ESS 5346 EXAM 1

as a researcher, you should note the following information from research studies that you read

- statement of the problem (and maybe hypotheses) - characteristics of the participants - instruments and tests used (including reliability and validity information if provided) - testing procedures - independent and dependent variables - treatments applied to participants (if an experimental study) - design and statistical analysis - findings - questions raised for further design - citations to other relevant studies that you have not located

A good definition of research is:

- the object of research is to determine how things are as compared to how they might be - implies careful and systematic means of solving problems and hypothesis

Poster Presentations

- traditional single ppt slide - communicate results - stimulate discussion

Level of Evidence and Research Design

General (evidence-based medicine) - Came from the idea of evidence based medicine. - Systematic review (Meta-Analysis): tend to be prospect: intervene or treat somebody or control group and see if the person improves. Mathematical technique to come up with average numerical response from other studies - Randomized Controlled Trial - Prospective or Cohort Study: bigger group of study - Case-Control Study: intervention and control group that does not train - Cross-Sectional Study: retrospective snapshot of what happened in the past - Case Report: medical study about unique disease or injury and how they were treated and what to do with it - Expert Opinion

Research Report Introduction

Importance of general topic (theory or application) - why should people care? Research results More specific and/or consensus of results that justifies/leads to - need/importance/contribution - novelty-exploration/confirmation/refutation/extension Purpose statement and hypotheses

Identify relevant variables

Independent Variables - Manipulated - Categorial - Control Dependent variables - response or indicator variables - tells us about independent variables

Critical Review, Integration, and Organization of Research Results

One of the most difficult jobs in justifying/proposing a research problem Real difference in this task depending on the publication - review of literature chapter in a thesis or dissertation - first major section of research report (IMRaD) Organize and evaluate the results of previous studies - organize studies - critical evaluation/review: account for quality of studies/level of evidence - come up to a critical question of what we know and what we don't know - integrate

Organizing/Presenting methods

Parts of the method sections (quantitative research) - participants - instruments or apparatus - procedures/protocol - design, analysis (statistics)

Types of Research Evidence Cited

Primary sources are research reports published in peer-reviewed journals and scientific proceedings (use to build evidence) - original research - technical note (measurements or stats) - systematic reviews (normally cite in first couple paragraphs) Secondary sources published in peer-reviewed serials or books - narrative reviews - professional articles/standards of practice - books/monographs almost never cite

Systematic

Problem solving is accomplished through the identification and labeling of variables and is followed by the design of research that tests the relationships among these variables Data are then collected that, when related to he variables, allow the evaluation of the problem and hypotheses.

Evidence-Based Practice

Professionalism and Ethical Responsibility to: - be continuous student of research - based recommendations on best available evidence that rely on data for probable, positive effects, not just - Assumed effects - Placebo effects - Hawthorne effects

Five Characteristics of Research

Systematic: plan, identify, design, collect data, evaluate (eliminate error) Logical: examine procedures to evaluate conclusions Empirical: decisions are based on data Reductive: general relationships/theories are established from data Replicable: actions are recorded (method section) - want to ask a good question

The problem statement

The problem statement should be a single sentence that describes the problem/research question Meaning/importance/contribution should be obvious from the organization and message of the introduction In original research reports this is the same purpose of the study

Empirical

The researcher collects data on which to base decisions - a description of data o a study hat is based on objective observations

Reductive

The researcher takes individual evens (data) and uses them to establish general relationships

Steps in Literature Search

Write the problem statement - specific answerable question that you can pose, collect data, get an answer to, and make inferences from answer you find from the data Consult secondary sources - reviews, reference books, encyclopedias - don't cite; gives big picture of the field Descriptors, search terms - original research articles Search preliminary terms - abstracts indexes/databases, bibliographies, libraries - that come back from descriptors and search terms Obtain, critically review and synthesize results from primary sources - write results; how big the differences are after what amount of time; all original data that helps make judgments and theories Write literature review

reductionism

a characteristic of normal science that assumes that complex behavior can be reduced, analyzed, and explained as parts that can then be put back together to understand the whole

extraneous variables

a factor that could affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables but that is not included or controlled

research hypothesis

a hypothesis deducted from theory or induced from empirical studies that is based on logical reasoning and predicts the outcome of the study - expected results

null hypothesis

a hypothesis used primarily in the statistical test for reliability of the results that says that there are no differences among treatments (no relationships among variables)

In a study designed to assess the comparative effectiveness of two workbooks used in teaching students about laboratory procedures, the independent variable of the study would be a. workbooks b. length of the treatment period c. test scores on laboratory procedures d. student attitude toward the intervention

a. workbooks

Science

an approach to the problem of human knowledge attempting to develop general principles about a delimited range of phenomena derived from empirical observations. The interrelated generalizations (theories and laws) do not reflect idiosyncratic, individual experiences, but rather the consensus of the scientific community. Science is based on the assumption that is possible to derive objective knowledge through the senses and the truth of knowledge is confirmed by the similar observations of others.

normal science

an objective manner of study of study grounded in the natural sciences that is systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable

operational definition

an observable phenomenon that enables the researcher to test empirically whether the predicted outcome can be supported - directly related to the research hypotheses - fatigue = being unable to maintain the pedaling rate of 50 rpm for 10 consecutive seconds

tenacity

an unscientific method of problem solving in which people cling to certain beliefs regarding of a lack o supporting evidence

Good repeatability must be ensured by the _____ section of a research report? a. introduction b. methods c. results d. discussion

b. methods

A researcher predicts that there will be a positive relationship between attitude scores and grade point average. This is an example of a a. limitation b. research hypothesis c. null hypothesis d. basic assumption

b. research hypothesis

A researcher predicts that there will be a positive relationship between attitude scores and grade point average. This is an example of a a. limitation b. research hypothesis c. null hypothesis d. basic assumption

b. research hypothesis

Ethics

branch of philosophy that deals with concept of morality (right/wrong, justice) Science and research depends on open, honest communication and debate - peer review - sharing data - reporting conflicts of interest

This question pertains to the following study: "A researcher wishes to determine the effects of an outdoor adventure summer camp on the self-concept of inner-city boys. Boys are randomly assigned to the summer camp and to a control situation. The experimental treatment is for three months. A secondary purpose is to see if age (ages 6, 9, and 12) affects the relationship of the camp effects and self-concept." The primary independent variable is a. self-concept b. three months c. adventure summer camp d. age level

c. adeventure summer camp

According to the American Psychological Association, when a graduate student submits his or her thesis or dissertation for publication jointly with the major professor, the first author should be a. the student b. the major professor c. the one who developed the idea for the study d. whomever submits the study for publication

c. the one who developed the idea for the study

Compared to applied research, basic research a. is of more immediate value to the practitioner b. is done in the "real world," such as the classroom c. usually offers more control, such as in a laboratory d. questions cannot be easily answered

c. usually offers more control, such as in a laboratory

Library information systems

computerized catalogs - the searcher first selects the type of search from a menu, such as author, title, keyword, or call number. when the source is found, the full display for the reference includes author, title, publication information, all the index terms, and the call number

abstracts

concise summaries of research studies are valuable sources of information - abstracts of papers presented at research meetings are available at national, district, and most state conventions

In a thesis or dissertation, the two most important aspects of the literature review are

criticism and completeness criticism: demonstrates your grasp of the issues and identifies problems that should be overcome in the study you are planning completeness: demonstrate to your committee that you have located, read, and understood all the related literature

The only type of research that can manipulate treatments and establish a cause and effect is a. descriptive research b. analytical research c. correlational research d. experimental research

d. experimental research

The variable of interest in a study question or one that must be controlled is an ____ variable. a. dependent b. independent c. categorical d. moderator

d. independent

describing design and analysis

design is the key to controlling the outcomes from experimental and quasi-experimental research - the independent variables are manipulated to judge their effects on the dependent variable design requires a section heading in the methods for experimental and quasi-experimental research analysis is the proposed application of the statistics - descriptive statistics are provided, such as means and standard deviation for each variable - if correlational techniques are used, then the variables to be correlated and the techniques are named - operational definitions

Lifelong learning

essential to professionalism and career advancement

Research Reviews

excellent source of information for three reasons: - some knowledgeable person has spent a great deal of time and effort in compiling the latest literature on the topic - the author has not only found the relevant literature but also critically reviewed and synthesized it into an integrated summary of what is known about the area - the reviewer often suggests areas of needed research, for which the graduate student may be profoundly grateful ex: Annual Review of Medicine, Annual Review of Psychology, Review of Educational Research, Physiological Reviews, and Exercise and Sports Science Reviews - publish one or two review papers on a regular basis

schema theory

extension of closed-loop theory proposed to unify two general explanations under one theoretical approach - example of inductive reasoning

Scientific Misconduct

fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results

describing procedures

how the data were obtained, including all testing procedures for obtaining scores on the variables of interest - how tests were given and who gave them detail the setup of the testing situation and instructions given to participants if the study is experimental, you should describe the treatments applied to the groups of participants contain most of the details that allow another researcher to replicate the study - specific order in which steps were undertaken - timing of the study - instructions given to participants - briefings, debriefings, and safeguards

Ethical issues: human and animals

humans - informed consent - human participants committee animals - justification - great value of animal models potential conflicts of interest - funded research projects - using students and volunteers

Developing hypotheses or questions

hypotheses are deducted from theory or induced from other empirical studies and real-world observations - based on logical reasoning and, when predictive of the study's outcome, are labeled research hypotheses

The means for identifying specific research problems come from two methods of reasoning

inductive and deductive

describing instruments

information about the instruments, apparatuses, or tests used to collect data is used to generate the dependent variables in the study considering the following when selecting tests and instruments: - what is the validity and reliability of the measures? - how difficult is it to obtain the measures? - do you have access to the instruments, tests, or apparatuses needed? - do you know (or can you learn) how to administer the tests or use the equipment? - do you know how to evaluate participants' test performance? what should be presented? - description (including validity and reliability) - drawings, photographs, and sample items - scoring method

Analytical research

involves in-depth study and the evaluation of available information in an attempt to explain complex phenomena; can be categorized in the following way: - historical - philosophical - reviews - research synthesis

bibliographies

list of books and articles about specific topics come in many forms depending on how the information is listed - all contain the authors, titles of books or articles, journal names, and publishing information the bibliography of a recent study on the topic in question is an invaluable aid to the researcher - just because someone else has reviewed pertinent sources does not relieve you of the responsibility to read and evaluate each source yourself a good search strategy is to look for the most recent sources of information and then work backwards - save time by consulting the most recent studies

deductive reasoning

moves from a theoretical explanation of events to specific hypotheses that are tested against (or compared with) reality to evaluate whether the hypotheses are correct

Developing the method

one of the more creative parts if the method is planned and pilot tested appropriately, the outcome of the study allows the hypotheses and questions to be evaluated. elements from other studies can help identify methods for the study design - participants, data collection instruments, and aspects of testing and statistical analysis creative methodology is a key to a good hypothesis

4 parts of the method section

participants instruments or approach procedures design and analysis

participants

people who are used as subjects in a study

closed-loop theory

proposes that information received as feedback from a movement is compared with some internal reference or correctness then discrepancies between the movement and the intended movement are noted finally, the next attempt at the movement is adjusted to approximate the movement goal more closely - example of inductive reasoning

encyclopedia

provide an overview of information on research topics and summarize knowledge about subject areas - general encyclopedias: provide broad information about an entire field - specialized encyclopedias: offer much narrower topics information can be dated - still get important background information about a subject, become familiar with basic terms, and notes references to some pertinent research journals

Indexes

provide references to magazines and journal articles concerning specific topics examples include - Index Medicus - PsychINFO - ERIC - Current Contents - SPORTDiscus

Method section

purpose is to explain how the study was conducted - description should be thorough enough that a competent researcher could reproduce the study

Normal science progresses by

revolution - new scientists replacing the old

limitation

shortcoming or influence that either cannot be controlled or is the result of the delimitation imposed by the investigator

In literature reviews, studies can be related to one another based on

similarities and differences in theoretical frameworks, problem statements, methodology, and findings - can be accomplished through a summary sheet - tends to lend themselves to development of the literature review around central themes or topics - allows synthesis of the relevant findings

discussion

the chapter or section of a research report that explains what the results mean

dependent variable

the effect of the independent variable; also called the yield

ecological validity

the extent to which research emulates the real world two concerns: - is the research setting perceived by the research participant in the way intended by the experience? - does the setting have enough of the real-world characteristics to allow generalizing to reality?

internal validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be attributed to the treatments used in the study

external validity

the generalizability of the results of the results of a study

Writing the introduction

the introduction portion of a thesis or research article should create interest in the problem - used to persuade readers of the significance of the problem, provide background information, bring out area of needed research, and then skillfully and logically proceed to the purpose of the study

independent variable

the part of the experiment that the researcher is manipulating; also called the experimental or treatment variable

Establishing cause and effect

the researcher seeks to explain that certain types of effect normally happen given specific circumstances or causes - researcher's theoretical beliefs as well as the study's design and analysis are essential factors in establishing cause and effect most causes be observable? - if yes, then 2 criteria are needed for establishing cause and effect 1. method of agreement - if an effect occurs when both A and B are present, and A and B have only C in common, then C is the likely cause 2. method of disagreement - if the effect does not occur in E and F when C is the only common element absent, then C is the cause

pilot work

work undertaken to verify that you can correctly administer the tests and treatments for your study using appropriate participants - verifies that all instruments and procedures will function as specified on the type of participants for which the research is intended

Characteristics of Scientific Research

- Hypothesis tested with observations - Variability of observations - statistics (empirical data) - Knowledge is logical structure build upon these inductions (theories --> laws) ; based on inference - One study never "proves" anything (replication, extension, and inference of field needed) - Constantly self-correcting (correction can be fairly slow) ex: stretching

Quality Research Involves

- Identifying and delimiting the problem - Searching, critically reviewing, and writing about the literature - Specifying and defining testable hypotheses - Designing research to test the hypotheses - Selecting, describing, testing, and treating the participants - Analyzing and reporting the results - Discussing the meaning and implications of the findings

Tips on reading literature

- become familiar with few publications that have pertinent research in your field - read only studies that are of interest to you - read as a practitioner would (look for ideas and indications) - read the abstract first - don't be concerned about statistical significance - be critical but objective

what to tell about participants

- exact number of participants should given, as well as any loss - participant characteristics

planning the treatments (in quasi-experimental and experimental studies)

- how long? how intense? how often? - how will participants adherence to treatments be determined? - do you have pilot data to show how participants will respond to the treatments and that you can administer these treatments - have you selected appropriate treatments for the type of participants to be used?

Quality Research efforts involve some or all of the following

- identifying and delimiting a problem - searching, reviewing, and effectively writing about relative literature - specifying and defining testable hypotheses - selecting, describing, testing, and treating the participants - analyzing and reporting the results - discussing the meaning and implications of the findings

What are two reasons that a researcher might decide to make something a control variable instead of an independent variable?

- if the variable is closely related to the theoretical model - how likely it is that an interaction will be present - difficulty of making a variable a categorial variable - amount of control the researcher has over the experimental situation

Inductive reasoning process

- individual observations are tied together into specific hypotheses, which are grouped into more general explanations that are united into theory to move from the level of observations to that of theory requires many individual studies that test specific hypotheses. someone must see how all the findings relate and then offer a theoretical explanation that encompasses all the individual findings

Traditional science assumes

- natural, deterministic causes/mechanisms - Laws - confirmed by objective, systematic observations general explanation

causes of misconduct

- pressure to publish - need to complete graduate work - desire to continue funding - desire for academic rewards

collecting the data

- when? where? how much is required? - do you have pilot data to demonstrate you skill and knowledge in using the tests and equipment knowing how participants will respond? - have you developed a scheme for data acquisition, recording, and scoring?

Scientific Method of Problem Solving: Steps

1. Developing the problem (defining and delimiting it) - identification of independent and dependent variables - independent = what the researcher is manipulating - dependent = effect of the independent variable 2. Formulating the hypotheses - hypothesis is the expected result (should be testable) 3. Gathering Information 4. Analyzing and interpreting results - must provide evidence for the support or rejection of the research hypothesis - also compares the results with others to relate and integrate the results into some theoretical model - inductive reasoning

Eight categories of scientific misconduct

1. plagiarism - using the ideas, writings, or figures of others as your own 2. fabrication and falsification - making up or altering data 3. nonpublication of data - "cooking data" and outlier treatment 4. faulty data-gathering procedures - "p-hacking" and missing or changing data 5. poor data storage and retention - raw data retention for 3 years 6. dishonest authorship 7. other dishonest publication practices - abuse of power - dual-publication and self-plagiarism - not honoring copyright 8. peer-review falsification

Steps in literature search

1. write the problem statement: trying to specify that research questions you are asking - by clearly defining the research problem, the researcher can keep the literature search within reasonable limits 2. consult secondary sources - helps gain overview of the topic, but can omit if have knowledge of topic - encyclopedias and textbook can be helpful; a review paper over the topic is valuable 3. Determine Descriptors: terms that help locate sources pertaining to a topic -can be classified as major and minor - combination of descriptors helps the researcher pinpoint related literature 4. Search preliminary sources; use to find primary sources through computer-aided searches - primarily consist of abstracts and indexes 5. read and record the literature: 6. Write the literature review - introduction: should explain the purpose of review and its organization - body: should be organized around important topics - summary and conclusions: summarize important implications and suggest directions for future research - to demonstrate that your problem requires investigation and that you have considered the value of relevant research in developing your hypotheses and methods

Nature of knowing (learning)

Ability - innate (changeable) Speed - quick (gradual) Control/Authority - Expert (experimental and justified)

Parts of a Research Report (IMRaD)

Abstract Introduction (why?) - justify problem in context of previous research - hypothesis Methods (how?) - details: subjects, protocol, equipment - dependent variables, definitions, statistics Results (what?) - specific effects observed (statistical tests) Discussion (so what?) - size and meaning of effects - Study limitations References

Types of Research (big 5)

Analytical: in-depth study and evaluation of available information in an attempt to explain complex phenomena - historical/philosophical - Reviews: narrative, scoping, systematic, meta-analysis, umbrella Descriptive: defines current status, nature - lays out evidence from a population - survey, interview, development, correlation Epidemiological: describes and determines factors related to health - mostly retrospective Quasi-Experimental and Experimental: approach to establish mechanisms, causes and effects - at highest level: does it work and how? Qualitative: systematic method of inquiry, and follows the scientific method of problem solving to a considerable degree although it deviates in certain dimensions; establishes hypothesis and instead uses more general questions; subject, field-based inquiry - beware of artificial rift between natural sciences (quantitative) and behavioral sciences (qualitative) - some things just can't be measured

Worthwhile Contribution

Based on three S's: Search, Sift, and Synthesize of the original research literature - Sifting is harder - Searching is easier Must show that the problem/question is a contribution by (i.e. Does it add to our knowledge, is it meaningful, is it important?) - new/novel/advancement in understand: is it cutting edge? -refute: in what you believe is incorrect thinking or poorly done research - replicate/confirm/extend: science always tried to verify results; repeating with high quality research methods, larger sample or population that can confirm results and extend to different people - synthesize/integrate: research review of all that is been done in a systematic way (meta-analysis)

How does a control variable differ from an independent variable? Give an example of each.

Control variable: a factor that could possibly influence the results and that is kept out of the study - ex: Does red light affect plant growth? water and soil Independent variable: the part of the experiment that the researcher is manipulating; also called the experimental variable or treatment variable - ex: Does red light affect plant growth? light color

How to write a good introduction

Demonstrate to point of the study (get attention of reader) Omit vague wording (no overly colloquial or technical jargon) Know who you are writing for (attention and outlook/bias) Justification (contribution, extend or resolve conflicting results) Write the introduction after the problem and hypotheses

Logic

Inductive: specific observations to come to general observation Deductive: general idea to specific idea - Follow deductive reason - Go from general understanding, to what it predicts, get to research question

Things to think about when identifying a problem/question

Is the problem in the realm of research? - Is it based on naturalism and are you trying to figure out the nature or cause of certain things? Historical or philosophical? Does it interest you? Does it possess unity? - Whole, complete, meaningful Is it worthwhile? - Theory or application - Theory = building knowledge - Application: what we need to know Is it feasible? - Can you afford it? Is it timely? - Trending of science; what people are interested. Can you attack the problem without prejudice? - Being unbiased Are you prepared in the techniques to address the problem? - Do we have the equipment, technology, statistical expertise

Literature Review vs Introduction section of research report

Literature review is an exhaustive summary/synthesis of all the research related to a topic (chapter in thesis or dissertation) Introduction section of a research report - formal publication or scientific proceedings - must concisely summarize previous research results - must make a case for the study (stating purpose and hypotheses)

Hourglass Logic and Organization of an original article report

Literature review: starts board and then narrows to show how past research relates to your project - primarily deductive logic Discussion: Starts specific by explaining what your results show in relation to your project, then widens out to say what this may mean for the field of research as a whole - primarily inductive logic

Statistical Hypotheses

Null hypotheses (H0): statistical "strawman" hypothesis of no (zero) significant differences or relationships - statistically significant does not mean it is large, important, or meaningful - easy to reject Alternative hypotheses (H1): usually equal to the experiment - want to knock down null hypothesis to get to alternative hypothesis

Title considerations

Purpose - descriptive: conveys focus or key result - keep in mind utility of future literature research - Has to be important and descriptive of what you are doing and a key variable or key result to report out Problems with titles - too short or too long - useless or unclear words Like the abstract, usually written last

Research Hypotheses

Research hypotheses - expected results based on theory or experience - stated as outcomes Different from statistical hypotheses (often expressed as null or hypotheses)

Identifying a Problem/Question

Research question asked is one of the most steps in scientific research Common methods employed by graduate students - keeping focus broad rather than narrow - reading a review paper - reading the research literature - looking at what your advisor does - looking at what your faculty and other students are doing Provides a beginning/context for development of a refined research question

Oral Presentations

Same organization as written report - slides use phrases make key points (20-28 point font) - citations with author surnames (modified/shorten APA) - relevant and efficient video, figures, or graphics

Original Research Reports

Scientific Presentations (1st) - oral - poster Journal/Proceeding Articles (2nd) - if passes peer review then it becomes published

Scientific Method

Step 1: Developing the problem/questions - defining and delimiting it - builds justification for research/ asks a question - independent variable (IV or X): studied/manipulated or controlled - Dependent variable (DV or Y): measured to examine potential effect Step 2: Formulating the hypotheses Step 3: Gathering the data Step 4: Analyzing and interpreting results

Unscientific Methods

Tenacity: clinging to certain beliefs regardless of lack of supporting evidence ex: black cats bring bad luck; athletes "lucky" headband - least reliable source of knowledge Intuition: common sense or self-evident ex: earth is flat Authority Rationalistic method: derive knowledge through reasoning - truth of premises and relationship with each other Empirical method: description of study or data that is based on objective observations

Challenges with Traditional Science

Variability and inconsistent findings Observations not completely objective (reliability issues) - Bias/paradigm/theory - alternate interpretation - New methods/measurements - Statistical analysis Design trade-offs (control vs. ecological validity) - control: all other factors (experimental) - ecological: "real world" ex: don't do at home stretches after PT session

Are participants in most behavior science and HHP research WEIRD?

Western (in english) Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic Implications: - sometimes hard to infer and generalize our results to participants that might not have physical activity because they are uneducated

categorial variable

a kind of independent variable that cannot be manipulated, such as age, race, or sex - studied to determine whether its presence changes the cause-and-effect relationship of the independent and dependent variable

delimitation

a limitation imposed by the researcher in the scope of the study; a choice that the researcher makes to define a workable research problem

MAXICON principle

a method of controlling any explanation for the results except the hypothesis that the researcher intends to evaluate. this is done by maximizing true variance, minimizing error variance, and controlling extraneous variance

poster session

a method of presenting research at a conference in which the author places summaries of his or her research on the wall or on a poster stand and answers questions from passersby

scientific method of problem solving

a method of solving problems that uses the following steps: 1. defining and delimiting 2. forming a hypothesis 3. gathering data 4. analyzing data 5. interpreting the results

qualitative research

a research method hat often involves intensive, long-term observation in a natural setting; precise and detailed recording of what happens in the setting; and the interpretation and analysis of the data using description, narratives, quotes, charts, and tables. Also called - ethnographic - naturalistic - interpretive - grounded - phenomenological - subjective - participant observational research

descriptive research

a type of research that attempts to describe the status of the study's focus Common techniques are - questionnaires - interviews - normative studies - case studies - job analyses - observational research - developmental studies - correlational studies

applied research

a type of research that has direct value to practitioners but in which the researcher has limited control over the research setting - addresses immediate problems, often in less controlled real-world settings, and is more closely linked to application - uses human participants, but gives results that are of direct value to practitioners ex: comparing the effectiveness of two exercise programs to find out which program is better under specified conditions

experimental research

a type of research that involves the manipulation of treatments in an attempt to establish cause-and-effect relationships - attempts to control all factors except the experimental variables

basic research

a type of research that may have limited direct application but in which the researcher has careful control of the conditions - addresses theoretical problems, often in laboratory settings and may have limited direct application - uses lab as setting, frequently uses animals as subjects, carefully controls conditions

Centre for Evidence Based Medicine (CEBM)

5 levels of evidence L1 Large sample (N>100) RCT per group - A - best evidence L2 Small sample (n>100) RCT per group - B L3 Non-RCT w/ simultaneous control group - C L4 Non-RCT w/ historical control group - C L5 Case series or Case study - C

Replicable

The research process is recorded, enabling others to test the findings by repeating the research to build future research on previous results

Review

a critical evaluation of research on a particular topic

science

a process of careful and systematic inquiry

In which part of the method section should you expect to find information about statistical tests used? a. Participants b. Instruments c. Procedures d. Design and analysis

b. Instruments

The primary purpose of a meta-analysis is to: a. a summarize historical research b. interpret qualitative research c. conduct a research synthesis on a particular topic d. none of the above

d. none of the above

Research is

systematic inquiry - asking the right questions: "the formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution"

describing participants

this section of the method of a thesis or dissertation describes how and why the participants were selected and which of their characteristics are pertinent to the study questions to consider when selecting participants: Are participants with special characteristics necessary for your research? - age (children, elderly) - sex (females, males, or both) - level of training ( trained or untrained) - level of performance (experts or novice) - size (weight, fatness) - special types (athletes, cyclists, runners) Can you obtain necessary permission and cooperation from the participants? Can you find enough participants? Report - Number (N vs n) sample size established by argument or formula (e.g. G*power) - Selection (inclusion vs exclusions) and (convenience vs randomization) - Loss and compliance - Consent and protection

Describe how the Boolean operators "and" and "or" function to provide an optimal number of pertinent literature sources.

- Adding and helps narrow the search - Adding or will help broaden the search

Reading and Critically Reviewing Research

- Become familiar with relevant publications - Read studies of interest - Read as a practioner would - Read the abstract first - Don't worry too much about the statistics - Be critical but objective

Check for fatal flaws with these question

- Logical hypotheses? - Appropriate assumptions? - Number and nature of participants? - Treatment adequate? - Measures valid and reliable enough? - do data collection and analysis procedures bias results? - extraneous variables controlled? - are results appropriately interpreted?

Searching, Reviewing, and writing about the literature

3 S's: search, sort, synthesize Paradox of being critical/skeptical and open minded - peer-review does not guarantee quality (separate/evaluate quality of evidence) - either deal with difficulties from lack of results in a new area or synthesis/integrating of body or research

Continuum of Research

All designs fall into this continuum Basic <-----> Applied Continuum (translational) - basic: science questions - applied: "real world" Absolute control in lab vs. relevance/ecological validity - strength in one study could be the weakness of another Basic Biomedical Research (basic physiology) --> Clinical Research --> Improved Health (real world)

The scope of your search can be narrowed down by using special words called

Boolean operators - two most common operators are the words or and and to narrow the search: add and to broaden the search: add or

Two kinds of introductions

Chapter 1 of thesis or dissertation - introduction - problem statement - hypothesis - definitions - assumptions/limitations - significance First major section of original research report - topic importance - research context/results - contributions/purposes and hypotheses

DIKW Paradigm

Data/information/observations: anecdotal, unknown accuracy Knowledge: codifiied/theory-based/models/principles that make up for current explanation of reality Wisdom and integration/application of knowledge: professional practice in specific context and clients

Logical

Examination of the procedures used in the research process allows researchers to evaluate the conclusions drawn

Importance of Methods

Good design and method reporting ensure repeatability Clear test of hypothesis (limited bias or confounding factors) - MAXICON principle: IV variance/error variance or a signal/noise ratio Limit complexity: confounding and interpretation Simple and controlled is often best Pilot study: eliminate method and analysis faults/flaws

Classic Literature Review Chapter

Introduction: theoretical or applied importance - why we should care? Is it applied or theoretical? Body: organized all research - Theoretical: speculations that come from theory - Applied: different kind of types to why it is important - Always focusing on results; How big the effect is - descriptive subheadings to organize previous research results - based/organized around topics/themes. look for agreement, inconsistency, changes in method, population, novelty, quality Summary and conclusion/need

Stating the research problem/statement

Is the problem in the realm of research and science? - basic or applied - testable null hypothesis --> systematic observations - case for meaning/contribution

Clear problems and hypotheses

Operational definitions: key terms or variables with specific meaning and measurement presented - define your dependent variable Limitations: possible short comings - may or may not be able to control Delimitations: limitations imposed by researcher - could be a sample size Significance of the study - basic research: theory cause or mechanism; why things change; high degree of experimental control applied research: real world application; practical question in the real world; a good theory is easily applied

Searching --> Sifting

Search multiple indexes/publishers - Use synonyms and medical subject headings and search limiters. Use a variety of key terms, Boolean operators, and MSH Use journals and papers to cross-reference and expand your research Save and organize primary sources - index cards/folders - software

Nature of Knowledge

Structure - bits (organized and interwoven) Certainty/Certainty - absolute (conditional/tentative/changing)

When we say that research is empirical, we mean that the researcher a. collects data on which to base decisions b. solves the problems through rationalization c. controls all extraneous variables d. finds positive support for the research hypothesis

a. collects data on which to base decisions

The generalizability of the results pertains to what kind of validity? a. external b. internal c. construct d. logical

a. external

"Cooking the data" refers to: a. fabricating data b. eliminating data c. using the same data more than once d. eyeballing the data

a. fabricating data

It is desirable to carry out a pilot study prior to the actual research study because a. it permits a thorough check of the planned data collection and analysis procedures b. a pilot study involves more control over the procedures than is generally attained in the actual research project c. if the pilot study results are positive, further work on the research project will be unnecessary d. the researcher can use the results of the pilot study in the actual study, thus reducing the number of participants needed

a. it permits a thorough check of the planned data collection and analysis procedures

Defining volleyball skill as a score on a Standardized Volleyball Test is a(n): a. operational definition b. experimental definition c. independent variable d. pilot definition

a. operational definition

Which of the following is not scientific misconduct? a. participant randomization b. dishonest authorship c. inadequate data storage and retention d. plagiarism

a. participant randomization

The expected result based on theory or experience is the______ hypothesis. a. research hypothesis b. null hypothesis c. alternate hypothesis d. both a and c

a. research hypothesis

The research question is equivalent to the thesis/dissertation section: a. review of literature b. problem statement c. introduction d. delimitations

a. review of literature

Five characteristics of scientific research are: a. systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable b. systematic, rationalistic, empirical, reductive, and replicable c. systematic, rationalistic, intuitive, reductive, and replicable d. systematic, logical, empirical, intuitive, and replicable.

a. systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable

In a knowledge-based society jobs, change is based on

advancements in knowledge and skills

In evaluating the method section of a research report, which is a very important question to keep in mind? a. Did the author clearly state the problem? b. Did the author provide enough information that the study could be repeated? c. Were the statistical data clearly summarized in tables or figures? d. Were each of the subjects clearly identified?

b. Did the author provide enough information that the study could be repeated?

A researcher is required to protect the rights of: a. children b. all participants c. women, children and prisoners d. vulnerable populations

b. all participants

A good beginning point in a literature search for the student with a very limited knowledge about a topic is a. Psychological Abstracts b. encyclopedias, textbooks, and reviews c. Dissertation Abstracts International d. current issues of several journals

b. encyclopedias, textbooks, and reviews

Which of the following is not an important purpose for reviewing the literature? a. identifying and defining the problem b. formulating the null hypothesis c. developing the method d. developing the research hypothesis

b. formulating the null hypothesis

The extent to which the results of a study can be attributed to the treatments used in the study is the definition of what kind of validity? a. criterion b. internal c. content d. external

b. internal

A Likert scale is often used in: a. Qualitative research b. Survey research c. Historical research d. None of the above

b. survey research

Epistemology

branch of philosophy on the nature of knowledge

Codified theories/explanations of the nature of reality based on experimental data created by communities of scholars is: a. wisdom b. information c. knowledge d. research

c. knowledge

A researcher states that there will be no significant difference in participant's weight loss due to their assignment into either: 1) intervention A; 2) intervention B; or 3) no intervention (control group). The researcher statement is an example of: a. misinformation b. research hypothesis c. null hypothesis d. a research assumption

c. null hypothesis

Knowledge

codified/theory-biased ideas, models, principles that make up the best current explanation of reality

In describing participants in the method section of a research report, which of the following should be included? a. number of participants b. procedures for testing participants c. pertinent descriptive characteristics of participants d. a and c e. a, b, and c

d. a and c

A researcher conducts a study on the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) by comparing classes that use this method with classes that do not. The researcher expects the CAI classes to show higher gains in achievement. This expectation is a. the dependent variable b. the independent variable c. a paradigm d. a hypothesis

d. a hypothesis

What can human participants in research ethically expect? a. confidentiality b. privacy c. nonparticipation d. all of the above

d. all of the above

Which of the major types of research will not be covered in lecture, but Dr. Knudson suggested reading about in the text? a. epidemiologic b. qualitative c. descriptive d. analytical

d. analytical

Which is not a characteristic of research? a. replicable b. reductive c. empirical d. disorderly

d. disorderly

The consensus of scholars of the codified and theory-based observations of their field is: a. information b. a law c. data d. knowledge

d. knowledge

The term that denotes using ideas, writings, or drawings of others as your own is a. fabrication b. misrepresentation c. falsification d. plagiarism

d. plagiarism

The researcher's statement that "the boys in the adventure program will make significantly greater gains in self-concept than the boys in the control group" is an example of a(n) a. limitation b. operational definition c. basic assumption d. research hypothesis

d. research hypothesis

Currently the easiest "S" in a search of the literature is: a. sifting b. sorting c. synthesis d. searching

d. searching

primary sources

first-hand sources of data in research; original studies - most valuable - most primary sources in a literature review are journal articles - thesis and dissertations

Professions

formally recognized (licensed) careers based on an established body of knowledge and skills

Professionals

have an ethical responsibility to continuous development of expertise (knowledge and skills), provide evidence-based services, and support profession and society

Identifying the problem

literature review is essential - first task is to decided which studies are related to the topic area - can frequently be accomplished by reading the abstract and some specific parts of the paper

body of the literature review

requires considerable attention relevant research must be organized, synthesized, and written into a clear, concise, and interesting way

secondary sources

sources of data in research in which authors have evaluated and summarized previous research - textbooks, encyclopedias, and scholarly books may be a starting point for the search; student becomes aware of the problem

hypothesis

the anticipated outcome of a study or experiment

plagiarism

using ideas, concepts, writings, or drawings of others as your own; cheating

Variability of practice

variety of movement experiences facilitates transfer to a new movement when compared with practicing a single movement - example of deductive reasoning

Copyright

what is "fair-use" of material? - purpose: commercial or educational - nature: is copyright expected? - amount: how much is copied? - effect: what is the influence on the market

Protecting human participants

what should human research participants expect? - right to privacy or nonparticipation - right to remain anonymous - right to confidentiality - right to experimenter responsibility