Essentials- Human Anatomy & Physics (chapter 5-10 study guide)

Define the following

Arthritis- -inflammation of a joint Osteoarthritis- "wear-and-tear" arthritis, the disorder is a common effect of aging Rheumatoid arthritis- autoimmune disease in which the body's antibodies attack the synovial membranes, leading to degeneration of the articular cartilage and thickening of the synovial membrane.

Give the function of the hyoid bone

Attachment for the muscles of the tongue

Tell why brain swelling is such a serious condition

There is no room in the skull for swelling so the Brain is pushed down, out the foramen magnum. This will damage the brainstem and lead to respiratory arrest and death.

Describe the difference between thin and thick skin

Thick skin has an extra layer in the epidermis and is found on the palms of hands and soles of feet. Thin skin has hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands and is found everywhere else.

Tell how skeletal muscle gets its energy

at rest: Fatty acids and Aerobic respiration when beginning to exercise: Creatine phosphate and Brief-20 seconds as exercise continues: glucose and Anaerobic respiration- produces lactic acid after 10 minutes of moderate activity: glucose and Aerobic respiration

Describe carpal tunnel syndrome

caused by pressure on the median nerve. The carpal tunnel is a narrow passageway surrounded by bones and ligaments on the palm side of your hand

Describe the structure of the epidermis

composed mainly of keratinocytes

Describe compact bone

dense bone that forms diaphysis and yellow marrow cavity Forms shafts of long bones and surfaces of other bones

Describe slow twitch muscles and tell what sports they are good for

help you move (or stay still) longer.......... marathons, cycling, swimming

What are some of the health risks associated with increased abdominal fat

high blood pressure, elevated blood glucose levels, abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels, as well as central obesity. Taken together, these conditions increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes

Explain why muscle contraction requires ATP

it breaks the myosin-actin cross-bridge, freeing the myosin for the next contraction

Describe the structures found in synovial joints

joint capsule- envelope that surrounds synovial joint synovial membrane- connective tissue membranes that line the cavities of the freely movable joints ( shoulder, elbow, and knee) joint cavity- filled with synovial fluid. articular cartilage- smooth, white tissue that covers the ends of bones where they come together to form joints ligaments- bands of tough elastic tissue around your joints bursae- fluid-filled thin sac located between bone and surrounding soft tissue, bones and tendons, and/or muscles around joints

Describe the effects of endurance exercise on muscle cells

more mitochondria and glycogen in muscles, oxygen carrying capacity of blood increases

Describe the effects of resistance exercise on muscle cells

myofibrils grow thicker and increase in number

The ____form the toes, the ________ form the middle portion of the foot, and the ______ bones comprise the ankle.

phalanges, 5 metatarsals, tarsal

The fingers are formed by bones called _____, the palm of the hand is formed by 5 _____ bones and the wrist is formed by ____carpal bones

phalanges, metacarpal, 8

The thoracic cage is made up of the

sternum and Ribs

Describe the structure of the hypodermis

surrounded by connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels

List the 14 facial bones

Inferior turbinal (2), Lacrimal Bones (2), Mandible, Maxilla (2), Nasal Bones (2), Palatine bones (2, Vomer, Zygomatic bones (2)

Describe the steps of endochondral ossification

1. Cartilage enlarges and Chondrocytes die 2. Blood vessels grow into perichondrium, cells convert to osteoblasts, and shaft becomes covered with superficial bone 3. More blood supply and osteoblasts, produces spongy bone, and formation spreads on shaft 4. Osteoclasts create medullary cavity and appositional growth

Describe the process of muscle contraction

1. Depolarisation and calcium ion release 2. Actin and myosin cross-bridge formation 3. Sliding mechanism of actin and myosin filaments 4. Sarcomere shortening (muscle contraction)

Describe the process of bone fracture repair

1. Initial hematoma transforms into granulation tissue. 2. Granulation tissue transforms into a soft callus. 3. A hard callus forms around the fracture. 4. Remodeling replaces the callus tissue with bone

Describe the life cycle of an epidermal cell as it moves through the layers of the epidermis

1. New epithelial cells in the stratum basales push older cells upward 2. the cells move up layer by layer 3. They toughen and die

List and describe the steps in the process of tissue repair

1.Hemostasis- clots the blood to stop bleeding, 2. Inflammatory- white blood cells enter to destroy bacteria, 3. Proliferative- new blood vessels are formed, 4. Maturation-new tissue gains strength and flexibility to fully heal the wound

bronzing

A golden brown skin colors A deficiency of hormones from the adrenal gland, such occurs with Addison disease

Define motor unit

A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates

erythema

Abnormal redness Increased blood flow in dilated blood vessels close to the skins surface may result from heat, exercise, or sunburn, or emotions such as embarrassment or anger

Briefly describe the following disorders of the integumentary system

Acne- Inflammation of the sebaceous glands, especially during puberty, in which the follicle becomes blocked with keratinocytes and sebum; this results in whiteheads (comedies), whereas continued inflammation produces pus, causing pimples; oxidation of sebum turns whiteheads into blackheads Dermatitis- Inflammation of the skin characterized by itching and redness, often the result of exposure to chemicals or toxins (such as poison ivy) Eczema- Itchy, red rash caused by an allergy; lesions initially weep or ooze serum and may become crusted, thickened, or scaly Impetigo- Contagious bacterial infection of the skin (usually caused by streptococci or staphylococci), producing yellow to red weeping, crusted, or pustular lesions around the nose, mouth, or cheeks or on the extremities

What can forensic anthropologists learn from examining skeletal remains

Age and Gender stature

Describe the following types of skin cancer

Basal cell carcinoma- The most common type • Seldom metastasizes, so is the least dangerous • Arises from cells of the stratum Basale, typically on the nose or face • Lesion first appears as a small, shiny bump; as it enlarges, it often develops a central depression and a beaded, "pearly" edge squamous cell carcinoma- Arises in the epidermis and is slow growing • Often occurs on the scalp, forehead, backs of the hands, and top of the ears • Has a raised, red, scaly appearance • Some forms may metastasize malignant melanoma- • Most deadly of all skin cancers • Develops from melanocytes, sometimes from those in a preexisting mole • Metastasizes quickly: often fatal when not treated early • Risk is greatest in individuals who had severe sunburns as children

cyanosis

Blue tint Deficiency of oxygen in circulation blood

bruise

Blueish, black, or yellowish mark on the skin Breakdown of clotted blood under the skin

Describe the process of bone remodeling

Bone cells work constantly throughout the lifespan, destroying old bone (resorption) and depositing new (ossification). In this process, called remodeling, osteoclasts remove matrix and reduce the mass of little-used bones. In heavily used bones, osteoblasts deposit new bone tissue on the bone's surface, thickening the bone. Remodeling repairs minor traumas and contributes to homeostasis by releasing calcium into the blood.

Give the functions of connective tissue

Bone- Support, protect, allow movement Adipose (fat)- Stores energy, generates heat in infants and children

Give the function of the following types of connective tissue

Bone- Support, protect, allow movement Fat- Stores energy, generates heat in infants & Kids Tendons and ligaments- - hold organs and muscles in place Blood- transports gases, nutrients, hormones, and wastes.

Describe the following disorders of the neuromuscular junction

Botulism- The bacteria Clostridium botulinum blocks release of ACh, inhibiting nerve transmission so muscles can't contract. Death results from paralysis of respiratory muscles Myasthenia gravis- : In this disease, the body produces antibodies against receptors for ACh. As a result, not all ACh can find a receptor. Nerve transmission is poor, and profound muscular weakness results Tetanus- This disease results from the bacterium Clostridium tetani, which causes motor neurons to fire excessively. This leads to overstimulation of muscles, resulting in severe muscle spasms and sustained contractions. Jaw muscles are typically affected first, hence the name lockjaw. Curare- Once used to poison arrows; curare is now used in anesthesia to relax skeletal muscles. Curare binds to ACh receptor sites, stopping nerve transmission and causing paralysis. Because the diaphragm is paralyzed, patients receiving curare must be mechanically ventilated.

Describe how the knee joint can be injured and the structures that are most commonly damaged during an injury

Can be sprained or tears ( most common) fractured, dislocation. Things most commonly injured in the knee are ligaments and meniscus (torn anterior cruciate ligament, torn tibial collateral ligament, torn medial meniscus)

Describe the 3 types of muscle found in the body

Cardiac-Involuntary Smooth- Involuntary Skeletal- voluntary

Explain how regular exercise protects articular cartilage

Cartilage depends on synovial fluid for oxygen and nutrients. During exercise, joint compression squeezes fluid and metabolic wastes out of the cartilage. Then, when the weight is removed, the cartilage sucks up synovial fluid like a sponge. The periods of compression and relaxation accompanying exercise cause the synovial fluid, along with its supply of oxygen, nutrients, and phagocytes, to cycle through the cartilage.

List the 5 sections of the vertebral column

Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccyx

The pectoral girdle is made up of the

Clavicles (collarbones) and Scapulae (shoulder bones)

Give the functions of epithelial tissue

Covers body surface Lines cavities and organs Forms glands

Describe how the nervous system controls the force of contraction for skeletal muscles

Frequency of action potentials (nerve impulses) from a motor neuron and the number of motor neurons transmitting action potentials both affect the tension produced in skeletal muscle.

List the 8 bones that make up the cranium

Frontal, 2 parietal, occipital, 2 temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid

Describe the following parts of a long bone

Epiphysis- ossifies separately from the bone shaft but becomes fixed to the shaft when full growth is attained Diaphysis- main portion of the long bone. Provides most of the length Articular cartilage- forms a smooth, durable covering at the end of each bone in the joint. Medullary cavity- area inside a bone that holds bone marrow Endosteum- membrane that lines the inner surface of the bony wall Red bone marrow- helps form blood cells Yellow bone marrow- produces cartilage, fat, and bone Periosteum- lends structural integrity

albinism

Extremely pale skin, white hair, and pink eyes Genetic lack of melanin

List the bones of the lower limb

Femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal (7), metatarsal (5), phalanges (14)

Describe the following types of joints

Fibrous- once growth is complete, the bones of the skull knit together securely, offering protection to the brain Cartilaginous- joint where bones are entirely joined by cartilage Synovial- most common joint in the body (planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball and socket)

Describe the following types of burns

First degree- Involves only the epidermis ▪ Causes redness, slight swelling, and pain ▪ Often results from sunlight (sunburn) Second degree- Involves the epidermis and part of the dermis ▪ Results in blisters, severe pain, and swelling ▪ May result in scarring ▪ May appear red, white, or tan Third degree- Extends into the subcutaneous layer ▪ May not be painful initially ▪ May appear white or black and leathery ▪ Often requires skin grafts

Explain the oxygen debt

Following strenuous exercise, lactic acid is converted back to glucose in the liver. The extra oxygen that is needed to process lactic acid is called an oxygen debt

Tell why a newborn has fontanels and at what age the skull becomes completely ossified.

Fontanels allow for passage through the birth canal, allowing the skull to expand as the brain grows rapidly. Completely ossified by age 2

A large opening in the base of the skull, called the______ allows the spinal cord to pass through as it connects to the brainstem.

Foramen Magnum

Describe fast twitch muscles and tell what sports they are good for.

Good for fast movements.... Sprinting, powerlifting, jumping, strength training

describe the cause and treatment for a herniated disk

Gradual, aging-related wear and tear called disk degeneration. Treatment is medication, physical therapy, and possible surgery

Describe the structure and function of the following

Hair- hair shaft and a hair root- grows hair Nails- densely packed dead keratinocytes. They protect the fingers and toes from mechanical stress. Eccrine sweat glands- ducts lead to skin surface makes sweat to skin Apocrine sweat glands- ducts lead to hair follicle makes sweat to hair Sebaceous glands- small oil-producing gland Ceruminous glands- found in ear- secretes wax

Describe 4 factors that affect bone growth and maintenance

Heredity , Nutrition, Hormones, Exercise

List the bones of the upper limb

Humerus, ulna, radius, carpal bones, metacarpal, phalanx

The pelvic girdle is made up of the os coxae, which is actually 3 bones fused together, the

Ilium, Pubis, and Ischium bones

Describe osteoporosis

Is a condition in which bones lose so much mass that they become extremely brittle. Even minor stresses, such as bending over or coughing, can cause a fracture

Describe an arthroplasty and tell why you would need one done

It is a surgical procedure that replaces a diseased joint with an artificial device, or prosthesis. Joint replacement surgery Commonly due to osteoarthritis

Explain how growth hormone causes bones to grow in length

It triggers chondrocyte proliferation in the epiphyseal plate which causing increasing length in the long bone

Describe the epiphyseal plate

Known as the growth plate. Thin layer of cartilage that is between the epiphysis and metaphysics. This is where growth of the long bone takes place

Describe the following parts of a skeletal muscle

Muscle fiber- single cylindrical muscle cell. Endomysium- ensheaths each individual muscle fiber Fascicle- 20 to 60 fibers surrounded by a connective tissue sheath Perimysium- continuous layer of collagenous connective tissue that separates the skeletal muscle Epimysium- Each muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath

Describe the structure and function of

Myosin- Myosin is a common protein found in the muscles which are responsible for making the muscle contract and relax. It is a large, asymmetric molecule, and has one long tail as well as two globular heads. Actin- most abundant protein in most eukaryotic cells. It is highly conserved and participates in more protein-protein interactions than any known protein.

Describe intramembranous ossification

Ossification of fibrous connective tissue (skull and face)

Give the function of the following cells and fiber

Osteoblast- Help form bone Osteoclast- Dissolve unwanted bone Osteocyte- Are mature osteoblasts embedded in hardened bone matrix Collagen fibers- make bone highly resistant to stretching forces (called tensile strength) Calcium salts- allow bones to resist strong squeezing forces (called compressional strength)

pallor

Pale skin Decreased blood flow such as occurs from cold temperatures, fear or emotional stress, low blood pressure or blood loss

Describe the differences between male and female pelvises

Pelvic arch for a male is 90 degrees and a female is 120 degrees

Give 5 functions of the skin

Protection, Barrier, Vitamin D production, Sensory perception, Thermoregulation

Describe the 2 types of tissue repair

Regeneration- when damaged tissue cells are replaced with the same type of cells, resulting in functional new tissue. Fibrosis- occurs when damaged tissue is replaced with scar tissue, which is composed mainly of collagen.

Describe the following parts of a muscle fiber (cell)

Sarcolemma- cell membrane of a muscle cell Myofibrils- thick and thin myofilaments, which help give the muscle its striped appearance. sarcoplasmic reticulum- complex network of specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum that is important in transmitting the electrical impulse as well as in the storage of calcium ions. Myofilaments- key molecular regulators of the contraction. Transverse tubules- invaginations of the cell membrane rich in several ion channels and other proteins devoted to the critical task of excitation-contraction coupling

Describe how bone fulfills the following roles in the body

Shape- Bones give the body its structure Support- The bones of the legs, pelvis, and vertebral column support the body and hold it upright. Protection- Bones protect delicate internal organs, such as the heart, lungs, brain, and spinal cord Movement- -Movement of the arms and legs as well as the ability to breathe results from the interaction between muscles and bones. Electrolyte balance- Bones store and release minerals such as calcium and phosphorus Blood production- Bones encase bone marrow, a major site of blood cell formation. Acid base balance- Bone absorbs and releases alkaline salts to help maintain a stable pH

Which joint is most likely to suffer a dislocation

Shoulder

Describe the following types of bone fractures

Simple- one in which the bone remains aligned and the surrounding tissue is intact. Compound- one in which the bone pierces the skin. Damage to surrounding tissue, nerves, and blood vessels may be extensive. Because the bone breaks through the skin, there is an increased risk for infection. Greenstick- one in which the fracture is incomplete, similar to when a green stick breaks. This type of fracture typically occurs in young children, mainly because their bones are softer and more flexible than adult bones, causing the bone to splinter rather than break completely. Comminuted- the bone breaks into pieces. Because considerable force is required to fragment bone, these fractures tend to occur after high-impact trauma, such as a car accident. Spiral- the fracture line spirals around the bone, the result of a twisting force. The jagged bone ends often make this type of fracture difficult to reposition.

Give the function of the 3 types of muscle tissue

Skeletal- Movement Cardiac- Pumps blood . Smooth- Moves things through digestive tract, Controls diameter of blood vessels blood pressure

Describe spongy bone

Small needle-like pieces of bone, has open spaces Found in ends of long bones and middle of other bones

Describe how muscle fibers relax

When the Nervous System Signal Is No Longer Present.

Describe what happens when bone experiences an increase in load

Whenever bone experiences an increase in load, osteocytes stimulate the creation of new bone

jaundice

Yellow discoloration of skin and the whites of the eyes Impaired liver function such as a form of hepatitis or live disease that allows bile to accumulate, which strains the skin

Describe the structure of the dermis

fibrous structure composed of collagen, elastic tissue, and other extracellular components

Define the following-

prime mover- an initial source of motive power synergist- agent that increases the effectiveness of another agent when combined antagonist- one that contends with or opposes

Explain the function of melanin in the skin

protects the nucleus from ultraviolet (UV) exposure

The bones of the skull are immovable joints called

sutures

Describe stem cells

the body's raw materials — cells from which all other cells with specialized functions are generated

Describe the sliding filament model of contraction-

the process used by muscles to contract

Explain where small and large motor units are found

the smallest motor units are in muscles that must produce very fine gradations of force....... eye muscles Large motor units are concerned with simple, or "gross," movements........thigh muscles or back muscles

Give the function of nervous tissue

transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body

Explain why muscle contraction requires calcium-

troponin and tropomyosin, that regulate muscle contraction by blocking the binding of myosin to filamentous actin