are all over the place, some may still live with parents, marry, attend college, or work. People are delaying " adulting" because of student debt and loans

Delayed gratification

forging a small immediate reinforcement for a greater reinforcement later. Humans will do this with paychecks and grades and it's also a learned response. Marshmallow experiment

B lymphocytes

form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections

T lymphocytes

form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment, Consciousness, and how we adapt to the environment. He was a US psychologist who believe that the brain should be looked at function over structure. Is a huge critic of Wilheim Wundt

Mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing others doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

Electra complex

girls parallel. Girls have feelings for their dad and compete with their mom. Penis empty, is when they blame their mom for not sending them into the world fully equipped. They eventually identify with their mother

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group calls and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications their identity is independent because of their individual traits, their life task is to discover and express one's uniqueness, they believe themselves to be the most important through Personal Achievement rights and Liberties and self-esteem, they change reality to cope, their morality is self based, their relationships are often temporary or casual so they have many of them, and their behavior reflects their personality and attitude.

Collectivist

giving priority to the goals of One's group ( Austin wants extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly their identity is interdependent because they want to belong, their life goal is to maintain connections and fit in, they believe that group goals and family duties and social responsibilities are the most important thing, and they accommodate to reality in order to cope, in the morality is defined by social networks, and they are few relationships that are close and enduring, and their behavior reflects social norms and roles

Francis Galton

had a fascination with measuring human traits. He wondered if it was possible to measure natural ability and to encourage those of high ability to mate with one another. He focused on Eugenics (A much-criticized 19th century movement that proposed measuring human traits and using the results to encourage only smart and fit people to reproduce, think Nazi Germany)

Myers-Briggs type indicator

has been taken by more than two million people a year and is used mostly for counseling, leadership training, and work team development. You have to remember that not many people fit into one personality type, as they are a unique complex of multiple traits. Factor analysis: a statistical procedure used to identify clusters of test items that top basic components of intelligence.

Carl Rogers person centered perspective (or client-centered perspective)

he agreed with much of Maslow's thinking, that he thought people are basically good and are endowed with self-actualization tendencies. he held that a growth-promoting climate requires genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.He identified healthy personalities as fully functioning people, ones who have congruence and their reality and their self-concept is positive.

Circadian Rhythm

he biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (ex: of temperature and wakefulness) that occur in a 24h cycle. Can be altered by age and experience Morning people tend to do better in school, take more initiative, and are less vulnerable to depression. Women often transition here during menopause and when they have children (age 20)

Carl Jung

he placed less emphasis on social factors and agreed with Freud the unconsciousness exerts a powerful influence. He believed that we also have a collective unconsciousness which explains why spiritual concerns are deeply rooted and why people in different cultures are certain myths and images. He said that the Persona, the public self, is a mask that exists between the outside world and the ego ( it reflects either introversion, or extraversion).

Set point

he point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. Not agreed upon by all because there can be slow, sustained changes in body weight can alter a person's set point.

Pre-operational stage (Piaget)

he stage from about 2 years old to six or seven, during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Includes conservation, egocentric, and later on develop theory of mind

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

REM sleep Additional Stuff

heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid and irregular, and every half minute or so, your eyes dart around in momentary bursts of activity behind closed lids. Also called paradoxical sleep bc of the felling of sleep paralysis, which is why we don't act our dreams bc our body is motionless. 20-25% of sleep spend here. These eye movements announce the beginning of a dream which is often emotional, story like, and richly hallucinatory Genitals are aroused except in very scary dreams

Diana Baumrind

her theory of parenting styles had three main types (permissive, authoratative, & authoritarian)

Over imitate

his is when a child imitates what they see other people do, however they can often overkill it if that's what they are mimicking. For example if a child saw their parents tickle a jar of peanut butter with a feather before opening it, the child would be predispose is to do the exact same thing because they are over imitating the original action that they saw done

Nature and nurture

how does our genetic inheritance interact with our experiences and influence our development We are formed by the interactions and interrelationship between nurture and nature. This is why biological, physiological, and social cultural forces interact.

Phonology

how language is produced

Pragmatics

how language is used in everyday settings. Helps us understand ambiguous language (ex: could you pass the salt (obviously you can but the question is asking me you)).

Syntax

how we combine words

Orexin

hunger causes triggering of hormones secreted by the hypothalamus that makes us feel hungry

we consider a test biased if...

if it detects not only innate differences in intelligence, but also performance differences caused by cultural experiences

interposition

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impared speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impared understanding).

humanistic

importance of self and fulfillment of potential

Intimacy

in Erikson's Theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

Phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. English has about 40.

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning, may be a work or part of a word (such as a prefix). English has about 100,000 of these

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally, naturally and automatically triggers a response. (The food)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, and originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an on conditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, and unlearned, naturally occurring response, such as salvation, to an unconditioned stimulus, such as food in the mouth.

Acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins to trigger the conditioned response. And operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response The process of developing a learned response. When animals start to associate the NS with the US

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned response. The subject will learn to not respond to a new CS that is not the original because they learn the one stimulus predicts the UCS and the other does not. Counter conditioning: undoing a CS or CR. You must pair the CS with something that is incompatible with fear

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

Grammar

in language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others, In a given language semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

Dementia

in old age, this is the deterioration of cognitive functions such as memory, and language. With increasing age, the risk of dementia also increases. It is not a normal part of growing old, so not everyone has to have it, genetics & lifestyle can cause it.

Operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber also known as a skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record The animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Variable interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals Checking in emails. Studying for an unknown pop quiz date.

Fixed ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Free drink after every 10 purchased. You get $5 for ever 10 widgets you make.

Fixed interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. students on this type of reinforcement schedule will respond more frequently as the time approaches their final destination (students will pack up their bags when they get closer to the bell, knowing that the bell is going to come no matter what) People check more frequently for mail when the time of delivery approaches. When I go to work, I expect to get a 10 minute break for every 4 hours I work. Get allowance every friday.

Discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Any consequence that increases the likelihood of the behavior it follows (Always good) Praise, attention, or a paycheck

Free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. Sigman Freud proposed that we repass pain and unacceptable memories to protect our self concept and to minimize anxiety

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanisms that banish from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. Freud thought that repression underlies all the other defense mechanisms.

embodied cognition

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

Reflexes of the competent newborn

inborn automatic responses rooting sucking grasping moro (fetal position when scared) babinski (toes curl)

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

texture gradient

indistinct (fine) texture signals an increasing distance

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations perception= meaningful

pancreas hormones

insulin (decreases blood sugar) and glucagon (increases blood sugar)

Assimilate

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. We realize the cats are not the same as dogs.

Intrinsic motivation

is a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective. It has an edge because it is more personalized. It is the reason that we always have a choice.

Preconscious area

is a temporary place where we can retrieve memories into conscious awareness. Ex: know what color car was driving in front of you today. It is a region of the mind Holding info that is not conscious but is easily retrievable into conscious awareness

Stimulus

is any event or situation that evokes a response. Anything in the environment that one can respond to. In operant conditioning we learn to associate a response or our behavior, as its consequence.

Extrinsic motivation

is the desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

The stability of intelligence scores over the life span Phase 3

it all depends -Some people disagree with longitudinal studies, because they think that those who made it/ survived to the end of the study may be bright healthier people whose intelligence is less likely to decline -The finding of intelligence is not a single trait, but rather several distinct abilities. So when intelligence tests assess the speed of thinking, many older adults are at a disadvantage because of their slower neural processing

Self system

it influenced by self-efficacy, the degree to which we are convinced of our own capabilities and successfulness in dealing with a new situation

Leptin

it is secreted by the body's adipose/fat tissue, and send a message to stop eating

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. Uses the features of a prototype to make predictions (ex: see a tall person and assume they play b-ball)

Selection effect

kids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interest. This may be why teens who smoke have friends who smoke.

Eric Kandel

known for learning and memory studies on sea slugs; eventually mice and other mammals. He found that when studying the sea slugs, after conditioning, sea slugs release more of the neurotransmitter serotonin when learning occurs. This helped us realize that LTP is involved in learning

Skinner

language learned through behaviorist and nature. Why imitation and reinforcement is important.

Observational learning (social learning)

learning by observing others, also called social learning. Not having direct experience but watching others.

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. learning that takes place in absence of an apparent reward. Idea developed by E.C. Tolman Tolman's rat maze experiment: three groups of rats were trained to run a maze getting reinforces6 at different times. The experimental groups all ran it the same and their performance continued throughout the rest of the experiment.

similarity

lets say there are columns of triangles and columns of circles. You will count looking up and down because the columns are similar

Teratogens

literally Monster Maker agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. This is one of the reasons why women are not supposed to drink while pregnant

Psychophysiological illness

literally, "mind body" illness; Any stress related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

The stability of intelligence scores over the life span Phase 2

longitudinal evidence for intellectual stability They tested the same group of people over a period of years, to determine the intelligence remain stable until late in life

Watson

looked at generalization and descrimanation through his Little Albert experiment because the baby began to fear all white fluffy things, not just the rat. Think about the white lab coat condition.

George A. Miller

made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory. He said that the human brain can retain about seven information bits in the short term memory. From there the memory will either be transferred into long-term memory or it will decay

Thinking

manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions

insecure attachments

marked either by anxiety or avoidance of trusting relationships. They are less likely to explore their surroundings or cling to their mom. When the mother leaves they will cry loudly and remain upset even when she comes back, or they will seem indifferent to her departure and return. There are physical, psychological, and social problems (with all their serotonin levels.

Genital (puberty-on)

maturation of sexual interests. Super-ego redirects sexual feelings towards others who resemble their parents. Healthy adults find pleasure in work and love, and fixated adults have their energy tied up in early stages

amnesia

memory loss

Concepts

mental category we form to group objects, events, or situations that share common characteristics or features. Seen in formal (artificial) concept, natural concept, and prototype.

Sandwich generation

mid-aged people who have to support their parents and their emerging children or grandchildren.

THC

mild hallucinogen (enhanced sensations, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation)(impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders, lung damage from smoke) the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. Synthetic marijuana mimics THC but has harmful effects like agitation and hallucinations. Legal marijuana can be used to relieve pain and nausea Marijuana smoke is toxic like cigarettes, so medical institutions advise delivery of THC through medical inhalers.

shadowing

monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that shadows often appear on the parts of objects that are more distant ex: the basket ball rolling, bouncing, or being passed, depending on the shadow

Carol Gilligan

moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse

Lawrence Kohlberg

moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why? He looked at moral development in the three stages of how people develop their values system. Not everyone reaches each stage. His levels are based on the degree to which a person conforms to Conventional standards of society.

Source trait

most fundamental dimensions of personality; very broad traits that are relatively few in number and give rise to surface traits.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

n classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning (the bell)

Defense mechanisms

n psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality Freud decided that all defense mechanisms function indirectly and unconsciously

Endorphines

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure released in response to pain

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

feature dectectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement (hubel and wiesel)

reticular formation

neural network controlling arousal a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

mild neurocognitive disorder

neurocognitive disorder in which the decline in memory functioning is modest and does not interfere with the ability to be independent. It can often turn into Alzheimer's.

convergence

neuromuscular cues when 2 eyes move inwards (to nose) to see near objects and outward (away from nose) to see far away objects

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs (complexity resides here because there are billions of them)

NERM 3

night terrors and delta waves appear Slow wave sleep, which lasts for about 30 mins and harder to awaken

NERM sleep

non rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses al sleep stages except for REM sleep

secondary sex characteristics

non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. (The things you become self conscious about)

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

constancy

objects change in our eyes constantly as we of they move, but we are able to maintain constant perception

relative motion

objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in opposing direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation point, moving slower and in the same direction

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation Ex. Observing people at school without being seen and letting them see you

Hunger drive

occurs in two areas: the lateral area increases hunger (L points up) and the ventromedial area decreases hunger (V points down)

Depolarization

occurs when + ions enter neuron, making I prone to firing an action potential

Hyperpolarization

occurs when - ions enter the neuron making it less prone to firing

Positive energy balance

occurs when calorie intake exceeds calories expended for energy. The excessive glucose is then converted to body fat

Significant Life Changes

often keenly felt, and even the happy ones like marriage, can be stressful. There can be major health effects from this as well, as newly widowed people are often at risk of dying a week following their partner's death.

Crystallized intelligence

older people have better crystallized intelligence, which is one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. Think wisdom.

L.L. Thurstone

one of spearman's opponents, and he gave 56 different tests to people and mathematically identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities. He did not rate people on a single scale of General aptitude, but he did believe that when one person excelled in a specific cluster they generally scored well on the others (gave the g factor a bit of evidence).

Hollingworth

one of the first psychologists to focus on child development. She pioneered work in adolescent development, mental retardation, gifted children, and tried to invalidate theories of women being inferior to men

Maslow

one of the most famous humanistic perspectivists. He was more positive, and said that we needed something that describes good mental health as more than just an absence of illness

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

Identity

one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the Adolescent task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. They might ask themselves "what self should I be in this situation" testing out various roles in order to find oneself

Confirmation bias

only search for info confirming one's belief

Opiates

opium and it's derivatives, such as morphine and heroin, depress neural activity and temporarily lessen pain and anxiety. Eventually the brain will stop producing endorphins, and it's very easy to get addicted and then die from overdose. Endorphins Opiates include narcotics like codeine and morphine which can be perscribed drugs for pain relief.

Body contact

originally thought that infants become attached to an adult that gave them nurishment. Harlow proved this wrong

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment helps us act in our longterm interests

Cognitive social learning theory

our behavior is determined by two factors: the expectation of attaining a goal, and the personal value of the goal. Brings in the idea of our locus of control, which is the belief that we control the outcome of our own lives weather intrinsically or extrinsically.

Psychodynamic theory

our motivation comes from the deep dark parts of our conscious minds. Originally set up by Sigmund Freud.

Gender Identity

our sense of being male female

Language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

natural selection

out of the inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to the next generation

nociceptors

pain receptors

authoritative (baumrind)

parents are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules and enforcing them, but they also explain the reason for these worlds. Especially with older children, they encourage open discussion when making rules and allow exceptions. Best for social compantency. Children with high self-esteem tend to have authoritative parents and to be self-reliant and socially competent, but the direction of cause and effect is not clear.

Permissive (Baumrind)

parents submit to their child's desires. They make few demands and use little punishment. This often creates an entitled child.

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language. enables judgment, planning, and processing of new memories frontal lobe damage also can alter personality and remove a person's inhibitions and alter your moral compass

Intersex individuals

people born with intermediate or unusual combinations of male and female physical features Research suggests that sex reassignment surgery can be problematic. As many times in which the surgery has been undergone on children who are intersex, they will change identities at later on because they don't associate themselves with it.

Pica

people consume things that are not consumable due to disorders of anxiety. For example people will eat nail polish

color

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even in changing light

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

Dual Processing: Visual perception track and visual action track

perception: enables us to recognize things and plan future actions action: guides moment to moment movement

Sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness - as distinct form unconsciousness resulting from a come, general anesthesia, or hibernation

Hans Eysenck

personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes Had three different source trait dimensions, introversion versus extroversion, emotional stability (neuroticism), and psychoticism. Using the first two dimensions, he created four basic personality types

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out of proportion head and abnormal facial features. Has an epigenetic effect: it leaves chemical marks on DNA that switch genes abnormality on or off

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

Acetylcholine (ACh)

plays a role in learning and memory and is the messenger at junctions between motor neurons and skeletal muscles (enables muscle action, learning, and memory) when released our muscles contract and if it doesn't connect (sometimes under anesthesia) we become paralyzed ex: in Alzheimer's disease, ACh producing neurons deteriorate.

hypothalamus

pleasurable and survival activities; drinking, eating a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating drinking body temp) and helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and it is linked to emotion and reward. -rat experiment were the rats would cross electrical wire in order to push the button that stimulated this part some hundred times until they died

Oral (0-18 months)

pleasure centers in the mouth. Sucking, biting, chewing. A child can lead to fixation if not handled correctly, such as overeating, smoking, Etc

Anal (18-36 months)

pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control. Toilet training can lead to fixation if not handled correctly, such as anal (perfectionist) retentive, or explosive (no control) behaviors in adulthood.

Phallic (3-6)

pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings.

Neuroticism ( emotional stability vs. instability)

poem, secure, self-satisfied. vs. anxious, insecure, self-pitying

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position receives messages of touch and body positions

openness

practical, prefers routine, comforting. Vs. imaginative, prefers variety, independent

temporal lobes

primary auditory cortex above ears; include auditory areas, each receiving info primarily from opposite ear

thalamus

processes information to and from higher brain centers the brains sensory control center at the top of the brainstem. Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. receives info from all senses but smell

implicit processing

processing with no necessary involvement of conscious awareness

Phrenology

proposed by Franz Gall, this was the study of bumps on the skull to reveal mental abilities and character traits. It focused on the localization of different functions within the brain.

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind anifesting") drug's such as LSD that distorts perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Conceptual difficulties

psychologists believe intelligence is a concept, not a way of thinking. We make an error called reification (viewing an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing) Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it several specific abilities With modern neuroscience techniques, can we locate and measure intelligence within the brain

Natural killer cells or NK cells

pursue disease cells such as those infected by viruses or cancer.

phineas gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except minor twitches) but other body systems are active. Cycles are a normal part of sleep

Wechsler adult intelligence scale

reated by David Wechsler, the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; controls variable and performance (nonverbal) subtest. The WISC is the one for school age children. It yields not only an overall intelligence score, but also separate scores in verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed

Binge eating

recurring episodes of binge eating without purging/stopping

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. Worsened by fretting over insomnia. Sleeping pills and alcohol are quick fixes, however you can build a tolerance and then you become addicted because of the increase in dose needed to produce the same affect.

To develop and preserve neural pathways (physiological function)

regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways.

thyroid and parathyroid glands

regulate metabolic and calcium rate thyroxin regulates metabolism and growth

pons

regulates balance (right vs. left) located above medulla helps coordinate movement

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results and slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Learning occurs rapidly. Behavior will extinguish quickly when the reinforcement stops.

Negative reinforcement

removes an aversive stimulus And typically provides relief. Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli us. And negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. Takes away something that you do not like so that behavior increases.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Mental image

representation of objects or events that are not present.

Practical Intelligence

required for everyday tasks which may be ill-defined with multiple solutions.

longitudinal studies

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.

Allport

researched the idea that individual personalities are unique yet tried to define personality in terms of stable and enduring Behavior patterns. He stressed the importance of studying mentally healthy people, and used a dictionary to find 18000 words describing specific personality traits.

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

parasympathetic nervous system

rest and digest the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

extraversion

retiring, sober, reserved. vs. sociable, fun loving, affectionate. In adults, these traits are stable, generally, and they often predict our actual behaviors. They are found in all cultures

Formal concept

rigid rules or features that define a particular concept (all or nothing categorization process. (ex: solids, liquid, or gas)

tinnitus

ringing in the ears

agreeableness

ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative. vs. soft-hearted, trusting, helpful

Ostracism

s social exclusion (such as exile, imprisonment, solitary confinement) often as a way to control social behavior

seven basic emotions

sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness, and surprise Contempt is when you don't really like someone so you kinda sneer and smirk. Suggested by Paul Ekman

Lewis terman

said that Paris developed questions and age Norms worked poorly with California school children. So he adopted some of Binet's original items, added others, and established a new age Norm. He extended the upper end of the test's range from teenagers to Superior adults. His new test was called the stanford-binet With his help,The US government developed a new test to evaluate both newly arriving immigrants and World War 1 Army recruits

theory of identity achievement (marcia)

said that people are either in crisis ( their occupation, values, Etc may be under scrutiny, and they are actively involved in trying to figure out who they are) and commitment ( the degree of personal investment that The Adolescents put into their belief. They stand by who they think they are and their values or occupation choices they are making)

Martin Seligman

said we are biologically predisposed to learn things that affect our survival. We are predisposed to avoid things that our ancestors faces (food that made us sick/storms/heights/snakes) But we are predisposed to fear modern day threats like guns.

Optimal arousal theory

says that some motivated behaviors increase arousal. For example, when monkeys are not driven to fulfill need-based things, they have time to be curious and try to learn to open the latch to their cage window.

Biological psychology

scientific study of links between biological and psychological processes

Alpha waves

seen through EEG scab, it is the relatively slow brain waves of relaxed, awake state

EI Domains

self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating oneself, empathy, handling relationships.

Autonomy

sense of personal control Competence: self-esteem is high when we feel a sense of well-being. Self-esteem is a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel Loved ones can activate brain regions associated with safety, such as the prefrontal cortex. That is why love is a natural painkiller

types of neurons

sensory, motor, and interneurons

Gender roles

set of expected behaviors for men and women

Karen Horney

she also countered Freud's assumptions, as she attempted to balance the bias she detected in his masculine view of psychology. She said that childhood anxiety triggers our desire for love and security. Believes that the core of our basic anxiety occurs when people feel isolated and helpless in a hostile World. Trouble occurs when people try to control anxiety by exaggerating a single mode of interaction with others ( women Focus only on having a kid for example) she thought that women should have choices and move towards or away or against others.

The ecology of eating

situations can control our hunger. We eat more when eating with others. Portions of the sizes matter (in france they have smaller portions of everything so people dont unconsciously take or eat more). And food variety, like a buffet, will stimulate more eating.

Melatonin

sleep inducing hormone (decrease in the morning, increase in evening) Artificial light delays sleep

Disinhibitior

slow brain activity that controls judgment and inhibitions.

Daily Hassles

small things such as rush-hour traffic, annoying siblings, or long lines. Even though many people can shrug these off, some people's stressors add up and then they can get health problems and take a toll on the cardiovascular system.

Zajonc/ leDoux

some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal. For example, we automatically feel startled by a sound in the force before labeling it as a threat

Freud

sounded psychoanalytic. proposed first complete Theory of Personality. He thought that people's thoughts and behaviors merge from tensions generated by unconscious motives and unresolved childhood conflicts. His ideas were popular after World War 1 .

Symbol

sounds written words, or gestures Connection between symbols and their meaning is arbitrary or random, making language flexible)

lateralization

specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex or the other look alike hemispheres serve different functions

Flynn Effect

states that we have been rising in average IQ score over the years, as humans, across many nations.

Nicotine

stimulant (arousal and relaxing, sense of well being)(heart disease, cancer) a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco. 5.4M our out the 1.3B consumers die every year. The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency. Even if desperately wanting to stop, very few can achieve it.

Methamphetamine

stimulant (euphoria, alertness, energy) (irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures) Block dopamine (arrousal) a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system with speeded up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; overtime, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

caffine

stimulant (increased alertness, energy)(anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high doses; uncomfortable withdraw)

Cocaine

stimulant (rush of euphoria, confidence, energy)(cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash) Seritnion, dopamine, norepinephrine a powerful and addictive stimulant, derives from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria. Crack: a faster working crystallized form of cocaine that produces a briefer but more intense high and intense crash.

Ecstasy or MDMA

stimulant; mild hallucinogen (emotional elevation, disinhibition)(dehydration, overheating, depressed mood, impaired cognitive and immune functioning) Serotonin a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen produce euphoria and social intimacy, but with short term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

popout

stimuli that draw our eye and demand our attention

James Marcia

studied adolescent stage of Erikson; divided adolescent into four groups- foreclosed(having parents identity), achieved (your own identity), diffused (not even searching, living day-to-day), moratorium (actively searching for identity) he's a stage theorist that developed the theory of identity achievement

Roger Sperry

studied split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions

Hypnagogic sensations

such as the Sense of falling or floating

hemispherectomy

surgical procedure where one cerebral hemisphere is removed children's brains are more plastic

The speedy low road

takes the fear stimulus to the thalamus, then directly to the amygdala and then to a fear response. This is why our emotions often act before our cognition

John Garcia (1917-)

taste aversion: rats drank flavored water and hours after they received a shot that made them sick and thus the rats never drank that flavored water again. Tastes are associated with nausea which causes you to become classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes. Taught us that you can still be classically conditioned far after.

Latent content

ten unconscious drives and wished that would be threatening if repressed directly. According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

Delayed reinforcement

tends to maintain behavior in the long run but is less effective. Determined by one's ability to delay gratification, predicts higher achievement.

Trial and error

testing out many different combinations in hopes of getting the solution. A way of problem solving

Social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; The part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

Social intelligence

the 'know-how' involved in successfully comprehending social situations.

Self control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for longer-term and greater rewards

depth perception

the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and accurately judge distance

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or femenine role. At 5-6 they start comparing themselves and try to "fit in" because of gender stereotyping

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

Manifest content

the apparent and remembered story line. according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent or hidden content)

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. Under 6 months old ish oh, they don't know this. Peekaboo.

Selectively permeable

the axon surface is selectively permeable. when a neuron fires, security parameters change and axon opens it gates so + sodium ions can come in and depolarize the axon so channels open which trips the next section to follow suit like dominos

health with age

the bad news is that the body's disease-fighting immune system weekends, making adults more susceptible to life-threatening ailments such as cancer in ammonia. The good news is that thanks to our lifetime accumulation of antibodies, people over 65 suffer fewer short-term ailments such as a flu or cold. Telomeres can be maintained through exercise, which will protect the ends of the chromosomes. With age, the where is accentuated by smoking, obesity, or stress. We are more likely to rust from disuse than to wear out from overuse

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein can be active (expressed) or inactive. 20-25k genes total. When turned on, can provide code for protein molecules they are self-regulating (they react to the environment not follow a one path blueprint)

primary sex characteristics

the body structures ( a varies, testes, and external genitalia) that makes sexual reproduction possible

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure. In humans, after 24 weeks of semistarvation, this will stabilize at ¾ of the normal weight even though they were only taking in half the amount of calories.

Nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience severed neurons usually do not regenerate some brain functions seem preassigned to specific areas

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

Psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones (pleasure sensitive areas on the body).

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes small genetic differences are huge (even though 96% or our gene sequence is close to chimps, we are human)

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

Social Clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, Parenthood, and retirement chance events can have a lasting significance by taking us down one road rather another.

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth -Babies prefer the sound of their mother's voice, and also show more interest in the language that she spoke during pregnancy, which shows that learning begins in the womb. -9 weeks the embryo becomes the fetus -By 6 months they can possibly survive, and can hear and recognize sounds plus respond to light

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month At 14 days zygote turn into an embryo Embryo lasts six weeks, heart begins to beat and organs develop

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

retinal disparity

the differences between the images stimulating each eye

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth the color we experience

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

Withdraw

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. This is an often occurrence, as thoughts usually decay when they're no longer needed or are replaced by new information. For example, Learning a new language may cause a previous language to weaken.

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. For example, if you change your phone password, you may only remember your old password because it had been repeated so much, that it's difficult for you to remember the new one.

Wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

connectedness

the effect of perceiving spots, lines, or areas as a single unit. Ex: 0-0 0-0 0-0, we see 3 groups of 2, not 6 circles

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what is supposed to be tested

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of Interest

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results regardless of who gives the test or where it is given

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of Rapid cell division and develops into an embryo Less than 1/2 survive the first 2 weeks, about 10 days after conception the zygote will attach itself to the uterine wall. The outer part of the zygote turns into an embryo

menarche

the first menstrual period

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well. He came up with a graph that explained how we retain information. Essentially, the graph is a really steep decline at the very beginning however memory from there levels off

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect (your ability to attend to only one voice among many)

Glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. It is converted by the liver and stored as glycogen.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons these baby neurons originate deep in the brain they migrate to form connections

synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

the gap at this junction of the synapse the axon and dendrites don't quite touch

healthy adult (freud)

the healthy adult is one who can love and work. Our lives are dominated by affiliation, achievement, attachment, productivity, connectedness, and competence. We typically fall in love with one person only at a time, end adult bonds of Love typically last longer when couples marry after the age of 20 and are well educated. Divorce occurs typically because of women's lessened economic dependence and men and women's Rising expectations. Couples who make it longer are the ones who refrain from putting down their partners

Insulin

the hormone which allows the body to use glucose for energy or stock production. Separated by the pancreas. It controls blood levels of glucose and promotes the uptake of glucose by the muscles and other body tissues. As insulin levels increase, glucose levels decrease

Drive reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. focuses on how our inner pushes and external pull interact Drive is the biologically instigated motivation. A state of tension is created, which humans will seek to correct. For example we will drink water if we are thirsty.

Infantile amnesia

the inability to remember what happened three years of age and younger This is partly because major brain areas have not yet matured. However there have been tests that found that adults who once listened to a language as a baby that they've completely forgotten now, are more likely to distinguish differences within the language than other people who've never heard it. This gives us the idea that even though the conscious mind may not remember stuff, our nervous system somehow remembers. Earliest age of conscious memory is 3.5 years. A five year old has a sense of self now, and increased long term memory.

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) -our genetically influenced traits evoke significant response in others -when we grow up, we select environment well suited for our natures

Synapse

the junction (that causes a slight interruption in speed) between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them the major but not only pathway that connects structures

Delta Waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

Ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediated among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates in the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. -Contains out partly conscious perceptions, thoughts, judgments, and memories. -"I should"

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse when depolarizing minus hyperpolarizing current action potential exceeds minimum threshold, the neuron fires an action potential when depolarizing exceeds, it fires, when it does not exceed, it doesn't fire

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Socrates and Plato

the mind is separable from the body and continues after the body dies. Knowledge is innate. Plato assumed that we inherit character in intelligence, which is partially right. And Aristotle thought the mind is dependent on the environment.

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

absolue threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. gustave fechner gave it this name.

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of male sex organs in the fetus in the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders( still considered it's most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions is the crossover point where nerves from each side of the brain connect with the body's opposite side

figure ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the background).

Firgure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

Superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience) and for future aspirations. Can make us feel feelings of Pride and guilt. -How we ought to behave and strives for the ideal (perfection) -"I will"

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing. It handles the focused processing of your memory so that inputs will stay in the long-term memory.

Continuity and stages

the parts of our development that are gradual and continuous versus the parts that change abruptly into separate stages. The difference between riding an escalator and a ladder.

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists For example, some people believe that you'll have more kids if you adopt. Or that ice cream causes murder

Internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups or meaningful terms

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups, helps us organize figures into meaningful form.

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments planning, judgement, emotional control

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Egocentric

the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view into account. Curse of knowledge: we assume that something will be clear to others if it is clear to us.

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks conscious sometimes arrives late to the decision making party (researchers can see up to 7 seconds with 60% accuracy what your decision will be)

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. Also known as the inverted U. The more difficult a task (ex: a test), the best results will come from a lower arousal (ex: calm not nervous).

Conservation

the principle that quantity Remains the Same despite changes in shape mass and volume. Pizza Slices.

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging. For example: in Ben's ride by a semi, the ride was a stressor and his physical and emotional responses were a stress reaction, and the process by which he related to the threat was a stress reaction. In a short-hand experience, stressors can be positive as they can mobilize the immune system and motivate us to conquer problems. But if its extreme and prolonged, then it can harm us by putting us at risk of chronic illnesses and heart attack and death

Identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos. Believes that identification with the same sex parent provides our gender identity.

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. This is how we learn our native language We learn to anticipate a behavior is consequences in situations like those that we are observing

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

parrallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations in environments studied. Intelligence appears to be polygenic, involving many genes, with each gene accounting for much less than 1% of intelligence variation. Identical Twins often have similar brains that are built and function the same. When taking an intelligence test, identical twins also exhibit substantially similar scores and had the same specific talents.

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Suggestion that extinction was suppressing the CR rather than eliminating it

Manifest Content

the remembered content is censored expression of the dreamers unconscious wishes. Latent content is the unconscious wishes or true meaning.

Manifest content

the remembered content is censored expression of the dreamers unconscious wishes. Latent content is the unconscious wishes or true meaning.

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

audition

the sense or act of hearing we hear ones in the range of human voices and quickly identify familiar voices.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an If X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

X chromosome

the sex chromosomes found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes and males have won. An X chromosome from each parent produces the female child.

Gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female. Females enter puberty around 2 years earlier than men have, have a 5 year longer life span, carry 70% more fat and 40% less muscle, and are 5 inches shorter. Females are more vulnerable to anxiety and depression, and express emotions more freely. Yet men are 4x more likely to commute suicide, develop alcoholism, be autistic, be colorblind, have ADD or ADHD, and be antisocial as an adult.

Sensorimotor stage (Piaget)

the stage from birth to about 2 years old, during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory Impressions and motor activities includes object permanence

One word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Formal operational stage

the stage of cognitive development beginning around the age of 12 in which people begin to think logically about abstract Concepts . higher order thinking. They began to ponder hypothetical propositions and deduce consequences. potential for mature moral reasoning.

Concrete operational stage (Piaget)

the stage of cognitive development from ages 6 or 7 to 11 years old, in which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events For example, now they learned that you can pour milk into different containers and it doesnt change the amount of milk you have. They can also understand mathematical Transformations and conservation. "That's not fair" thoughts

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Positive psychology

the study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues than able individuals and communities to thrive. Led by Seligman (learned helplessness). Emphasizes positive well-being, Health, neuroscience, and education. People are blind to their own incompetence. Because it takes competence to recognize competence

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

Psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes molecular geneticists have a goal to find some of the many genes that together orchestrate body weight, sexual orientation, and extroversion (outgoingness)

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by Computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (aka criterion-related validity) The lower the range, the lower the predictive power becomes.

Normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

kinesthesia

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness. Some depressed people have received botox so that they can't frown and a lot of them have reported that they were no longer depressed because they couldn't physically support their sadness.

Anchoring effect

the tendency to be influenced by a reference point. Decisions are based on one or minimal number of factors, ignoring others.

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (knew it all along phenomenon)

closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete. Ex: we circles that have missing lines, which we recognize as a whole as a triangle

size constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

James Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to emotion-arousing stimuli. Ex: we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

Social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

Menopause

the time of natural successions of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. Usually within a few years of 50.

NREM 1

the transition into sleep, marked by slowed breathing and irregular brain waves; hypnagogic sensations/hallucinations, and myclonic jerks may occur

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. Begins with puberty (Time of sexual maturity) For boys, sexual maturity at a younger age is better because they've become more athletic and stronger and so they can often be popular. Four girls, sexual maturity at a young age makes them feel worse about themselves and how they look different. Hormonal Surge and limbic system development helps explain teens occasional impulsiveness, risky behavior, and emotional storms. The maturation of the frontal lobes lock behind, which is why you don't always make the best decisions until you're older.

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

Neuroadaption

the user's brain chemistry adapts to offset the drug's effect

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

high-quality daycare

there is no disruption of children's attachment to their parents and it is not bad for a developing child. Consider Warm, supportive interactions with adults and a safe, healthy, and stimulating environment. Poor care is boring and unresponsive to Children's needs Some experiments even showed that children from ages 4 and 1/2 to 6 who had spent the most time and day care had slightly Advanced thinking and language skills because they had formed multiple strong attachments with people from a very early age . they did also have an increased rate of aggressiveness in Defiance

Dendrites

these are the fibers that listen they are bushy branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

these are the fibers that speak they are lengthy neuron extensions that pass messages to other neurons or muscles or glands through branches they are very long (like 4ft at times) Until finished growing at age 25, neural efficiency, judgement, and self-control are still growing.

heroin and morphine

they stop the brain from producing its own natural opiates and so there is intense discomfort when withdrawn

Chomsky

thinks that there is a universal grammar which all cultures share (ex: nouns , verbs, adjectives, and that humans have a built-in predisposition to learn grammar rules). And believed that in childhood, there is thought to be a critical or sensitive period for mastering certain aspects of language before the language-learning window closes (why adults have a hard time learning a second language)

Fluid intelligence

this decreases with age, and it is ability to reason speedily and abstractly. You lose the speed in which you process info but you don't lose intelligence, as you get older.

Myelin Sheath

this encases the axon. It is fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons and enabling greater transmission speed.

Macrophage

this identifies, pursues, and ingests harmful invaders and worn out cells.

Alzheimer's

this is a progressive in a irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, language, and physical functioning. In the span of five to 20 years, deterioration of neurons create ACH. You are at risk of getting Alzheimer's as you increase in age. People in early stages have more activation in MRI scans than normal people.

Hindsight bias

this is when you believe that you knew something all along after you hear the outcome. Ex. People hear that the Padres won and someone says I knew they would all along.

retrograde amnesia

this type of amnesia is the inability to recall things in the past or things in your long-term memory. However you are able to make new memories. And many of your classically conditioned skills are still intact

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

Developmental norms

timetable during infancy to record motor development to spot possible problems.

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue helps discover what is affected by a specific hormone now we can electrically, chemically, or magnetically stimulate brain parts to see the effect

Allostasis

tress hormones protect the body and promote adaptation. (Acute stressors)

identical twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms -have same genes, but not necessarily same number of copies -some twins a=may have separate placentas, causing one to have better nourishment so causes differences (slight) -on out-goingness and emotional levels, identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. Stress hormones can provoke the amygdala, which will initiate a memory trace in the frontal lobe and basal ganglia, which will boost activity in the brain's memory forming areas. That is why emotional memories are often more memorable

Functional fixedness

type of mental set. Inability to see an object as having a function other than its usual one.

Tend-and-befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others and bond with and seek support from others. Men are often more likely to shy away from bonding together and instead turn to alcohol. Possibly because of oxytocin, which is a stress moderating hormone associated with pair bonding (ex: mom with baby)

Wernicke's Area

understanding the meaning of speech controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Catastrophes

unpredictable large-scale events such as wars, earthquakes, floods, wildfires, and famines. ⅔ of americans three weeks after 9/11 said that they had problems sleeping.

Reflexive behavior

used in classical conditioning and its behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Walter Cannon

viewed the stress response as a "fight or flight" system

Gardner

views intelligence as multiple abilities that come in different packages, supporting Thurstone's idea. He notes that brain damage may diminish some mental abilities but not others -He said our abilities are best classified into 8 independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills Beyond Traditional School smarts -Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability -Should all of our abilities be considered intelligent? shouldn't some be called talents?

Voluntary behavior

voluntary behavior that is shaped by consequences in operant conditioning

continuity

we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones. Ex: the straight line and the wavy one in between. We don't see it as a bunch of lines up semi circles

Semantics

what words mean

Overjustification effect

when extrinsic rewards replace intrinsic motivation

Multiple Sclerosis

when myelin sheath breaks down, you lose muscle control because communication between neurons slows

acceptance

when people are accepting, they offer unconditional positive retard, and attitude of Grace that values us even knowing our failures. It is a profound relief to drop our pretences, convince our worst feelings, and discover we are still accepted. We are free to be spontaneous without fearing the loss of others' esteem.

empathy

when people are empathetic, they share and mirror other's feelings and reflect their meanings

genuineness

when people are genuine, they are open with their own feelings, drop their facade, and are transparent and self-disclosing

Optimistic explanatory Style

when something goes wrong, the person explains the problem as temporary, not their fault because s*** happens, and limited to this situation

Pessimistic explanatory Style

when something goes wrong, the person tends to blame themselves, catastrophize the event, and see the problem as beyond their control.

Conception

when sperm penetrates the ovum

Taste aversion

when you avoid something that produces an unwanted response, which is why it's difficult to eradicate a population of rats by poisoning. Once one of them realizes it is bad, they will avoid it Even humans can develop add versions to certain tastes if one food in the past has led them to becoming sick

Personal control

whether we learn to see ourselves as controlling, or as controlled by our environment. Pessimistic vs. optimistic Success requires enough optimism to provide hope and enough pessimism to provide complacency

Stability and change

which of our traits persist through life and how do we change as we age.

Linguistic determinism

whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think and our perceptions about the world. Idea that this is wrong and or words just influence not determined.

Alfred Binet

with Theodore Simon, he began by assuming that all children follow the same course of intellectual development, but some develop more rapidly.They tried to measure children's mental age and make sure that children with below-average mental ages could be tutored to get to the right mental age. his test hoped to improve children's education, but he feared that it would be used to label children and limit their opportunities. He created intelligence tests, an inexpensive and objective method of assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them to those of others using numerical scores. To predict children's future progress. He suggested mental Orthopedics in order to develop low-scoring children's attention span and self-discipline. The bad things: it ended up reinforcing prevailing prejudices about race and gender. Ignored the fact that environmental disadvantages limit the full development of peoples intellectual abilities

Gender schema

your framework for organizing boy-girl characteristics. This becomes the lens through which you viewed your experience. Before age 1 you understand the difference between male and female voices and faces, and by 2 your language is categorized by gender (he or she) 3 year olds have now found that there are two types of people and then they will assume their gender half is better and seek their same gender to befriend. Ridged boy-girl stereotypes peak at age 5-6