Ethics Exam 1- Martin

1. Sandel says that many utilitarians might favor income redistribution. Explain a utilitarian argument for income redistribution.

According to Utilitarianism, we should "transfer money from the rich to the poor until the last dollar we take from Gates hurts him as much as it helps the recipient."

8. Who does Aristotle think should get the best flutes? Why does Aristotle think that?

The best flute players. Aristotle thought that justice should be distributed according to merit and relevant merit is the ability to play well.

What is the difference principle?

The difference principle is the idea that certain inequalities be allowed in a society only if they benefit those who are on the bottom.

6. "If we act out of some motive other than duty, such as self-interest, for example, then our act ________________ ."

action lacks moral worth.

7. What does Sandel think is the deep, though contested, claim at the heart of the diversity argument in favor of affirmative action?

admission is not an honor bestowed to reward superior merit or virtue

T/F- If you believe in universal human rights, you're probably not a utilitarian

True

T/F- Sandel believes that in order to determine a fair way to allocate cheerleading positions, we need to determine the nature and purpose of cheerleading

True

T/F- Sandel says that a hypothetical agreement behind a veil of ignorance is a pure form of an actual contract.

True

T/F- Sandel says that the distribution of income and opportunity should not be based on factors that are arbitrary from a moral point of view

True

What are the three approaches to justice?

Welfare- if people's lives are "good" (they are not sick, they have access to education, they are safe and fed, etc) this indicates that a society is just Freedom- giving people the ability to make their own choices (or intervening so as to allow everyone to experience equal opportunities) is where justice begins. Virtue- justice deals with what is right and wrong. If people behave virtuously and make decisions that are "right" then things will be just.

14. "For liberal political theory (he means libertarians in the context of this book), slavery is unjust because ________, for teleological theories, slavery is unjust because ___________."

it is coercive. it is at odds with our nature.

13. What two conditions must be met in order for slavery to be just, according to Aristotle?

it must be necessary and it must be natural.

15. "It's hard to separate questions of ____________________ from questions of __________________."

justice and rights; honor and virtue

11. "The renunciation of moral desert as the basis of distributive justice is ______"

morally attractive but also disquieting.

13. "Obligations of solidarity are objectionable only if they lead us to violate a ______ _______."

natural duty.

4. According to Sandel, can a libertarian be a utilitarian?

no you cant

What is the principle of neutrality?

the idea that the state should remain neutral between competing versions of "the good life."

14. What is a "developmental admit?

Applicants who are not children of alumni but who have wealthy parents who are able to make financially beneficial contributions to the school.

10. For Aristotle, what is the telos of the polis?

Aristotle thought that the purpose of politics was to form good citizens and cultivate good character.

7. What are the three approaches to justice that Sandel discusses?

utilitarianism libertarianism virtue ethics

2. What three approaches to justice serve to organize this book? Which of those three does Kant accept?

utilitarians- justice = best for the most people libertarians- justice = what maximizes freedom virtue- justice = rewarding people who are "good" and punishing people who are "bad" Kant accepts approach 2

6. Ancient theories of justice start with ________, while modern theories of justice start with __________.

virtue, freedom

3 ways to pay for military:

volunteer army, conscription allowing paid subs, conscription (draft)

T/F Sandel thinks Rawls and Kant do not have to accept moral individualism?

False- they do have to accept moral individualism

12. What are the four rival theories of distributive justice?

Feudal or caste system libertarian meritocratic egalitarian

Kant's theory of morality

"Kant argues that every person is worthy of respect, not because we own ourselves [or because we have some special status as divine image-bearers], but because we are rational beings, capable of reason; we are also autonomous beings, capable of acting and choosing freely."

3. What is utility?

"whatever produces pleasure or happiness and whatever prevents pain or suffering" Also.... The overall balance of pleasure over pain

6.Finish this quote: "From this point of view, turning military service into..."

...... a commodity-- a task we hire other people to perform----corrupts the civic ideals that should govern it."

8. Explain each of the "four themes" that Sandel thinks should be connected to a "politics of the common good."

1. Citizenship, sacrifice, and service. 2. The moral limits of markets. 3. Inequality, solidarity, and civic virtue. 4. A politics of moral engagement.

Three Arguments in Favor of Affirmative Action

1. Correct for possible bias with standardized testing. 2. Minority students should be given a preference in order to make up for past wrongs. 3. Universities have a responsibility to promote the good of the school and of society, and that good is best served by a diverse student body.

Objections to utilitarianism

1. If Utilitarianism were true, it would be okay to sometimes violate individual rights. But it's not okay to violate individual rights. So Utilitarianism is not true 2. It is impossible to do the math that Utilitarianism requires, because some things have incommensurable value.

3. Sandel says that the debate about price gouging revolves around three ideas. What are those three ideas?

1. Maximizing welfare 2. respecting freedom 3. promoting virtue

3 moral responsiblities

1. Natural duties: universal; don't require consent 2. Voluntary obligations; particular; require consent 3. Obligations of Solidarity; particular; don't require consent

Three types of policies that Libertarian's reject as unjust:

1. No paternalism 2. no legislation of morality 3. No redistribution of income or wealth

What are the three approaches to creating an army?

1. conscription 2. conscription allowing paid substitutes 3. the market

1.What are the two arguments in favor of free markets? Explain each in your own words.

1. hinges on the idea that all people should be free to make their own individual choices and economic choices are included in that. 2. is based on the general idea that markets are beneficial to society at large because they allow people to exchange goods and both benefit.

7. For Nozick, distributive justice depends on what two requirements?

1. justice in initial holdings 2. justice in transfer

12. What reasons does Sandel give for doubting that moral desert can easily be detached from distribtutive justice?

1. justice often has an honorific aspect 2. the idea that merit arises when a mission is defined is subject to criticism because institutions cannot define their mission in any way they want

Arguments against re distribution:

1. morally wrong to take money from someone 2. high taxes will reduce incentive (within utilitarianism)

9. What are the three ways that Sandel thinks that obligations can arise? Which of the three does Rawls reject?

1. natural duties 2. voluntary obligations 3. obligations of solidarity- #3 is rejected by Rawls

5. Sandel mentions three policies that the state could have regarding marriage.

1. recognize marriage only between man and a woman 2. recognize same sex and opposite sex marraiges 3. dont recognize marriage of any kind and leave this role to private associations

10. What are the two versions of the categorical imperative that Sandel discusses?

1. universalize your maxim- only make decisions using reasoning that you could apply universally 2. treat persons as ends- treat people with respect and don't just use them to get what you want

AA 3 reasons for it:

1:correct possible testing bias 2: make up for past wrongs 3: do it for the college community

10. What was Starrett City and how is it relvant to this discussion?

A government subsidized apartment complex in Brooklyn that used a quota system to fill their apartments. In doing this they limited the percentage of black/hispanic inhabitants to 40% to ensure that the occupants were diverse.

8. Who was Herman Marion Sweatt?

A man that was denied entrance to Texas Law because at that time they didn't admit blacks. His case was later considered by the Supreme Court who ruled that it was unconstitutional.

10. Explain "objection 4" and the libertarian reply. Who do you think is right?

As a citizen Jordan has some say in the way things are governed. So he is given the opportunity to make an objection and by continuing to live where he is he is giving his consent by default The objection is that this assumes that all laws being enacted in this society are just simply because they are passed. In reality this begins to slowly degrade the individuals rights

2. Who was mentioned in the chapter for defending the price-gouging laws? What was his reasoning?

Attorney General Crist said that this situation is not a true free market exchange of goods due to the looming presence of something like a hurricane. He says that in situations like this it is the role of the government to ensure that citizens aren't being taken advantage of.

7. What is autonomy? Heteronomy?

Autonomy is acting according to laws we give outselves Heteronomy is acting according to laws we did not make ourselves

14. Why does Rawls reject moral desert as the basis for distributive justice?

Because when someone has certain talents that allow them to be more successful than others it is never completely of their own doing. Also, the things that a society values at any given time are also (at least in part) arbitrary.

13. Explain the case of Bernd-Jurgen Brandes.

Bernd placed an ad on the internet looking for someone who would be willing to let him kill them and eat them. Someone responded and he ended up carrying it out.

15. Explain the Casey Martin story. If you had been a judge on the Supreme Court, how would you have decided? Why? (Use the word telos in your answer.)

Casey Martin was a pro golfer who had a circulatory condition that made it very difficult for him to walk. PGA rules required pro golfers to walk from hole to hole and this was difficult for Casey. He requested that, as a result of his condition, he be allowed to use a golf cart. His request was denied on the grounds that this gave him an unfair advantage because other golfers would have to deal with the fatigue that resulted from walking form hole to hole.

4. What is the difference between doing something as a means and doing it as an ends?

Doing something as a means to an end is when you are doing something to get something else. (i.e. I am going to college to get a bachelor's degree, to get a job, to earn money, etc.) But doing something as an end itself, is doing something solely for the purpose that you want to do it and we cease to be 'instruments of purposes given outside of us'. It separates humans from objects.

13. What is the difference between being entitled to a thing and deserving the thing?

Entitlement requires certain rules to be put into place and deserving doesn't.

1. Some people defend affirmative action policies on the grounds that the testing gap between white students and minority students is caused by cultural forces and does not accurately reflect their academic promise. T/F- Sandel Agrees with this approach?

False

5. True or False: For Kant, merely acting out of duty is not sufficient for the act to be morally good.

False

6. True or False: Sandel says that "the right" is more libertarian, and "the left" is less libertarian.

False

8. True or False: Sandel thinks that all of our obligations are the product of our will.

False

11. Explain the Ford Pinto case. Do you think Ford did something wrong? Why did Sandel bring it up?

Ford faced a situation in which they had to decide whether to fix a defect in all Pintos and eat the cost or to not fix the defect and risk many people dying because of it. They chose not to fix the defect and as a result many people died. I think he brought it up to address the idea of the monetization of human lives.

8. From where does the law that we can give ourselves (and, when acting according to th law we give ourselves, achieve automony) come?

From reason! Using rationale. From our own inner being/beliefs.

1. List the nations that have made some form of official apology in the last 50 years, and what they were apologizing for.

Germany- actions during WWII Japan- (limited) apologies for actions during WWII Australia- (limited) apologies for the way aboriginal children were treated US- slavery, japanese internment camps, hawaii

4. Does Sandel think moral individualism is true or false?

He believes it is false/flawed.

12. Explain Thorndike's survey.

He conducted a survey in which he asked young people how much they would need to be paid to participate in certain unpleasant studies.

11. Explain what Kant believed about sex outside of marriage. How do you respond?

He is strongly opposed to it because he says that it is casual sex and casual sex (which is sex that seeks exclusively of pleasure) is using a human being as a means to an end

How does Sandel feel about state neutrality?

He rejects it

5. What was Bentham's argument in favor of the principle of utility?

He said that in reality all other ideas about morality are actually grounded in the principle of utility. So if you argue against it you are arguing that it isn't best (and an argument against maximizing happiness isn't a good one)

1. In your own words, explain what Sandel says about the difference between President Kennedy and President Obama regarding the private nature of religion.

He says that Kennedy believed that religion was a private affair and that Obama approached religion with the idea that religious beliefs and convictions should not be left at the door.

10. In your own words, explain Sandel's second objection to Utilitarianism.

He says that Utilitarianism supposes that all choices can be broken down and essentially assigned values so that those values can then be weighed (based on what the outcomes would be and the level of happiness/suffering that would bring upon a given population) to determine what the right choice is. Sandel thinks that this cant be done without losing certain things "in translation"

2. Why does Sandel think the father of another cheerleader felt resentment (assuming he did actually feel resentment) toward Callie?

He says that his resentment is the result of Callie receiving an honor she doesn't really deserve. His daughter excels at the tumbling and gymnastics side of cheerleading and if Callie can be praised as a great cheerleader, his daughter's abilities become less recognized

2. What does Sandel say is the strongest argument for the defense? What two objections to this argument does Sandel mention?

He says the strongest argument is "given the dire circumstances it was necessary to kill one person in order to save three"

2. What test did Rawls suggest for how one might think about whether a political argument violates the principle of neutrality?

He suggests that we determine whether or not it would be acceptable if it was a supreme court opinion

12. Explain what Kant thought about lying. How do you respond?

He thought that you should never lie, regardless of the circumstances.

1. If you were the judge, how would you rule in the case of the 4 English sailors?

I would rule against them. I think that even though the situation was extreme their actions weren't justified. They collectively valued their own survival over the life of the boy and that was wrong.

9.If you had been the judge in the Stern/Whitehead case, how would you have ruled? Why?

I would rule in favor of the Sterns because I don't think she was at all coerced and she made an informed (as informed as possible) decision to enter into the contract.

13. Explain this: "If moral judgment consists in seeking a fit between the judgments we make and the principles we affirm, how can such reflection lead to justice, or moral truth? Even if we succeed, over a lifetime, in bringing our moral intuitions and principled commitments into alignment, what confidence can we have that the result is anything more than a self-consistent skein of prejudice?"

If the way that we effectively decide what is just and what isn't is that we establish the things we believe and set those in stone and then evaluate certain situations and attempt to apply those firmly held beliefs to the situations, how can we be sure that we aren't just wrong and participating in a bias-fueled process?

2. Sandel then gives a utilitarian argument against income redistribution. What is this argument?

If you tax people too heavily they slack off and don't have incentive to work as hard. That brings the economy as a whole down and decreases utility

16. Explain this: "As with individual rights, so with higher pleasures: Mill saves utilitarianism from the charge that it reduces everything to a crude calculus of pleasure and pain, but only by invoking a moral ideal of human dignity and personality independent of utility itself."

It is his attempt to debunk the arguments against utilitarianism is based on his opinion that preserving human dignity and independence are good things (which is supported by his belief in the principle of utility)

7. What is communitarianism?

It is the belief that moral individualism is flawed because it places freedom over good and that we cannot pull away from our attachments to make moral decisions.

1. Explain the "Veil of Ignorance." Why did Rawls think we needed to imagine such a veil of ignorance when discussing the the principles of justice?

It is the idea that in order to truly make decisions that are "just" we must do so from behind a "veil of ignorance" and we dont take into account our personal biases or life situations

4. What does it mean to say that contracts carry moral weight because the involve the ideals of autonomoy and reciprocity?

It means that moral weight is created by our own freedom and ability to make choices (autonomy) and by the obligation that adhering to princlples of reciprocity creates.

3. What is the diversity argument for affirmative action?

It says that it is desirable for a school to be more diverse and also for society to be more diverse. As a result affirmative action represents an attempt to diversify schools and the general population. This is an oversimplification obviously, however you get the gist.

2.What is a commutation fee? Of the 207,000 men drafted into the Union army, how many served?

It was a fee that people who were drafted to fight could pay to the government that released them from their services. 46,000 served

Florida has laws against raising prices immediately before and after hurricanes. Name two people who argued that those laws were harmful. In your own words, explain the arguments used by these two people.

Jeff Jacoby and Thomas Sowell. They both said that in a free market system those laws are harmful because they are roadblocks to the process of supply and demand. They say that increasing prices during times that certain items are in high demand is actually helpful because it encourages companies to produce and sell more of those items.

11. Explain "objection 5" and the libertarian reply. Who do you think is right?

Jordan is just lucky and he has happened upon an opportunity to capitalize upon his environment. He deserves no credit for his success and therefore it is not an issue for his wealth to be taxed and redistributed Lib. reply: if Jordan is not entitled to the benefits are the direct results of his talents (no matter how lucky) then does he really own his abilities? And if he doesn't own his abilities then he can't claim that he is truly a free person. This essentially places ownership of Jordans skills (and even himself) in the hands of the public

10. What is the libertarian case for upholding contracts? What is the utilitarian case for upholding contracts?

Libertarian- individual freedom is very important and upholding the agreement shows their abilities to enter into contracts utilitarian- both parties benefit in some way from the deal, otherwise they wouldn't have agreed to the deal in the first place, so it increases utility

2. As explicitly as you can, state the argument (raised by opponents of apologies for historical injustices) on which Sandel focuses.

People of the current generation cannot apologize for the wrongs of a previous generation because to apologize is to admit responsibility for something and you cant do that with something you didn't do

1. For Kant, morality does not arise from God, nor from the idea of self-ownership, but from the truth that humans are ___________ beings, worthy of respect.

Rational

immanuel kant

Rationality: Kant's account of the origin of moral duties depends on "the idea that we are rational beings, worthy of dignity and respect (not self ownership!)" Freedom: "So Kant is a powerful advocate for approach two - the one that connects justice to morality and freedom."

Does Aristotle accept or reject state neutrality?

Rejects it

13. What was the point of the two weird letters?

Sandel crafted two mock letters that, if colleges were brutally frank, would send to those who were accepted and to those who were not.

4. How is Sandel using the term 'welfare'? What is the difference between welfare and economic prosperity? (Can you describe someone with lots of welfare but not much economic prosperity?)

Sandel is using the term 'welfare' as a "broader concept that can include non-economic aspects of social well-being."

5. What is paternalism, in the legal context?

That governments use laws to regulate safe behavior and keep people from hurting themselves

6. What did Marshall say about the telos of marriage?

That it is an exclusive, love commitment between two partners

3. What was Sandel's second objection to income redistribution?

That it violates a fundamental right and is coercive and as a result it violates their liberty to do whatever they want

9. What does Dworkin claim is the difference between segregation-era racial exclusion and affirmative action?

That segregation era racial exclusion involved the idea that one race was inherently better than another while affirmative action involves no such ideas.

9. What did Sandel say was the "American public's real objection to the bonuses and the bailout?"

That they reward failure.

8.Explain the case of the Sterns and Mary Beth Whitehead.

The Sterns were unable to safely have a child so they entered into a contract with Mary Beth Whitehead in which she agreed to be artificially inseminated and to carry the baby for the Sterns. When she had the child she decided she didn't want to give it up and ran away with it. In a lower court the Sterns were granted custody of the child but when Whitehead appealed it the ruling was overturned and she was given custody.

8. Explain the dispute over The Purple Heart.

The dispute surrounds whether or not soldiers suffering from psychological injuries (like PTSD) should be recipients of the purple heart or not.

3. What is "moral individualism" as Sandel uses the term?

The idea that we are only subject to obligations we voluntarily incur.

11. What is "the natural lottery?"

The seemingly random positions and lives people are born into. Rawls references it as being "arbitrary from a moral perspective

15. How does Mill distinguish higher pleasures from lower pleasures?

There are certain pleasures that when compared to other pleasures are the preferred pleasures and those are the higher pleasures.

11. Explain the "Degradation and higher goods" objection to selling parental rights to infants.

This objection essentially says that anytime you treat something like a commodity it immediately degrades it. Even if this is done willingly it is still inherently degrading.

2. What is the compensatory argument for affirmative action?

This says that minority students should be given presence in the application process to make up for the reality that history has presented them with an unfair disadvantage from the beginning.

Moral duty facts:

Three contrasts: -- Moral contrast: duty vs inclination -- Freedom contrast: autonomy vs heteronomy --Reason contrast: categorical vs hypothetical imperative

6. What does it mean to say that justice is honorific?

To say Justice is honorific is to say that "To reason about the telos of a practice is..., at least in part, to reason or argue about what virtues it should honor and reward."

10. Why does Sandel bring up the obligations of a child to a parent?

To use as a reference point for the discussion of a parents duty to his or her child and whether or not that is a natural obligation or a consented obligation.

4. State the principle of utility.

We are governed by pain and pleasure whether we like it or not and what is right is directly tied to that reality. So we must work to act in ways that maximize pleasure and minimize pain

12. According to Aristotle, how do we become just?

We become just when we exercise moral virtue and we become virtuous through habit

11. A man who is not a part of a community must be either a _________ or a ________.

a beast or a god

9. What is a categorical imperative? Hypotheical imperative?

categorical- use absolute reason hypothetical- use instrumental reason

2. What two principles of justice does Rawls think people behind the "veil of ignorance" would choose to govern society?

equal basic liberties for all difference principle

8. "Taxation of earnings from labor is on par with ________."

forced labor.

How does Rawls feel about state neutrality?

he accepts it

13. "Mill thinks we should maximize utility, not case by case, but ________________. And over time, he argues, ______________________________________________________________."

in the long run respecting individual liberty will lead to the greatest human happiness.

7. The Purple Heart honors __________, not ___________.

sacrifice, bravery

9. "The crux of the libertarian claim is the idea of ____________."

self-ownership

6. What does Sandel say is the most glaring weakness of Utilitarianism?

that it fails to respect individual rights

4. What are the two objections to the diversity argument?

the practical argument principled argument

5. Explain the principled objection to affirmative action.

the principled objection says that affirmative action is a violation of individual rights and race should never be used as a factor

What is telos?

the purpose, end or essential nature.

6. Would the principled objection be compelling for a utilitarian?

yes it would