Ethics Exam 2

Specific diversity concerns for each media environment... 1) Journalism *People miss the point if they think diversity considerations are merely a p... p... disguised as a 's... j...' initiative or window dressing by media practitioners as PR effort. *Diversity in newsrooms and content is important: enables two other vitally important ethical values a... and f... *Among the reasons for journalism's continued trust issues is diversity. The average person is more likely to trust someone who ... like them. People often will not trust a news org that doesn't pay sincere and holistic attention to diversity (one study). *3/4 of Americans say they want news staffs to be more diverse, what they mean could be different things -> Democrats, Asian, Hispanic, Black respondents say r... and e... diversity is more important -> Republicans, White respondents say diversity in p... v... *Ethical journalists understand that it requires a d... s... to best cover a d... w... News industry slowly evolved by the 1970s to acknowledge that most early newspapers were written by white men to be read by white men. The American Society of News Editors voted in the late 70s on goal of having newsroom diversity rates match American diversity rates by year 2000. *What happened? *In some instances, gains were even reversed as newsrooms cut jobs as economic fortunes plunged. *B... are particularly sensitive to knowing their audiences want to see people who look like them. *Most stations do not match n... p... averages, but POC make up an average of 40% of newsrooms in the nation's Top 25 biggest TV markets. *Staffing diversity is also important when covering r...-related stories. Move toward digital media meant journalists will encounter a number of blockbuster news stories with race and cultural issues at core. Result: Can stumble over a host of pitfalls as their work is affected by l... p... May fall back into covering things the way they always have, not reaching out to b... s... or b... t... the sources they typically contact. May be afraid of mentioning race for fear of being c... Or may do a lousy job of informing because they do not understand the community they are covering. Or they just do not do it at all. *May not be surprising that ... people are more likely to trust news or pay for it than others. *One more idea: Journalists more likely to depict images of p... and s... of O... than people in their audiences. *Images of 'l...' people who have died/in crisis are rarely depicted in media; while ethics codes do not forbid it, many news orgs for reasons of taste will not show pictures of dead bodies of local people involved in crashes, violence, etc. *Also practical implication of the public outcry *MORE LIKELY TO SEE THE O... - people less likely from community, nation, race When we do not identify with the O, then we are more able to deal with the bad that happens to them without thinking it could ... to ...

Journalism: Eric Deggans, people miss the point if they think diversity considerations are merely a power playdisguised as a 'social justice' initiative, or a 'window dressing' by media practitioners as a PR effort. Deggans: 'Diversity in media - especially for newsrooms and news content - is important because it enables two other vitally important ethical values: accuracy and fairness.' Journalists who know the world around them are less likely to make objective or subjective mistakes, and more likely to have better judgment. Deggans had harsh words for some cable TV and internet media, arguing that some use race and other diversity issues to attract and keep their audiences.Among the reasons for journalism's continued trust issues is diversity. Across all walks of life, research is clear that the average person is more likely to trust someone who looks like them. It is true in journalism - one study noted that people said they 'will not trust a news organization that doesn't pay sincere and holistic attention to diversity.' While ¾ of Americans say they want news staffs to be more diverse, what they mean by diversity differs: Democrats, Asian, Hispanic, and Black respondents say racial and ethnic diversity is more important, while Republicans and White respondents say diversity in political views is more important (a different study). Ethical journalists understand that it requires a diverse staff to best cover a diverse world. Most early newspapers were written by white men to be read by white men. The news industry slowly evolved by the 1970s to acknowledge this, and began to diversify their staffs. The American Society of News Editors voted in the late 70s on a goal of having newsroom diversity rates match American diversity rates by the year 2000. It did not happen. The percentages improved, but it is rare to find a traditional newsroom where 40% of its workers are non-white, the rate of race and ethnicity in the US as of 2019. In some instances, the gains were REVERSED as newsrooms cut jobs as their economic fortunes plunged. This is true for both print and broadcast, but more so for print. Broadcasters are particularly sensitive to knowing their audiences want to see people who look like them. Most stations do not match national population averages, but people of color make up an average of 40% of newsrooms in the nation's top 25 biggest TV markets. Staffing diversity is also important when covering race-related stories. The move toward digital media meant 'journalists will encounter a number of blockbuster news stories with race and cultural issues at their core. The result: Reporters can stumble over a host of pitfalls as their work is affected by limited perspective" (Deggans). Journalists may fall back into covering things the way they always have, not reaching out to better sources or blindly trusting the sources they typically contact. May be afraid of mentioning race when it is relevant to a story because of the fear of being criticized. Or they may do a lousy job of informing because they do not understand the community they are covering. Or they just do not cover a race-related story at all. It may not be surprising that White people are more likely to trust news or pay for it than others. One more idea about journalism and diversity: Journalists are more likely to depict images of pain and suffering of Others than they are of people in their audiences. Images of 'local' people who have died or are in crisis are rarely displayed in media; scholars note that while ethics codes do not forbid it, many news orgs for reasons of taste will not show pictures of dead bodies of local people involved in crashes, violence, or other tragedy. There's also the practical implication of the public outcry, even if the image serves some journalistic purpose. But we are more likely to see such images of the Other - of people less likely to be from our community, nation, race, or nationalist. When we do not identify with the Other, then we are more able to deal with the bad that happens to them without thinking it could happen to us.

Specific diversity concerns for each media environment... 3) Public relations *Damion Waymer: PR manages who deal with crisis, risk, issues management would be wise to plan for, welcome, take into account nation's diversity. *Lee Edwards: Institutional racism operates across PR industry, affecting mediation of culture both within and beyond context of c... pr.... Media have the potential to influence, PR is sometimes an unseen hand in creating meaning in society. *Most change in society or lack thereof likely involves PR. To unfreeze, change, and refreeze thinking and behavior in a person or society is a difficult process - many PR efforts are designed to do that. PR is often used to justify the s... q...; campaigns are e... (costs that only established companies and wealthy can afford). *In the early 1990s: with the advent of b... b... in both domestic and international economies combined with i... i... discourses about the r... o... to ensure PR became deeply embedded in the system by which e... g... justified their existence. *Racialized others deemed to be of value only to extent they could be c... or some other public that facilitated p... m... *Governments and commercial orgs used PR to communicate value they p... to s...; their audiences were those who mattered (most frequently?) *On the other hand, consider MLK as a virtuous PR practitioner. His purpose was to change America's ideas and actions about race. His e... p... included white Americans - some who needed to change their racist thoughts and actions and enhanced by PR and legal campaigns against non-whites, and others who needed to be spurred to act a/g what they knew was wrong. *Also communicated with l... and n... m... - almost all white people. *His i... a... included Black Americans - some who needed to be spurred to action, others who needed to be persuaded that non-violence was the proper path. *Tactics of s..., b..., m... designed to draw public and media attention. *MLK did not take a d...-and-c... approach as he dealt with different types of people. But in political and other arenas since then, we have seen these campaigns that use race, gender, political affiliation and other differences to drive wedges between groups for an a... of the c... *Campaigns are often a w...-t...-a... affair, especially in politics - but we argue that d... c... are often unethical. Efforts to make some populations fear others, often using stereotypes and feelings/facts are ethically problematic. *Some are subtle, with problematic parts that may have been intentional or not. *British PR Firm Bell Pottinger in South Africa, hired by client in India to exploit racial divides there. Strategy by head of PR and Communication said, 'Set back race relations there by 10 years.' Firm collapsed. *These campaigns are less likely to happen when s... are diverse and all have a voice in shaping the campaign. *Diversity cannot just be a PR effort: Move from mentality towards the understanding of why it is important: Not from a quota of let's put some non-white faces in the office. How it feeds c... and improves i... *Problem related to employment: Nationally in 2020, 4/5 of Americans in persuasion industries = white. Women make up 75% of PR workers but only 20% of senior leadership.

PR: American PR scholar, Damion Waymer explains: PR managers who deal with crisis, risk, and issues management would be wise to plan for, welcome, and take into account the nation's diversity. British PR scholar Lee Edwards is blunter, Institutional racism operates across the PR industry, potentially affecting their mediation of culture both within and beyond the context of cultural production. The term cultural production is instructive, as it reminds us that media have the potential to influence and that PR has a sometimes unseen hand in creating meaning in society. Most change in society, or lack of change, likely involves PR. To unfreeze, change, and refreeze thinking and behavior in a person/society is a difficult process, and many PR efforts are designed to do that. PR is often used to justify the status quo. PR campaigns are expensive, with costs that only established companies and the wealthy can afford. Debashish Munshi and Lee Edwards wrote by the early 1990s: The advent of big business, in both domestic and international economies, combined with ideological imperialist discourses about the racialized others to ensure PR became deeply embedded in the system by which elite groups justified their existence. The racialized others in this business context were deemed to be of value only to the extent they could be customers or some other public that facilitated profit motives. Govts and commercial orgs used PR to communicate the value they provided to society; their audiences were those who mattered - most frequently the White middle class. On the other hand, consider the notion that MLK was a virtuous public relations practitioner. This is not meant to be dismissive, but his purpose was to change America's ideas and actions about race. His external publics included White Americans - some who needed to change their racist thoughts and actions built and enhanced by PR and legal campaigns against non-Whites, and others who needed to be spurred to act against what they knew was wrong. He also communicated with lawmakers and news media - almost all white people. His internal audiences included Black Americans - some who needed to be spurred to action, and others who needed to be persuaded that non-violence was the proper path. His power did not come from election, so he also dealt with fellow ministers and others who challenged his authority. The tactics of speeches, boycotts, and marches were designed to draw public and media attention. And while he was killed before his dream was fulfilled, he pushed the public in the ethical direction. King did not take a divide-and-conquer approach, as he dealt differently with different types of people. But in the decades before and since then, in political and other arenas, we see d-and-c campaigns that use race, gender, political affiliation, and other differences to drive wedges between groups for the advantage of the client. We are not naïve - campaigns are often a winner-take-all affair, especially in politics - but we argue that divisive campaigns are often unethical. Efforts to make some populations fear others, often using stereotypes and feelings over facts are ethically problematic. Some campaigns are subtle, with problematic parts that may have been intentional or not. Others are over the top and clearly unethical. Among the worst was a five-year campaign run by the British PR firm Bell Pottinger in South Africa, hired by a client from India to exploit racial divides in SA. Once a newspaper there reported the strategy that the head of the PR and Communications Association said, 'may have set back race relations in SA by as much as 10 years.' The firm collapsed and was sanctioned by the group which self-regulates the industry. Thse sorts of campaigns are less likely to happen when staffs are DIVERSE - and all have a voice in shaping the campaign. Julian Obubo, PR manager with a focus on diversity, said diversity in PR firms cannot just be a PR effort: 'We need to move the mentality towards understanding the 'why diversity is important.' And not just from quota of 'let's have some non-white faces in the office' but how does it feed creativity and improve your ideas? The discussion hasn't matured to that.' Finally, the business of PR has a specific issue related to employment: Nationally in 2020, nearly 4/5 of Americans in persuasion industries were White, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Women make up 75% of PR workers but 20% of senior leadership. The industry and academia should find ways to redefine leadership in PR, consider work/life balance that may make it difficult for promotion, and to empower PR practitioners to create a more ethical, equal, and just profession for generations.

Specific diversity concerns for each media environment... 6) Social media *Some of these people erased their tweets yet saw s..., some apologized, others were defiant. Victims of a politically charged c... c...? Just desserts? But in each instance the results of social media comments led to c... *R..., g..., and p... differences often play a role in the tweets, and in the responses to them. *Like other emerging media, social media sites provide a v... for the v... Black users have a higher percentage of Twitter use than others. Site has become a megaphone of the world as it broadcasts the voices of Black pope. Of particular power is hashtag use to promote 'c... a... s...' which includes promoting a... and c..., drawing attention to c... and i..., reporting i... that mainstream orgs do not cover, and c... people/orgs. *Another benefit is receiving d... m... A person able to accept diversity is one whose social media feeds are filled with ideas/users who are different from them, which gives them insight into the w... beyond t... *A key ethical concern is the extent to which they create e... c... and f... b... - algorithms that ensure a personalized experience for users but resulting in only receiving info that reinforces what they already believe. Could lead to spread of d... [businesses feeding into f... b... without caring for potential side effects] For Media Practitioners who use social media, several issues emerge... 1) The intersection between an i... and the m... o... for which that person works. What a person says in print or on TV is understood in the context of that org. What that same person says on social media can be confused/conflated with that org. Many orgs have social media policies designed to help their workers navigate the path of giving the individual a v... without casting a n... r... on the institution. 2) Dealing with a... p... o... 3) Thinking clearly b... posting on social media. Many social media users do not reward d... or seemingly o... content; instead, crave t... and clever content. On the other hand, quickly improvised messages can backfire when they include racist, sexist, or otherwise divisive messages - the kind of content that might not be published with a little more thought. *Cancel culture: Newer term for b..., which is not new at all. Such b... are driven by diversity-related topics. Often drive by social media, which have characteristics that militate against n... de... *Conservatives: Liberal attack on history and people they don't like, extension of political correctness *Ben Carson: Form of intimidation (control people through fear) *NYT Columnist Charles Blow: No such thing. There is free speech. You can say or do as you please, and others can choose to never deal with you/your company/your products ever again. The rich and the powerful are just mad the masses can now organize their dissent. *While this may be true for individuals, it can be more complicated with governments as they define h..., and how they decide whom to h... or place on a pedestal.

Social media: An inclusion editor was fired after she inaccurately tweeted that it's 'always an angry white man' responsible for mass shootings; anti-Asian tweets from a decade ago cost a woman the job as editor of a national magazine; an actress was fired for tweets comparing treatments of Republicans to Holocaust victims; a university science professor was fired for his racist, anti-Semitic and homophobic slurs on Twitter; platform banned Trump for breaking its Glorification of Violence policy. Some of these people erased their tweets yet saw sanction, some apologized, others were defiant. Victims of a politically charged cancel culture? Just desserts? But in each instance the results of social media comments led to consequences. Racial, gender, and political differences often play a role in the tweets, and in the responses to them. Cancel culture: Nichole Holliday defined it as a newer term for 'boycott' which is not new; that's very old. Such boycotts are often driven by diversity-related topics. And they are often driven by social media, which have characteristics that militate against nuanced debate. The term means different things to different people. Conservatives decry it as a liberal attack on history and people they do not like, an extension of political correctness. Ben Carson, a cabinet secretary in the Trump admin said, The whole cancel culture is part of intimidation - controlling people through fear. But as NYT columnist Charles Blow tweeted: There's no such thing as cancel culture. There is free speech. You can say and do as you please, and others can choose to never deal with you, your company, or your products ever again. The rich and powerful are just the masses can now organize their dissent. While that may be true for individuals, it can be more complicated with governments as they define history, and how they decide whom to honor or literally place on a pedestal. Some seek to keep the statues and history as is; others seek to rethink honoring historical figures whose legacy included enslaving other humans. Like other emerging media, social media sites provide a voice for the voiceless. Daniels noted that Blacks have a higher % of Twitter use than other races, as non-whites are less likely to use personal computers to access the internet. The site has become a megaphone o the world as it broadcasts the voices of Black people. Of particular power is hashtag use to promote 'community agenda setting' which includes promoting anniversaries and celebrations, drawing attention to concerns and injustice, reporting info that mainstream orgs do not cover, and criticizing people and orgs. Another benefit of SM is receiving diverse messages. A person able to accept diversity is one whose social media feeds are filled with ideas and users who are different from them, which gives them insight into the world beyond themselves. A key ethical concern for such platforms is the extent to which they create echo chambers and filter bubbles - algorithms that ensure that a personalized experience for users, but resulting in only receiving info that reinforces what they already believe. 'The results you see on an internet search engine may be different from another user - even if using the same search term - depending upon what the search engine knows about you.' As business feed into the filter bubble without caring of the potential side effects such as the spread of disinformation, society can be unnoticeably harmed. 1) FOR MEDIA PRACTITIONERS WHO USE SOCIAL MEDIA, several issues emergea) The intersection between an individual and the media org for which that person works. What a person says in print or on TV is understood in the context of that org. What that same person says or shows on SM can be confused or conflated with that org. We've seen plenty of stories of people, talking about themselves or others in the context of diversity, find themselves sanctioned by their orgs or by society. Statements such as 'views are my own' or 'retweets are not endorsements' can only go so far. Many orgs have social media policies designed to help their workers navigate the path of giving the individual a voice without casting a negative reflection on the institution.b) Dealing with awful people online. Journalists and other media practitioners especially women and POC report an increase in racist and sexist attacks from people opposed to their work.c) Thinking clEarly before posting on social media. Most media practitioners do not work alone - they have fellow workers, editors, bosses, producers, layers of bureaucracy that stand between the original communication and the audience. Many social media users do not reward plodding, delayed, or seemingly overproduced content; instead, crave timely and clever content. On the other hand, quickly improvised messages can backfire when they include racist, sexist, or otherwise divisive messages - the kind of content that might not be published with a little more thought.

Real world provides plenty of reasons to make deals, trade favors, care for/about families/friends/other people who care about us. Subordinates have ... relationships with bosses, professionals have ... relationships to clients, others take on self-imposed ... relationships. -Because of this, a worker's obligation to the boss is different than obligations to the general public, and possess owe their subordinates c... that may not extend beyond the job. -Lobbyists and politicians may also make deals supposedly with interest of citizens, so long as these agreements are justified if more good than harm emerges from them, but these justifications should be c..., r..., t... James Carville: Loyalty is a ...-sum game of ... and ... 'S... ...' one person means 's... ...' to another. Argument makes more sense politically than anything else. Objects of Loyalty: Sentimental vs. Unsentimental Loyalties Two flavors of loyalty. We show sentimental loyalty when we bond with individuals or groups simply because ..., or in g... because they have been g... to ... -> Examples in family, someone wearing our university logo (instant bond) -> V... associations based on g... a..., lead to strong and enduring feelings and c... -But violations of personal trust or fickleness can harm these relationships. Can be problematic when they becomes more important than ... that may be of h... i..., or when loyalties are based on p... Loyalty can also be unsentimental/practical. Louis Day interchanged the words loyalty, obligation, and allegiance. 'Marketplace loyalty is not always based on g... a..., but is more often a reflection of f... of o... -> O... known as particularistic, tend to be c... and t... -> Doctors and lawyers (caring for individual clients, but in a broader sense these communities are trying to improve across the board. Comes with the professional territory. So, when a client is healed or lawsuits end, any s... l... to the client may also end. -> While professionals display loyalty to specific stakeholders, their more enduring commitment is to their p... c... -> Relying on unsentimental loyalties help many professionals get the b... p... Fletcher's essay on loyalty describers m... and m... loyalties. A minimum loyalty is 'do not ... ...' and a maximum is 'be as ... with ...' that seeks complete d... -Unsentimental = minimum standard of non-b... -Sentimental = be ... with ... While sentimental loyalty may be admirable and lead to some good results, can be problematic. Can be misplaced if re... and pu... at... are focused on q...-f... individual cases than s... problems that cannot be resolved without demanding sustained e... and r... -Whose ultimate loyalty should mass communicators have? Because high-quality competitive promotions and well-told stories on important topics will enhance p... o... and c... d...-... It becomes more complicated for persuaders who balance the p... with their loyalties to c... and others. EXAMPLES OF LOYALTY IN MEDIA PRACTICE: -World of mass media driven by sentimental and unsentimental loyalties a) Individual journalists and their organizations frequently demonstrate how much care about i... s... - child who needs an organ transplant, unemployed, homeless, crime victims. Show ... ... to their news sources and subjects. Our relationships are not based on f..., but on a certain u...: You tell me what you are trying to promote and I'll decide whether to put your story out for public consumption. The loyalty is to the s... and definition of n... b) Persuasion practitioners (PR and advertising) display genuine affection toward individuals and groups whose cause they embrace. For some having a ... ... to the cause provides greater purpose to their work. Many take on p... b... clients. Work diligently for clients who want their messages to trump competitors' messages in battle of public opinion. So long as you've signed on as a client, you will receive ... ... of this agency. This loyalty is to the a... s... of competing persuasive messages in the marketplace of ideas. c) Entertainers build loyalty through familiarity and what seems like friendship. The term p... i... describes ...-way mediated relationships, which an audience member feels a ... ... toward a media person they have never actually met.

The real world provides plenty of reasons to make deals, trade favors, and build special relationships. Most of us feel the need to care for, and care about, our families, friends, other people who care about us. Subordinates have assigned relationships with bosses. Professionals have contractual relationships to clients. Others take on self-imposed assumed relationships. Because of this, a worker's obligation to the boss is different from obligations to the general public, and bosses owe their subordinates considerations that may not extend beyond the job. Lobbyists and politicians make deals supposedly in the interest of citizens. These sorts of agreements can be justified if more good than harm emerges from these special relationships, but those justifications should be clear, rational, and transparent. Political consultant James Carville put a tantalizing twist on the egoistic theory of loyalty, calling it a zero-sum game of winners and losers. (Stickin' the case for Loyalty) 'Sticking with' one person means 'sticking it to' another. The argument makes some sense in the political world, but it seems out of sync with professional ethics. Loyalty comes in two flavors: SENTIMENTAL LOYALTY and UNSENTIMENTAL LOYALTY. We show sentimental loyalty when we bond with individuals or groups simply because we like them, or in gratitude because they have been good to us. Family relationships are often sentimental, and maybe your classes and college: When you see someone far from home wearing your school's logo on a shirt, you may feel an instant bond. Voluntary associations based on genuine affection can lead to strong and enduring feelings and commitments. Violations of personal trust, infidelity, and fickleness can harm those relationships. Sentimental loyalties can be problematic when they become more important than virtues that may be of higher importance, or when loyalties are based on prejudices. Loyalty can be unsentimental and practical. Media ethicist Louis Day, who interchanged the words loyalty, obligation, and allegiance, wrote that marketplace loyalty 'is not always based on genuine affection but is more often a reflection of feeling of obligation.' Those obligations, which philosophers call particularistic, tend to be conditional and transitory. Doctors go to great lengths to care for individual patients; lawyers zealously argue for their clients. That comes with the professional territory. In a broader sense, the medical community is trying to improve health across the board, and lawyers are trying to maintain a professional advocacy system in which justice is expected to prevail. But when the patient is healed and lawsuit ended, any sentimental loyalty to the client may end. In short, while professionals may display loyalty to specific stakeholders, their more enduring commitment is to their professional calling. Relying on unsentimental loyalties helps many professionals focus on the 'big picture.' Fletcher's essay on loyalty describes minimum and maximum loyalties. He called a minimum loyalty as 'do not betray me,' and a maximum as 'be one with me' that seeks complete devotion. While he did not push these in this context, may be fair to see some unsentimental loyalties as having the minimum standard of non-betrayal, while many sentimental loyalties are closer to the 'be one with me' approach. a) Individual journalists and their news organizations frequently demonstrate how much they care for and about individual stakeholders - the child who needs an organ transplant, students at impoverished high schools desperate for good textbooks, unemployed, homeless, crime victims. Reporters and editors show unsentimental loyalty to their news sources and subjects. They are saying, 'Our relationships are not based on friendship, but on a certain utility: You tell me what you are trying to promote or what you are willing to reveal, and I'll decide whether to put your story out for public consumption.' The loyalty is to the system and definition of news. b) Persuasion practitioners, in PR and advertising, often display genuine affection toward individuals and groups whose cause they embrace. For some, having a sentimental loyalty to the cause provides a greater purpose to their work. Many take on pro bono clients because of that loyalty. Advertisers and PR practitioners work diligently for clients who want their messages to trump competitors' messages in the battle for public opinion. They are saying, 'So long as you've signed on as a client, you will receive the unsentimental loyalty of this agency.' The loyalty is to the ADVERSARIAL SYSTEM of competing persuasive messages in the marketplace of idea. c) Entertainers and others build loyalty through familiarity and what seems like friendship. The term parasocial interaction describes one-way mediated relationships, in which an audience member feels a sentimental loyalty toward a media person whom they've never actually met. Meanwhile, do we doubt the sincerity of talk show hosts, bloggers, and podcasters? Is their loyalty to their audiences - or to themselves as they use parasocial interaction to their own advantage? While sentimental loyalty may be admirable and might lead to some good results, it can be problematic. Sentimental loyalties have been misplaced if resources and public attention are focused on quick-fix individual cases rather than systemic problems that cannot be resolved without demanding sustained efforts and resources. Mass communicators' ultimate loyalty should be to the public, because high-quality competitive promotions and well-told stories on important topics will enhance public opinion and collective decision making. It seems simple for journalists, such as the edict from The Elements of Journalism: Journalism's first loyalty is to citizens. It becomes a little more complicated for persuaders who balance the public with their loyalties to clients and others. Having said that, the systems created by mass communicators should focus on values that show loyalty to the public.

Ways to Improve Thinking about Stereotyping, Diversity 1) Know themselves. Greeks, Romans, Chinese own versions of aphorism: we must understand o... in order to understand o... This is a c..., c... effort to learn what we think unconsciously. Do we treat people differently just because they're different? 2) Take classes, read books. 3) Put themselves in others' shoes. Imagine themselves blind and unable to order because the restaurant has no braille menu, or at every cut in a sidewalk asking yourself whether a person in a wheelchair or with a physical disability would be able to successfully negotiate the change. People who are in a tr... m... groups rarely put themselves in situations where they are not in the m... They may have p... fear, or p... fear of not being in c... Until they step into different situations, they will not understand differences in power, abilities, other sorts of diversity. 4) See people as individuals. Push back from s...-f... p..., in which you make decisions about how you treat people and depict people based upon your p... n... of them based on s... [If you assume someone will be a jerk before you meet them, you might be defensive or aggressive in ways you deal with them. They may respond by being a jerk, because of how you've treated them.] 5) Judge media content on its own merit. Much academic work is submitted for publication using a double-blind review process; the submitter does not know the r... and the r... do not know the submitter. B... is limited. 6) Surround themselves with people who are diverse in multiple ways. Then listen. Then act. Cannot hire or be around only people who are like you if you expect to better understand y... and the w... Widening your circle can begin now. Do not have to believe everything said - but l... helps you understand them, and to help you hone your d..., better state your own a..., and disagree without being d... While media orgs often seek to h... a diverse staff, the larger ? is whether all v... are h... and then a... upon 7) Show cultural humility. Originally defined by physicians as a path to delivering health care to people from multiple backgrounds. A lifelong commitment to s...-e...n and s...-c...e, to redressing the po... im... and to developing a mutually b... and non-p... partnerships with communities on behalf of individuals and defined populations. While media practitioners may not be always on the 'p...' side of a p... r... the way a doctor is with a patient, the notion of understanding yourself and working to help others is still important. In short, it argues that a m... of k... is not enough to best serve others. 8) Hold themselves to high standards. Hold yourself accountable for what you say or do. Law does make some exceptions for a... w... such as movie sets and church-affiliated ministries that cannot fully live out their faith-based missions without opportunity to hire those who share core beliefs (in relation to looking at employers diversity statement). 9) Understand they are part of a bigger whole. Media is not a s... e..., though many believe it to be. While you cannot be responsible for what others are doing, it is important to consider how the messages you send tie into the larger m... environment. 10) Decide how they respond to others. When you are aware of yourself and others you will see and hear s, r, and other things not keeping with ethical communications/actions. You will work to recognize and avoid potential m..., typically defined as subtle and unintentional words/actions that reinforce stereotypes or discrimination. That you recognize such words and actions for how they may be interpreted is a good thing, but it is how you respond that matters too. *Focus on the thing and not the intention. *Somewhere lies the virtue between ignoring real news and drawing attention to and wasting resources on crackpots (whether and how to deal with trolls and people seeking to draw attention to selves by saying outrageous things to draw publicity) *All of us play a role in pe... and re... to stereotypes. 11) Find other ways to avoid bias and develop open minds. *Sue Ellen Christians (journalism context but can be applied elsewhere): being able to counterargue your s... h... - where you argue against your POV to consider new ways of thinking - entering situations with n... a..., learning to spot what other media ignore, learning to recognize language that disguises p... views, using p...-based data to anchor your message in r..., and understanding how others' c... patterns affect their 'basic aspects of life such as work, time, and communication'

Ways to Improve Thinking About Stereotyping, Diversity Practical tips to understand and deal with these issues. No way to complete a list or step-by-step guide. Media practitioners and everyone else would benefit if practitioners would... 1.) Know themselves. Many ancient cultures like the Greeks, Romans, Chinese had their own versions of this aphorism to remind us that we must understand ourselves in order to understand others. Doing this requires a continuous, conscious effort to learn what we think unconsciously. Ask ourselves if we treat people who are different from us differently, just because they are different. 2.) Take classes. Read some books. Universities offer specific D, E, I classes. Take one to have a better understanding of the many topics. If not possible, find one of the many books that focus on these topics. 3.) Put themselves in others' shoes. One way diversity is taught in classes is to ask students to imagine themselves blind and unable to order because the restaurant has no braille menu, or at every cut in a sidewalk asking yourself whether a person in a wheelchair or with a physical disability would be able to successfully negotiate the change. People who are in a traditional majority groups rarely put themselves in situations where they are not in the majority. They may have physical fear, or psychological fear of not being in control. Until they step into different situations, they will not understand differences in power, abilities, other sorts of diversity. 4.) See people as individuals. Push back from self-fulfilling prophecies, in which you make decisions about how you treat and depict people based upon your preconceived notions of them based upon stereotypes. [If you assume someone will be a jerk before you mee them, you might be defensive or aggressive in ways you deal with them. They may respond by being a jerk, because of how you've treated them.] 5.) Judge media content on its own merit. Some teachers have students submit papers without the students' names on them, so the teacher does not know who wrote what. Much academic work is submitted for publication through a 'double-blind review process' - the submitter does not know the reviewers, and the reviewers do not know the submitter. When all goes as planned, bias is LIMITED and the work is judged on its own merit. 6.) Surround themselves with people who are diverse in multiple ways. Then listen. Then act. You can't hire or be around only people who are like you if you expect to better understand yourself or the world. Widening your circle can begin now, one great thing about college is the opportunity to listen to and interact with people who are not like you. Do not have to believe everything that is said - but listening helps you understand them, and to help you hone your discernment, better state your own arguments, and disagree without being disagreeable. This will help you in all parts of life - especially in media career, where you are likely to be confronted, challenged, and even cussed at by people in and out of your group. Julia Jornsay-Silverberg: You have to recognize that haters are everywhere. There are going to be people who don't resonate with your content. While media organizations often seek to hire a diverse staff, the larger ? is whether all voices are heared and then acted upon. The media environment is filled with examples of messages and campaigns that fell short because people in the target market were not among the creators. Would they have made the same decision if the decision makers were diverse in gender, race, ethnicity, ideas? 7.) Show cultural humility. Cultural humility as a path to delivering health care to people from multiple backgrounds (pair of physicians in 1998). With a little editing to remove the medical focus, their definition applies for media practitioners when calling cultural humility a lifelong commitment to self-evaluation and self-critique, to redressing the power imbalances and to developing mutually beneficial and non-paternalistic partnerships with communities on behalf of individuals and defined populations. While media practitioners may not be always on the 'powerful' side of a power relationship the way a doctor is with a patient, the notion of understanding yourself and working to help others is still important. In short, it argues that a mastery of knowledge is not enough to best serve others. 8.) Hold themselves to high standards. Find ways to hold yourself accountable for what you say/do. Begins now, can be tied to the roles you take as a mass communicator. When looking for a job, do you ask to see the potential employer's diversity statement and see what measurable goals the org may have and how it is achieving those goals? It is worth noting that the law notes some exceptions for 'atypical workplaces' such as some movie sets and church-affiliated ministries that cannot fully live out their faith-based missions without the opportunity to hire those who share core beliefs. Still, you can work for organizations while still being sensitive to diversity-related issues. 9.) Understand they are part of a bigger whole. The public generally incorrectly thinks of the media as a singular entity, because each media message by each individual media org adds up to a whole. While you cannot be responsible for what others are doing, it is important to consider how the messages you send tie into the larger media environment. 10.) Decide how they respond to others. When you are aware of others and yourself, you will see and hear sexist, racist, other things not in keeping with ethical communication and actions. You will work to recognize and avoid potential microaggressions, typically defined as subtle and unintentional words or actions that reinforce stereotypes or discrimination. That you recognize such words or actions for how they may be interpreted is a good thing. HOW YOU RESPOND MATTERS TOO. A response is needed in most situations, but the response is better if it focuses on the thing and not the intention. Meanwhile, media practitioners have to decide whether and how to deal with trolls and people seeking to draw attention to themselves by saying outrageous things in order to draw publicity.Somewhere lies the virtue between ignoring real news and drawing attention to and wasting resources on crackpots. Also interesting is Brent Staples action as a young Black man when walking down the sidewalks of rich white neighborhoods: He whistled classical tunes: Virtually everyone seems to sense that a mugger wouldn't be warbling bright, sunny selections from Four Seasons. In doing that, he made the stereotype about violence-prone AA males less applicable to him. In short, all of us play a role in perpetuating and responding to stereotypes. 11.) Find other ways to avoid bias and develop open minds. Sue Ellen Christian (Overcoming Bias: A Journalist's Guide to Culture and Context) is aimed at journalists but many of suggestions are practical for other mass communicators. Tips include being able to counterargue your story hypothesis, where you argue against your POV to consider new ways of thinking, entering situations with neutral attitudes, learning to spot what other media ignore, learning to recognize language that disguises prejudice views, using population-based data to anchor your message in reality, and understanding how others' cultural patterns affect their 'basic aspects of life such as work, time, and communication'

Level 2: Conventional 'other serving' or 'good boy/girl' stages 3 and 4 Extend from a... to a... 'Conventional' people react more to the e... of f..., p..., s... They see acceptable moral decisions as ones that meet or protected the standards of g... n... Decisions are based on recognizing social e... and seeking a... - following a G... R... (3), or respecting and not q... the r... of s... (4)

Level 2: Conventional 'other serving' or 'good boy/good girl' stages 3 and 4 These extend from adolescence into adulthood. 'Conventional' people react more to the expectations of family, peers, and society. They see 'acceptable' moral decisions as ones that meet or protect the standards of group norms. Decisions are based on recognizing social expectations and seeking approval - following a Golden Rule (stage 3), or respecting and not questioning the rules of society (stage 4). "Generally do whatever it takes to be a good team player at work and not rock the boat, even if it means sacrificing some of your own self-interests" "Working and playing well with others," decision makers shouldn't 'rock the boat'

Examples of Loyalty from Media Codes *may be an optional slide SPJ -Act ... The highest and primary obligation of ethical journalism is to ... the ... -Avoid ... of ..., real or perceived. Disclosed unavoidable c... -Refuse g..., f..., f..., f... t..., political and other outside activities that can compromise integrity or impartiality or may damage credibility -Deny f... t... to advertisers, donors, and resist internal and external p... to influence news coverage PRSA -Advocacy. We serve the p... i... by acting as responsible advocates for those we represent -Independence. We provide o... counsel to those we represent -Loyalty. We are faithful to those we r... while honoring our obligation to serve p... i... AAAA -Marketing communications agencies should recognize an obligation not only to their c..., but also to one another, the media they employ, and the public at large. ESports -First loyalty to c... Must not be or appear to be subject to influences, interests, relationships that conflict with best interests of c...

Examples from Media Codes on Loyalty: SPJ: 'Act Independently: The highest and primary obligation of ethical journalism is to serve the public.' -Avoid COIs, real or perceived. Disclose unavoidable conflicts. -Refuse gifts, favors, fees, free travel, avoid political and other outside activities that may compromise integrity or impartiality, or may damage credibility. -Deny favored treatments to advertisers, donors or any other special interests, and resist internal and external pressure to influence news coverage. PRSA -Advocacy. We serve the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for those we represent. -Independence. We provide objective counsel to those we represent. -Loyalty. We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interests. AAAA -4A's marketing communications agencies should recognize an obligation noy only to their clients, but also to one another, the media they employ, and the public at large. Esports entertainment group Its first loyalty is to the company. Loyalty, Honesty, and Integrity. You must not be, or appear to be, subject to influences, interests, or relationships that conflict with the best interests of the Company.

Stereotypes and Archetypes 1) Archetypes *A term with Jungian roots that spells out the f... c... of something and often used in storytelling. A story character whose c... are widely r... or e... l..., often unconsciously. *Tie into the audience's schema, and they bring e... r... as they become mental models of themselves and other. *Prince Charming and Mulan as HERO, Cinderella as INNOCENT. These are preferred because they can avoid s..., which are often n... and often draw r..., g..., or other characteristics into the idea - the Black or Latino man as a gangster, the Italian as a member of organized crime, etc. *Can be invoked based on p... l... and the context of d... without having to use particular people groups in the negative roles. Can be used to consciously end the trend of s... casting and storytelling. How do we know stereotypes from archetypes? 1) Know the r... of s... for a given group 2) Know how o... these stereotypes are portrayed 3) Know whether those stereotypes are p... or n... -These three factors can affect how each of us feel about ourselves as we see how our groups are stereotypes and also how we feel about other groups. x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x How Media Depict Crime/Criminals Crime is news, entertainment, sometimes both. Nearly every journalism org covers crime and the notion of 'if it b..., it l...' remains true in many places. Also a rise in infotainment as podcasts that cover crime as a mix of journalism and entertainment. Ethicists say could be a bad thing, media depictions of crime do not match r... even though many think they do. Make us think the world is more v... than it is (c... t...) Could lead to copycat criminals. The Sentencing Project, public safety is undermined because 1) Whites o... the p... of crime committed by POC 2) Much media coverage of crime tends to r... r... m... about crime and victims (Black and Latino suspects are also more likely than whites to be presented in a non-individualized and threatening way - unnamed and in police custody) *Entertainment media have power too. People who watch crime shows are more likely than others to believe police successfully l... c..., only use f... when needed, and are less like to force fa... co... For journalists, this means making sure info is accurate and in context, victims are not re-v..., s... not perpetuated, news about arrests followed up. *National news orgs pay special attention to local crime stories they bring to audience, as stories choose become 's... c...' that can call attention to larger issues but unnecessarily scare people. Considerations of s... matter for entertaining media - blurring the line between truth and fiction can be problematic. Focusing on an i... s... can mean missing the larger issues of d... in the criminal justice system. "What makes an entertainment crime story less satisfying are often the ethical guidelines that help reporters avoid ruining people's lives."

DIFFERENT FROM A STEREOTYPE IS AN archetype, a term with Jungian roots that spells out the fundamental characteristics of something and if often used in storytelling. A story character whose characteristics are widely recognized or easily learned, often unconsciously. They tie into the audience's schema, and they bring emotional responses as they become 'mental models' of themselves and others. Examples would be thinking of Prince Charming or Mulan as the archetype, 'hero,' and Cinderella as the archetype 'innocent.' Archetypes are PREFERRED because they can avoid stereotypes, which are often negative and often draw race, gender, or other characteristics into the idea - the Black or Latino man as gangster, the Italian as member of organized crime, etc. Archetypes can be invoked based on plot lines and the context of drama without having to use particular people groups in the negative roles. Thus, they can be used to consciously end the trend of stereotypical casting and storytelling. How do we know which is which? Kim Sheehan: Depends on the range of stereotypes for a given group, how often those stereotypes are portrayed, and whether those s are +/-. These three factors can affect how each of us feel about ourselves as we see how our groups are stereotypes, and also how we feel about other groups. How Media Depict Crime and Criminals: Crime is news and entertainment, and sometimes both. Crime and court procedurals are a staple of movies and TV. Nearly every local journalism organization covers crime, and the notion of 'if it bleeds, it leads' remains true in many places. There's also a rise in infotainment such as podcasts that cover crime as a mix of journalism and entertainment. Ethicists say this can be a bad thing, because media depictions of crimes and criminals do not match reality, even though many people think they do. They make us think the world is more violent than it is (cultivation theory). May lead to copycat criminals. Research by The Sentencing Project says public safety is undermined becausea) Whites overestimate the proportion of crime committed by POCb) Much media coverage of crime tends to reinforce racial misconceptions about crime and victims (Black and Latino suspects are also more likely than whites to be presented in a non-individualized and threatening way - unnamed and in police custody). Entertainment media have power too. People who watch crime shows are more likely than others to believe that police successfully lower crime, only use force when needed, and are less likely to force false confessions. For journalists, this means making sure info is accurate and in context, that victims are not re-victimized, that stereotypes are not perpetuated, that news about arrests are followed up, and more. National news orgs should pay special attention to the local crime stories they bring to their audience, as the stories they choose become 'signal crimes' that can call attention to larger issues but also unnecessarily scare people. For entertainment media, considerations of stereotypes also matter. Blurring the line between truth and fiction becomes problematic. Focusing on an individual story can mean missing the larger issues of discrepancies in the criminal justice system. Alice Bolin concern about crime as entertainment: What makes an entertainment crime story less satisfying are often the ethical guidelines that help reporters avoid ruining people's lives.

Specific diversity concerns for each media environment... 5) Entertainment *At the f... of change and b... of criticism when the topic is diversity. People of color typically buy at least half of t... for America's top ten best selling films. But nearly 90% of movie executives are white. Makes a difference in what is seen. *Years after #O...S...W... the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences responded (lack of non-white people receiving nominations). Doubled number of women and POC to voting board and introduced rules that required nominated movies to meet diversity minimums on or off the screen. *American entertainment industry has influence w..., in a typical year the cinema/home entertainment video market brings in nearly $100B. American culture spreads w..., as the international box office brings in 3/4 the income for U.S. made movies. The result such vast t... influence can be cultural imperialism, in which A... c... and v... begin to dominate other cultures. *Some nations specifically limit the amount of American culture allowed in country (Canada for radio and TV broadcasting). *Movies and TV have struggled with how to depict POC and women, started with clearly racist stereotypes in Birth of a Nation (1915) and carried into TV and radio. The first major non-white characters were in s... r... or ones who could appeal to ... a... As more media channels emerge, more content aimed at niche audiences. *As era of internet streaming emerges, companies that own and distribute content are finding new ways to make money... -> Can put o... s... online for o... v... to watch again and newer audiences to discover. Some of them are finding that their o... c... has not held up well as American society has grown more diverse. -> Some movies/shows not shown online at all (Song of the South, D+ ; Cops, Paramount +) -> Some include disclaimers before content to explain context or reasoning for racist/sexist comment (HBO Max, Gone with the Wind and Blazing Saddles) -> Certain episodes unseen (30 Rock) -> Remove scenes inside episodes Such decisions bring praise for e... s... and criticism for being crassly c... or seeking to judge history by m... s..., or deny the context of the scenes that could be commenting upon a social moment. *Streaming media and other platforms also becoming base for more d... p.... Nielsen research shows that streaming platforms have considerably more talent representation than other TV platforms. BUT being on the screen does not mean the same thing as being included in the program in significant ways. [Some change is being pushed by advertising] *U.S. entertainment industry misses $10B in annual revenue because it ignores systemic racial inequalities. But telling Hollywood execs that more diverse media products can make more money, to Warner, is an ineffective argument. Money will not determine or change diversity, it's personal taste [personal values and attitudes]

Entertainment: At the forefront of change - and the brunt of criticism - when the topic is diversity. The 2020 Hollywood Diversity Report by UCLA noted that while Hollywood still has a problem, 'there are indications that the film industry is starting to get the message that diversity sells.' In typical years, POC buy at least half the tickets for America's top ten best-selling films, but nearly 90% of movie executives are white. This makes a difference in what we see. In the years after #OscarsSoWhite became a Twitter hashtag in complaints about the lack of non-white people receiving nominations, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences responded. It doubled the number of women and people of color to its voting board and introduced rules that will require nominated movies to meet diversity minimums on or off screen. The American entertainment industry has influence worldwide, as in a typical year the cinema/home entertainment video market brings in nearly $100B. American culture spreads worldwide, as the international box office brings in ¾ the income for U.S. made movies. Video games, meanwhile, have sales that nearly double that of video. The result such vast transnational influence can be cultural imperialism, in which American culture and values begin to dominate other cultures. Some nations specifically limit the amount of American culture they allow into their country: Canada's requirement that a % of its radio and TV broadcasting include Canadian creators. Deggan, "Movies and TV have struggled with how to depict POC and women. It started with the clearly racist stereotypes embedded within the 1915 film, Birth of a Nation, and carried into TV and radio. The first major non-White characters were in subordinate roles or ones who could appeal to White audiences. As more media channels have emerged, we have seem more content aimed at niche audiences.'As the era of internet streaming emerges, the companies that own and distribute content are finding new ways to make money. They can put old shows online for older viewers to watch again and newer audiences to discover. Some of them are finding that their old content has not held up well as American society has grown more diverse. The result is that some movies and shows are not shown online at all - Disney said its 1948 full-of-racist-stereotypes Song of the South will not be shown on D+, and Paramount ended the long-running Cops series after 33 seasons because of concerns about racism and police violence. Some include disclaimers before the content to explain the historical context or reasoning for the racist or sexist comment, such as HBO Max did for Gone with the Wind and Blazing Saddles after facing severe public backlash the wake of summer 2020 protests. Some providers do not show some episodes of some series, such as 30 Rock (white performers wore blackface). Others will remove troublesome scenes inside episodes. Such decisions bring praise for ethical sensitivity, and criticism for being crassly commercial or seeking to judge history by modern standards, or deny the context of the scenes that could be commenting upon a social moment. Streaming media and other platforms are also becoming the base for more diverse programming. Nielsen research shows that streaming platforms have considerably more diverse talent representation than other TV platforms, but simply being on the screen is not the same thing as being included in the program in significant ways. Some of the change is being pushed by advertising, which wants 'as broad of an audience as possible to reflect a customer base that's increasingly diverse.' The U.S. entertainment industry misses $10B in annual revenue because it ignors its systemic racial inequalities, a management consulting firm reported. But Warner says that telling Hollywood executives that more diverse media products can make more money is true - but also is often an ineffective argument. "Money isn't going to determine or change diversity ... You can make the point to executives all day about how successful these things are. Movies like Fast and Furious make billions, and movies with predominantly black casts do well. You can make the argument that movies that are about women, and made and targeted to women, are successful. You won't ever change the needle, because its not money that moves the needle. It's personal taste. It's personal values and attitudes. If you have a business that is largely run by white men who like their taste to be validated, then any number of dollars that you can throw in their faces and say, 'This will change,' won't move them. What they are moved by are things they enjoy. We have been taught that business is the motivator. But that's not exactly true.

We learn at an early age that people are DIFFERENT from us. Early-child educators will tell you it's at least as important for children to develop social skills as learning skills. The world doesn't revolve around them: They must work and play well with others! *Much of our experiences about the w... come from media: Because media play a role in teaching people about the w..., media have ethical responsibilities when informing, persuading, entertaining audiences ABOUT d... p..., p..., i... *Many discussions about diversity also reveal things about themselves. Intersectionality, the interactivity of s... i... s... such as race, class, gender in fostering l... e..., especially experiences of p... and o... *Discussions about diversity, equity, and inclusion are often IMPERFECT and CONTRADICTORY. For example, To Kill a Mockingbird, though it offers discussions about prejudice and racism has racist overtones itself: Telling through the eyes of a white person ignoring Calpurnia's story, distress of Black characters kept at a safe distance from reader (racist language, white savior themes) *Media organizations and practitioners who seek to be ethical must consider issues related to D, E, I. Tackle them head on in multiple ways: understanding the m... of histories that inform the makeup of our identities, their w... and the w... of others, in h..., deciding what m... to present, crafting those m..., presenting those m..., relating to s... *People with higher levels of m... d... are more likely to have loyalties that have expanded their w... Loyalties will naturally expand to include people NOT LIKE US. That expanding view will cause us to question our s..., tendencies to make s... j..., our habits of l... people and situations into d... c... In short... We cannot 'do ethics' correctly without understanding and welcoming diversity. Have an obligation to have 'c... c...' about who we serve. We must build c... in ourselves, organizations, audiences.

è We learn at an early age that people are different from us. Most early-child educators tell you while it's important for children to develop learning skills, it's at least as important they develop social skills. Children begin to understand that the world doesn't revolve around them and they must work and play well with others. Children begin to recognize their world is filled with people of different abilities, ages, classes, beliefs, body types, education, experiences, genders, generational differences, incomes, languages, morals, parental status, races, etc. Some even learn that some people pour thick syrup over their meat/vegetables. And that's OK too. Scout took a long path to understand what Finch told her, but she learned from her experiences. Much of our experience about the world comes from media - including such things as TKAM, which as a book/movie/play have led to countless discussions about prejudice and racism. Because media play a role in teaching people about the world, media have ethical responsibilities when informing, persuading, entertaining audiences ABOUT different people, places, ideas. è Many discussions about diversity lead speakers to reveal things about themselves. Intersectionality, a term that describes 'interactivity of social identity structures such as race, class, and gender in fostering life experiences, especially experiences of privilege and oppression.' Among other characteristics, this author is a White man in his mid-50s, father, husband, former journalist, now an academic. Grandparents voted many times for a race-baiting Gov. George Wallace as they lived in an AL town that as of the 2018 census still had no Black residents. But times change - the author has delivered lectures to fellow college professors about how to teach diversity. It's a life full of contradictions. Discussions about diversity, equity, and inclusion are often imperfect and contradictory. Reasonable arguments that TKAM has racist overtones: One critic noted that its telling through the eyes of a White person ignores Calpurnia's story, and the distress of Black characters is kept at a safe distance from the reader. The book's racist language and White savior theme has made it controversial in some school curriculums. Given the limitations of the author (intersectionality), the available space, and vastness of topic, this discussion will be imperfect too. Media organizations and media practitioners who seek to be ethical must consider issues related to diversity, equity, and inclusion. Must tackle these complicated issues head-on in multiple ways - in understanding the multiplicity of histories that inform the makeup of identities, their worldview and the worldview of others, in hiring, in deciding what messages to present, in crafting those messages, in presenting those messages, and in relating with stakeholders. 'Nothing could be more relevant to a discussion of ethics than the way people relate to, perceive, and share stories with those who are different from them' (Ginny Whitehouse) As Chapter 4 notes, people with higher levels of moral development are more likely to have loyalties that have expanded their worldview. Only natural that loyalties will expand to include people who are not like us - different in race, ethnicity, physical ability, religion, sexual orientation, gender expression, age, economic class. That expanding view will cause us to question our stereotypes, our tendencies to make snap judgments, and our habits of lumping people and situations into dogmatic categories. Awareness of the world's rich tapestry should lead us to doing more nuanced and substantial informing, persuading, and entertaining. We also become better citizens if we seriously attend to media that reflects the rich tapestry of life. In short: We cannot 'do ethics' correctly without understanding and welcoming diversity. We have an obligation to have 'cultural competence' about who we serve. We must build competency in ourselves, organizations, and audiences.

Specific diversity concerns for each media environment... 4) Advertising *Segmentation: The needs for advertisers to decide w... g... of p... are most likely to buy a product *Target marketing: How to create c... that will tweak the i... of those markets. *A person's personal characteristics like race/gender play a role int he goods and services they are likely to buy. But we also know that advertising can be powerful enough to c... or r... the personality traits of some in their audience, including children, according to how markets are s... and t... Can be ethical when doing these tasks - or unethical when they manipulate or use sexist/racist/non-evolved stereotypes in hopes of reaching their customers. *Also concerns that simply by creating s... 'advertising messages in the media implicitly and explicitly tell members of society where they b..., who they are, and how they should a... towards o...' *Without a d... s... - and one on which everyone is l... to - we see m... and unforced e... that overshadow the campaign. Some go back decades: Frito Bandito of 1960s, sombrero and stayed on air until National Mexican -American Anti-Defamation League pressured company. Others more recent: a soap brand showing a Black woman turn into a white woman, the notion that giving everyone a soda can resolve racial injustice highlighted in the #BLM movement, or a beermaker telling us that 'Sometimes lighter is better.' *Also see changes that reflect new understanding: Uncle Ben's Rice, Washington Redskins, Cleveland Indians, Aunt Jemima. *Aunt Jemima, renamed to Pearl Milling Co. 'reflect the dignity, the respect, and the warmth that we stand for.' And it's noteworthy that the new name has no gender, so there is no 'signal that this brand is for women only.' [originally meant to represent a stereotypical Black cook] Still, Deggans says, 'it is never a good time to challenge people on their personal prejudices or misconceptions' while simultaneously trying to sell them goods and services through advertising. *Past decades have seen more diversity aimed at g... a..., with interracial and same-sex couples in ads not specifically t... for those audiences. *2019 survey by Adobe Digital Insights, 2/5 of network TV ads showed diverse actors [much less diverse are p... m... like digital ads and social media, characteristics of consumer often known and ads tailored to consumer] *61% of Americans believed diversity to be important in ads; 15% not. *What matters, like in PR, is if the efforts are a... - that advertisers are hiring people who are a p... of those diverse markets and are l... to them. *Some brands go out of their way to turn 'anti-racism into a P... e...' it can be a risky enterprise as it might anger people who see such efforts are purposefully d... Can be even riskier when it backfires. Can also be h... *Fer Machado (Burger King): Actions, not ads [quote]

Advertising: Segmentation and target marketing - the needs for advertisers to decide WHICH GROUPS OF PEOPLE are most likely to buy the product, and HOW to create campaigns that will tweak the interest of those markets. It goes without saying that a person's personal characteristics, including race and gender, play a role in some of the goods and services they are likely to buy. But we also know that advertising can be powerful enough to change or reinforce the personality traits of some in their audience, including children, according to how markets are segmented and targeted. Advertisers can be ethical when they do those necessary tasks - or unethical when they manipulate or use sexist, racist, or non-evolved stereotypes in hopes of reaching their customers. There's also the concern that simply by creating segments, 'advertising messages in the media implicitly and explicitly tell members of society where they belong, who they are, and how they should act toward others.' 1) Without a diverse staff - and one on which everyone is listened to - we see mistakes and unforced errors that overshadow the campaign. Some go back decades, such as the 'Frito Bandito' of the late 1960s who wore a sombrero and stayed on the air until the National Mexican-American Anti-Defamation League pressured the company. Others are more recent: a soap brand showing a Black woman turn into a white woman, the notion that giving everyone a soda can resolve racial injustice highlighted in the #BLM movement, or a beermaker telling us that 'Sometimes lighter is better.' We also see changes that reflect new understanding - brands such as Uncle Ben's Rice, football's Washington Redskins and baseball's Cleveland Indians, and Aunt Jemima have new names. The chief marketing officer for Quaker Foods said Aunt Jemima products (named in the 1880s to represent a stereotypical Black cook) were renamed Pearl Milling Co. so it could 'reflect the dignity, the respect, and the warmth that we stand for.' And it's noteworthy that the new name has no gender, so there is no 'signal that this brand is for women only.' Still, Deggans says, 'it is never a good time to challenge people on their personal prejudices or misconceptions' while simultaneously trying to sell them goods and services through advertising. The past decades has also seen more diversity aimed at general audiences, with interracial and same-sex couples in ads not specifically aimed at those target markets. 2019 survey by Adobe Digital Insights said 2/5 of network TV ads show diverse actors (Much less diverse are more personalized media, such as digital ads and social media, where the characteristics of the consumer are often known and the ads tailored to that consumer). The survey also said 61% of Americans believed diversity to be important in ads; 15% not important. As discussed in PR and other media enterprises, what matters is that the efforts are authentic - that advertisers are hiring people who are PART of those diverse markets, and are listening to them. In both A and PR, we see campaigns that are specifically focused on celebrating and promoting diversity. Some brands go out of their way to turn 'anti-racism into a PR exercise' or promote gender equality. It can be a risky enterprise, as it may anger people who see such efforts as purposely divisive. It can be even riskier when it backfires, as some previous examples have shown. It can also by hypocritical. Fer Machado, chief marketing officer for BK and other restaurant brands on twitter: Dear creative community, please do not send me another idea for a stunt to show that we support the African American community. Instead, hire more AAs for the agency. Or help us evolve the diversity agenda here in my company [we need it] Actions, not ads.

All of us grow m..., i..., p..., p... - experts agree that most of us progress through p... stages of thinking and decision-making as we mature. A significant factor in moral growth is [the capacity to be s... to the p..., i..., n... of others]? As we mature our sense of 'the ...' changes, we use increasingly sophisticated and sensitive ways to resolve moral problems. Whether a moral troglodyte or a moral hero, many ethical decisions you make are ... BUT whether you are a troglodyte/hero has to do with the ... behind the decision: Reveals a lot about the person making the decision (their m... d... and r... for o...). How you understand w... might be affected and h... t... might be affected by your decisions. (Your reasoning about the p... affected by your decisions) *Rememeber how our arguments differed for the case studies: Each of them may provide a plausible rationale for the decision you made. Each answer reflects a position reflected in the body of knowledge known as ... d.../... ... *The Third Question, Who Wins, Who Loses? Identify the stakeholders, and determine what impact your decision may have on them in the short term and the long term. Who deserves more ethical consideration than others? Please do not presume that ethics is a zero-sum game, or that for each winner there is a loser. Rather, it asks you to identify the stakeholders and anticipate the impact your decision may have on each of them - including ourselves.

All of us grow morally, intellectually, professionally, and personally - and experts agree that most of us progress through predictable stages of thinking and decision making as we mature. The process is neither absolute nor unchanging. A significant factor in moral growth is the expansion of our sense of empathy: the capacity to be sensitive to the presence, interest, and needs of others. As we mature, our sense of 'the other' changes, we use increasingly sophisticated and sensitive ways to resolve moral problems. Our capacity to cope with the inevitable workplace pressures is improved when we have a better understanding of Who wins, who loses? We all do a better job as media consumers when we understand the moral psychology of all the stakeholders in the media ethics environment. Whether a moral troglodyte or a moral hero, many ethical decisions you make are binary. Either publish or do not publish (do something or do not do something). Whether a troglodyte or hero has to do with the why behind the decision: Why reveals a great deal about the person making a decision - about that person's moral development and regard for others. Your reasoning about the people affected by your decisions - how you understand who might be affected and how they might be affected by your decisions. è Notice how arguments differ. Each of them may provide a plausible rationale for whatever decision you made. Each answer reflects a position reflected in the body of knowledge known as moral development, or moral psychology. Should help you reach ability to decide whether some of these decisions are more morally justified (based on higher levels of moral development) and which are morally problematic. INSIGHTS DO NOT TELL YOU WHAT CONCLUSIONS TO REACH, but should help you understand how to reach them.

Moral Psychology Research: *Many theories explaining how we progress through a l... s... of h... s... in our moral development. 1) Our individual moral development generally parallels our ... ... [Progress systematically from lower stages to higher stages of development as we mature both ... and ...] 2) At lowest stages, we are ...-c...? Operate out of ... of ... or to s... r... 3) At middle stages, we try to 'work and play well ... ...' to be a ... .../..., or to be ...-s... to meet o... n... Moral relativists 4) At higher stages, think about the s... c... we have with one another. Recognize the inherent worth of ... (including ...), behave out of i... u... p... *We become a... m... a... 5) Moral maturity occurs when we recognize the flaws inherent in lower-level stages and as we watch people around us demonstrate values of higher-stage reasoning. 6) It is more common that more people more readily r... than they can ... to a ... stage. What are the three stages of moral development? How empathy grows as development grows... Low [All about ...] Medium [All about ... and f... i...] High [high-minded thinking about o...] The Expansion of Empathy Natural for us to begin life as ...-... *Infants As we mature we become aware of the and respond to '...' ... who are just ... ... and/or who can ... or ... us. When we start to recognize the needs of, and to care about a wider community. Ultimately, moral maturity can give us an intense sense of empathy for ... in ... Empathy entails 'caring ...' and 'caring ...' Heightened empathy means our circles of c... ... ever ... *The roots of m... are to be found in empathy. Empathy underlies many facets of m... judgment and action (Daniel Goleman). The question is, at what stage of moral development do media professionals tend to function, what stage should they? In Goleman's rubric, true professionals have moved beyond which stages [r... s... and p...]? And into which stage [u... stage of c... f... and c... a...]?

Led to many theories explaining how we progress through a logical set of hierarchical stages in our moral development. 1. Our individual moral development generally parallels our intellectual development. Tend to progress systematically from lower stages to higher stages of development as we mature intellectually and emotionally. 2. At the lowest stages, we are ego-centered. Operate out of fear of punishment or to seek reward. We have little awareness of behaving morally. 3. At middle stages, we try to 'work and play well with others' to be a good boy/girl, or to be self-sacrificing to meet others' needs. Tend to be moral relativists. 4. At higher stages, we think about the social contract we have with one another. We recognize the inherent worth of everyone (including ourselves), and we behave out of idealistic universal principles. In short, we become autonomous moral agents who seek to lead a good life and leave our campsites better than we found them. 5. Moral maturity occurs when we recognize the flaws inherent in 'lower-level' stages and as we watch people around us demonstrate the values of higher-stage reasoning and behavior. 6. For many reasons, it is more common that people more readily 'regress' - act and think at a lower stage than they generally reside in - than they can jump to a higher stage. In other words, it is easier to jump back to selfishness than jump ahead to empathy and compassion. 3 Stages of Moral Development, how empathy grows as development grows. LOW: All about 'me,' and my needs first. MEDIUM: All about 'us' and fitting in HIGH: High-minded thinking about others The higher the stage, the higher the empathy. Developmental psychologists often focus on the notion of empathy. It is natural for us to begin life as self-centered. As infants, we depend wholly on others and our narrow view of the world means we see our own needs as more important than anything else. Children demonstrate moral awareness as early as 1, but their sense of other is generally limited. As we mature, we become aware of and respond to 'immediate' others who are just like us and/or who can help or hurt us. Only then do we start to recognize the needs of, and to care about, a wider community. Ultimately, moral maturity can give us an intense sense of empathy for humanity in general - people who are like us, and people who are very different from us. Seen in these terms, empathy entails 'caring for' and 'caring about.' The obvious implication is that heightened empathy means our circles of care grow ever wider. The roots of morality are to be found in empathy, and that empathy underlies many facets of moral judgment and action (Daniel Goleman). At what stage of moral development do media professionals tend to function, and at what stage should they function? Do they naturally empathize/identify with professional peers, with company or institutional norms and values, with accrediting and prize-awarding committees? Do they 'feel' for their sources and subjects, their clients, their audiences, the general populace? In Goleman's rubric, true professionals have moved beyond stages of reward seeking and punishment-avoiding self-interest, and into a universal stage of caring for and caring about others - friends and strangers, known and unknown.

The Ethics of Care Considering care and the idea that women may have a 'different voice' as they develop. -Kohlberg did not recognize dimensions of moral development especially characteristic of women. C..., not justice, is a dominant e... of women. Difference left 'c... women' permanently at the conventional level. Approach ignored alternative criteria based on the importance of r... Early research wrongly assumed moral development was about 'replacing the rule of brute force with the rule of l..., bringing isolated and endangered individuals into a tempered connection with one another.' Incorrect observation that women, less a... and thus less preoccupied with r..., as a result less morally developed. Effort to move the discussion of differences from r... to r..., see difference as a marker of the human condition rather than a problem to be solved. Drew on early psychological theories identifying a strong bond between...? Imbues a primary value of p... r... and the c... that supports them. *Stressing the nature of c... f... and c... a... -Mother-daughter relationship shows c... f...: Who or what we empathize with and provide direct care for. -C... a... describes who or what we empathize with in a more abstract sense. -The truly morally developed individual will c... f... and a... humanity ... ... COMPARING MORALITY OF JUSTICE AND MORALITY OF CARE Morality of Justice uses a language of r... that protects s... a) Individuals are defined as ... from one another b) Relationships grounded in r... c) Conflicting claims are resolved by invoking i... roles and standards d) Morality is determined by whether each party was treated with e... Morality of Care uses a language of r... that s... connection a) Individuals defined as c... in relation to others b) Relationships grounded in response to others on t... t... c) Moral problems considered as issues of r... or r... d) Morality of an action is determined by whether r... were m... or r...

Moral Development: The Ethics of Care (Consider care and the idea that women may have a 'different voice' as they develop.) Gilligan, insisted that his theory did not recognize dimensions of moral development that are especially characteristic of females. Work argued that females do not fit K's mold of moral stages because compassion, not justice, is a dominant ethic of women. That difference left 'caring women' permanently at the conventional third/fourth stage of K's moral hierarchy. His approach ignored alternative criteria based on the importance of relationships, and instead emphasized decision making based on justice and rules. Gilligan said early theories of moral development were problematic because the research involved only males. Wrote about the shortcomings in the seminal studies of moral development (Freud, Piaget, Kohlberg). Said early research wrongly assumed that moral development is about "replacing the rule of brute force with the rule of law, bringing isolated and endangered individuals into a tempered connection with one another." The result is the incorrect observation that women, less aggressive and thus less preoccupied with rules, are as a result less morally developed. Her effort was to move the discussion of differences away from relativism to relationship, to see difference as a marker of the human condition rather than a problem to be solved. Drew on psychological theories that have identified a strong bond between mother and daughter - a bond that imbues a primary value of protecting relationships and the caring that supports them. The same theories hold a similar bond between father and son emphasizes rules and systems, and a disciplined orderliness that ensures greater control over their lives. Other feminist moral psychologists, including Belenky, have stressed the nature of 'caring for' and 'caring about.' The first - captured in G's mother-daughter example - describes who or what we empathize with and provide direct care for. The second describes who or what we empathize with in a more abstract sense. Not surprisingly, some of the arguments insist that the truly morally developed individual - man or woman - cares for as well as about humanity in general. Comparing 'Morality of Justice' (K) with 'Morality of Care' (G) Deni Elliot (media ethicist) identified key differences between the theories of K and G. Elliot noted that K's 'morality of justice' uses a language of rights that protects separation, so: è Individuals are defined as separate from one another è Relationships are grounded in reciprocity è Conflicting claims are resolved by invoking impartial roles or standards è Morality is determined by whether each party was treated with equity In G's morality of care, with its language of responsibilities that sustains connection: è Individuals are defined as connected in relation to others è Relationships are grounded in response to others on their terms è Moral problems are considered as issues of relationship or response è The morality of an action is determined by whether relationships were maintained or restored

*What we know about the world - or what we think we know - applies to how we understand media and their messages. Early models of communication seemed simple: A source sends a message over to a channel to a receiver. But it is more complicated. *Stuart Hall helped introduce ? of diversity through his encoding/decoding model of mass communication, MEDIA CONTENT IS DEVELOPED AND UNDERSTOOD IN VARIOUS WAYS. *Hall was writing abut TV when a small # of b-casters and print media delivered a majority of messages heard in a society, those messages generally reinforced the current power structure. Still, when we as mass communicators create and 'encode' a message into the textual/visual symbols used to deliver that message, we are influenced by THREE THINGS 1) Our f... of k... about the topic and the greater world. What we k.../don't k... about the topic helps determine the message. Matters we have the ability to choose the right words and images to help our audiences understand. Related to our ability to relate to people who may not be like us, or whose ideas and customs we may not understand. 2) Social and other relationships that are tied to society's p... s... S... f... play a major role in mass comm, fundamental discussions of race and other questions of power held by the ruling class (the decision makers and gatekeepers) and imposed upon society. If we merely echo the d... c..., or do not understand that other cultures have r... and m..., we merely reinforce the d... c... and consent to status quo. 3) Attributes of the c... c... used. Different CC work better for different types of messages. Text = complicated ideas; audio and video = delivering emotion. Still, at least as important is what happens AFTER the message is sent: When a person 'decodes' a message, those same things help determine how that person u... the message. A message's meaning is not ... according to what the sender says a message means. Audiences are not p... Ultimately, message recipients decide what a message m... to them. *Could be understood; reinforce power structure that sent the message and usually the society that sanctioned it. *May be negotiated, agrees in part with the message but pushes back on others. *Take an 'oppositional view' decoding the message contrary to its meaning. *No matter how a message recipient decodes a message, still important that media hold some degree of p... SO it matters who holds p... in media. *Many people, especially those unaware of the w... w... around them, assume W... is the default [white male culture dominates and controls American society]. 'Whiteness is u..., s..., b... the realm of race.' *Not naming whiteness as its own thing permits whites to entertain the notion that race lies 'over there' on the other side of the tracks... in a dark netherworld where whites are not involved. *Some media organizations understand this and remind workers to understand: Associated Style Pressbook - do not write in a way that assumes white is d... *Disagreements as the one above - even over word choices - play a role in the continuing and evolving discourse on diversity. *AP style: capitalize 'Black' but not 'white' - white people in general have less shared history and culture. Do not have the experience of being discriminated a/g for skin color *Fox News and TWP capitalize both, following National Association of Black Journalists *Further word choice changes... -Words you often use say more about you than what describing. Greater sensitivity to others is leading to changes in words and names. -> They as a singular antecedent to gender-neutral pronoun -> Letter carrier, firefighter -> Legacied -> Enslaved people -> Primary bedroom -> Plug/socket -> Primary/secondary -> Blocklist/allowlist -> Developing nations -> Partner -> Living in a country illegally

What we know about the world - or what we think we know - applies to how we understand media and their messages. Early models to describe communication seem simple: A source sends a message over a channel to a receiver. But of course it is much more complicated. The late Stuart Hall helped introduce questions of diversity through his encoding/decoding model of mass communication, which reminds us that MEDIA CONTENT IS DEVELOPED AND UNDERSTOOD IN VARIOUS WAYS. He was writing about TV when a small number of broadcasters and print media delivered a majority of the messages heard in a society, and those messages generally reinforced the current power structure. While we have more messengers than ever, his explanation seems relevant. When we as mass communicators create and 'encode' a message into the textual and visual symbols used to deliver that message, we are influenced by three things: 1) Our framework of knowledge about the topic and the greater world: What we know or don't know about the topic helps determine the message. It matters that we have the ability to choose the right words and images to help our audiences understand, and what we know or don't know about our audiences matters. Each of these things is related to our ability to relate to people who may not be like us, or those who have ideas/customs we may not understand. 2) Social and other relationships that are tied to society's power structure: Social forces play a major role in mass communication, which for him and others led to fundamental discussions of race and other ? of power held by the ruling class (who are the decision makers and gatekeepers) and imposed upon society. If we merely echo the dominant culture, or do not understand that other cultures have relevance and meaning, then we merely reinforce the dominant culture as we consent to the status quo. 3) The attributes of the communication channel used: It is clear that different communication channels work better (or worse) for different types of messages. Text is generally best for delivering complicated ideas; audio and video are often better at delivering emotion; maps are best for geography and giving directions. At least as important is what happens after the message is sent: When a person 'decodes' a message, those same things help determine how that person understands the message. A message's meaning is not 'fixed' according to what the sender says a message means. Audiences are not passive - they can be active and use their own minds to decide what a message means to them. Ultimately, message recipients decide what a media message means to them. They may understand the message as was intended by the sender, which Hall said may reinforce the power structure that sent the message and, usually, the society that sanctioned it. Or people may 'negotiate' a meaning that agrees with part of the message but pushes back on others. Or people may take an 'oppositional view', decoding the message contrary to the meaning. No matter how a message recipient decodes a message, it is still important to note that media hold some degree of power over all who use it. Therefore, it matters who holds power in media. 'Media people know as well as anyone how completely the white male culture dominates and controls American society' (Eric Deggans). The result is that many people, especially those unaware of the wider world around them, assume that White is the default position for seeing the world. Discussions about race are doomed unless we recognize that fact, said legal and race scholar Patricia Williams. 'Whiteness is unnamed, suppressed, beyond the realm of race' Not naming whiteness as its own thing 'permits whites to entertain the notion that race lives 'over there' on the other side of the tracks, in black bodies and inner-city neighborhoods, in a dark netherworld where whites are not involved' Some media organizations understand this and remind their workers to understand too: Associated Style Pressbook, not write in a way that assumes white is default. You may disagree. Disagreements over this and similar notions - even over word choices - play a role in the continuing and evolving discourse about diversity. For example, the words 'white' and 'black' were sometimes capitalized and not. AP updated its style to capitalize 'Black' but not 'white,' noting that white people in general have much less shared history and culture, and don't have the experience of being discriminated against because of skin color. Some news organizations follow; others do not. Fox News and The Washington Post capitalize both words, as the National Association of Black Journalists recommends. As discussions of race evolve, there are disagreements about fundamental ideas and the words chosen to frame the topic. [Words you often use say more about you than what you are describing. People in power decide the 'right' words to use and what things are named. Greater sensitivity to others is leading to changes in words and names: Renaming Mt. McKinley [highest peak, named for former president from OH] to original Denali. Many media organizations have actively composed how some long-used terms have sexist, racist, or exclusionary implications] è They, as a singular as the antecedent to a gender-neutral pronoun è Letter carrier [not mailman], firefighter è Legacied [not grandfathered in] [post-Civil War roots, laws that only let people vote if their grandfathers could vote] è Enslaved people [not slave] è Primary bedroom, not master bedroom [real estate] è Plug/socket, not male/female for connections [connections] è Primary/secondary, not master/slave [computer] è Blocklist/allowlist not blacklist/whitelist [computer] è Developing nations, not Third World è Partner to mean any person regardless of sexual orientation in a romantic relationship è Living in a country illegally, not illegal alien [an action is illegal, not a person, AP]

Reasonable set of conclusions for media practitioners when considering the nature of loyalty... a) Loyalty, like patriotism and fidelity, is good if pr... te...d It should be based on a c... (or at least a...) vision of what is worthwhile. Should not be so si...-m... as to blind us to conflicting m... claims. Loyalty requires ca... and i... j... b) Loyalty is important, if only to maintain good w... r..., but it is more important to be g... If our loyalty and our sense of doing the right thing are ... ..., then loyalty may not be the most important v... at stake. If pressure on the job to remain loyal to our boss, company, co-workers, unchallenged traditions make it impossible for us to do the ... ..., or to have a legitimate 'v...' in how our workplace makes choices, it could be time to find another job. Or become a whistleblower (neither universally loved or protected despite laws) c) Loyalty to the ma..., or to the mo... and sh..., impeded the development of genuine e... with m... or people who are un... or mi... in media

When considering the nature of loyalty, a reasonable set of conclusions for media practitioners might be: è Loyalty, like patriotism and fidelity, is good if properly tempered. It should be based on a correct (or at least adequate) vision of what is worthwhile. It also should not be so single-minded as to blind us to conflicting moral claims. Loyalty requires caution and independent judgment. è Loyalty is important, if only to maintain good working relationships, but it is more important to be good. If our loyalty and our sense of doing the right thing are at odds, then loyalty may not well be the most important virtue at stake. If pressures on the job to remain loyal to our boss, company, co-workers, unchallenged traditions) make it impossible for us to do the right thing, or to have a legitimate 'voice' in how our workplace makes choices, then it could be time to find another job - or perhaps we should become a whistleblower, recognizing that whistleblowers are neither universally loved nor always protected despite laws designed to protect them. è Loyalty to the majority, or to the movers and shakers, impedes the development of genuine empathy with minorities or peple who are unrepresented or misrepresented in media.

Why Diversity Matters in Media: *Priming theory: When we think of a person or thing, the m... d... of that person or thing is what comes to mind first. We may not even recognize that m... were what influenced our thinking. [M... depictions may be wildly different from reality.] *'The effect of some preceding stimulus or event on how we r... to some subsequent stimulus.' Many theories about how media work and affect people are directly related to diversity. Two focus on media content: 1) Social cognition theory: We learn about the w... by o... it, and our o... include what we see in media. 2) Cultivation theory: People who consume more media (TV) are more likely to think that the w... is w... than it is. Two other theories say the way we use media play a role in how we think about ourselves, and the groups we are in and the groups of others 1) Social identity theory: A person's s...-c... is partly passed upon membership in s... g... including race, ethnicity, gender 2) Self-categorization theory: How we perceive ourselves and others as g..., and how we think about people we perceive to be in g... *All these theories suggest that creating or consuming media full of s..., especially about people we do not know irl can reinforce w... beliefs and attitudes about ourselves, others, the world around us. All of these theories reaffirm the E... O... media practitioners have to fairly represent society.

Why Diversity Matters in Media Priming theory: When we think of a person or thing, the media depiction of that person or thing is what comes to mind first. Many times, we may not even recognize that media were what influenced our thinking. The word 'priming' is related to 'the effect of some preceding stimulus or event on how we react, broadly defined, to some subsequent stimulus.' And media depictions about that place, or the people from there, may be wildly different from reality. Priming is among many media theories that help explain diversity-related issues. Stamps noted that many theories about how media work and affect people are directly related to diversity. Two that focus on media content are SOCIAL COGNITION THEORY AND CULTIVATION THEORY. a) Social cognition theory - We learn about the world by observing it, and our observations include what see in media. b) Cultivation theory - People who consume more media (particularly TV) are more likely to think that the world is worse than it is. Meanwhile, two other theories say the way we use media play a role in how we think about ourselves, as well as the groups we are in and the groups of others. a) Social identity theory - A person's self-concept is partly passed upon membership in societal groups, including race, ethnicity, gender, and other factors. b) Self-categorization theory - How we perceive ourselves and others as groups, and how we think about people we perceive to be in groups. All these theories suggest that creating or consuming media full of stereotypes, especially about people we do not know in real life, can reinforce wrong beliefs and attitudes about ourselves, others, and the world around us. All of these theories reaffirm the ETHICAL OBLIGATION that media practitioners have to fairly represent society.

Step 3: Who wins, who loses [all stakeholders affected and what consequences would be like]. Moral development and empathy. Now loyalty. *A good companion question to Who wins, who loses? would be TO ... ARE WE MOST ...? Two kinds of loyalty: 1) Sentimental loyalty: t... a... for an individual or group. 2) Unsentimental loyalty: O... to be loyal. Not t... a..., but feeling like we have an ... [usually a professional ...] to be loyal. *Communicators show both but usually is an overall ... loyalty to the p... m... *And they usually RECEIVE ... loyalty. Example: Journalist feels like they really accurately and completely portray a source's viewpoint and story. No t... a... for the source, probably do not even KNOW the source. *Profession says you have an o... to that subject to do an accurate and good job. Uphold the s... of the i... and do the best practices! *So, a/an ... loyalty to sources, coworkers and bosses [maybe a little ... loyalty to coworkers/bosses] is normal. *How journalists receive ... loyalty: *A really good source may help you with lots of information and stories over the years. Discover HOWEVER that this source you thought was so loyal decides to give their story to a competitor. The source did not have ... loyalty to you. At this particular moment that source felt it best to give the story to a competitor. This source is giving you ... loyalty. *Another example: You work for a media organization for a long time (work hard too). Feel like family, feels BOTH unsentimental and sentimental loyalty to the organization. One day the publisher says profits are down, I'm laying you off. You screwed up, thinking this was ... loyalty, but it is ALWAYS a business. This would be ... loyalty. *This is often a rude awakening for journalists during shrinkages of journalism over the past couple decades.

*To whom are we most loyal? *True affection *Obligation, not true affection, obligation, obligation *Unsentimental to the professional mission *Unsentimental *True affection *Obligation, standards of the industry *Unsentimental, sentimental *Unsentimental *Sentimental, unsentimental *Sentimental, unsentimental

If demand for loyalty within your organizations is so great that you cannot c... ..., then you should consider... *QUIT (and maybe ..., Matt Harvey example) *Sometimes you morally and ethically HAVE TO change your loyalties from time to time. Excessive loyalty can cause ... decisions. *What are the number one and two reasons for making ... decisions? If morals demand that you shift loyalty, can you? I would hope so - sometimes though you need that job or promotion. You HOPE it will always be yes, but it may not always be so. "When people want you to do ..., they ask for your i...; when they want you to do ..., they demand your ..." -Loyalty is NOT ALWAYS a good thing.

-Change loyalties, whistleblowing -If you cannot talk your organization out of it, saying they cannot or no... -Immoral #1: Greed, money #2: Excessive loyalty -Right, integrity -Wrong, loyalty

Stages of moral development: Low: It's all about ... *...-c..., who must often displays this? [We hope as we grow OLDER we expand our moral development] Middle: It's all about '...' and f... ... *More than just ME, concerned about getting along with and ... people around you. *Immediate people around you (friends, coworkers, family) -> Make nice and getting along within group -> C... to ... of s... [Want to f... ...] High: It's high-minded thinking about others. *As you go from low -> middle -> high ... Empathy increases More on higher stage of moral development... *As we grow older, we work hard to expand ... *Behave out of i... ... ... that benefit a... ... of ... *Sometimes this means not c... but b... r... of ... [Think of civil disobedience if the decision to stick with the law is NOT the most ethical] Stages of moral development Kohlberg [1927-87] offers widely-accepted labels for the stages of moral development. *Lowest = ...-... level *Middle = ... level [cannot think outside of your own ... [the good of society] AKA people ... from you] *Highest = ...-... level *A person's level is mostly ... dependent. BUT many adults do not make it to the ... he says. *PROBLEM: Media have the potential to help or harm a lot of people. Make society better by projecting the voices/stories of marginalized disadvantaged people so something can be done about it. *Media has an extra obligation to make decisions at the ... level. "True media professionals have moved beyond ...-s... and ...-a... s...-... and into a ... stage of ... f... and ... a... others." *It is possible to work at the highest level of moral development as a media professional and it is important to translate this highest development into actions that will benefit society.

-Me -Self-centered, CHILDREN -Us and fitting in -Pleasing -Conformist to rules of society, want to fit in -Empathy -Idealistic universal principles, all people of society -NOT conformity but breaking rules of society -Pre-conventional, conventional, circles, different, post-conventional -Age, post-conventional level -Post-conventional level -Reward-seeking and punishment-avoiding self-interests, universal stage of caring for and caring about others.

Loyalty mirrors the growth of m... ... *Concentric circles of loyalty - parallels between the levels of loyalty and ... ... a) The two intermittent circles = ... levels of development *Self *People who can punish or help b) The third circle = ... level of development *Professional or local communities c) The last circle (largest) = ... level of development *These are people you do not even know, but you are still loyal to them. *Posterity/society in general The biggest difference between loyalty and ... ... In ... ... you want to move from o... s... to ...; this is not the case with loyalty. *You can and SHOULD BE loyal to ALL four circles a... o... ... [Do not stop being loyal to lower circles once you reach the higher ones.] *Dilemmas occur when some of these loyalties c... So one reason for moral dilemmas is they inevitably have c... ... -But not all loyalties should be ... and no loyalty should ever be b... *It is possible to have e... loyalty to the point of being m... Examples: 1) Journalist - If there is a story I think should be written but makes one of my best sources look bad, I don't do the story. This is e..., m... loyalty. 2) Misinformation for clicks, likes, attention. Loyalty to the social media metrics. 3) Purely trying to make money in entertainment. 4) The pipeline example from last unit. Not telling others about the pipeline explosion because it could make my boss and co-workers look bad. But people are DYING. PR 5) Advertising that misrepresents products just to sell more. *It is easy to have e..., m... loyalties in communications.

-Moral development -MD -Pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional -MD -MD, one stage to another -At one time -Compete -Conflicting loyalties -EQUAL, blind -Excessive, misguided

Moral development and empathy: Step 3: Who wins, who loses? Who wins, who loses?: Identify all ... [people/individuals ... or ... by your decision] as well as examine the good/bad i.../c... of each possible action or decision on each s... *The underlying requirement is to GIVE A DAMN about other people! AKA expansion of ... If step 3 will succeed, you cannot just think about y..., you have to care about ... *... is putting yourself in someone else's ... and u... them *It is not s... *Hard to do - especially if people are n... l... ...! Take an old white guy trying to have ... for a very young African American woman, it is not as easy but you NEED TO TRY. Media serves and affects ALL KINDS of people. *Making decisions through framework by people who l... l... ... is a bad decision. A Caution about Empathy: *Empathy is good to have and is necessary, but unless you are a member of a v... g..., you CANNOT truly w... in their ... *So do not a... the group's e... and p... [As a white person, you will NEVER know what it is like to be a Black person in America] *You can have empathy but you must stop short at a... *Las Vegas Raiders: 'I Can't Breathe' 4/20/2021, Owner is a RICH, MIDDLE-AGED, WHITE guy. This is a... You may support the verdict, but you must stop short. With caution in mind, we want to expand our empathy.

-Stakeholders, helped or harmed -Impact/consequences, stakeholder -EMPATHY, yourself, others -Empathy, shoes and understanding -Not like you. Empathy. Look like you *Victimized group, walk in their shoes *APPROPRIATE the group's experiences or pain *Appropriation *Appropriation

Kohlberg: -Reached adulthood toward end of WW2. Came to believe in m... u..., notion that some actions are ... ... -Relationships between a person's reasoning and moral judgment, arguing that moral development may be identified through six progressive stages of moral judgment. -Morality of justice: e..., i..., f... -Principles of justice should apply to all of us, people need sound r... to make sound d... about justice. 3 Levels with six total groups Natural evolution from focusing on and serving ...-..., to the interest of ..., and ultimately to interests of a... m... p... Most people become s... at ... stages, few fully attain the f... ... Level 1: Pre-conventional, self-serving stages 1 and 2 Universally experienced by? Not aware of their a..., accept p... a... and make moral decisions based on a... p... (1) or pragmatically making a d... or following a rule or being f... when it satisfies their o... i.... (2) *All about o... a... or finding a way not to be c... or p... (1) *'... or be ...' Media workers use others to satisfy their ... ...

Considerations about justice and moral development began as he reached adulthood toward the end of WW2, where he saw what Nazis did to his fellow Jews. Came to believe in moral universalism, notion that some actions are always wrong. Focused on the relationships between a person's reasoning and moral judgment. Developed a cognitive-social theory of moral development, arguing that moral development may be identified and defined through six progressive stages of moral judgment. His approach was on what he called morality of justice: considers such things as equality, independence, and fairness. Believed that principles of justice should apply to all of us, and that people need sound reasoning to make sound decisions about justice. Stages defined show how people form (and it is hoped, change) their beliefs about justice as they develop. Grouped these six stages into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Show a natural evolution from focusing on and serving self-interests, to the interests of others, and ultimately to the interests of abstract moral principles. Conceded that most people become stagnated at conventional stages, and few fully attain the final stage that reflects moral sophistication of some of the world's philosophers. Level 1: Pre-conventional, self-serving stages 1 and 2 These are almost universally experienced by young children. Because they are not aware of their alternatives, children accept parental authority and make moral decisions based on avoiding punishment (stage 1) or pragmatically 'making a deal' or following a rule or 'being fair' when it satisfies their own self-interests (stage 2). "Should not take money unless follow govt. rules that say the public should know you were paid (even if you think those rules violate your right to free speech), you may be breaking the law and could get caught." "Should absolutely abide by managers' request for silence, they are your bosses and you are powerless to do otherwise." "You can safely assume that - if you are careful - you will not get caught or punished, regardless of decision" "Primary motivation should be to 'look after No. 1' you have worked hard to make this blog profitable, and as the PR person, have no assurance that anyone else will look after you." All about obeying authority or finding a way not to be caught or punished. "Generally follow the company's wishes. After all, the company treated you well in the past, and your bosses implied that you would be rewarded for cooperating" "Owe special allegiance to family, so justified in telling them and only them of plant closing" "Disclose the demise to anyone who would be in a position to help you if or when you lose your job" Kohlberg's second stage, 'use or be used' is seen most clearly. Here, media workers use others to satisfy their own self-interest.

Defining the Issues *While few of us would acknowledge being p... and most of us have g... i..., 'our brains and our impulses often b... us' and we may be more p... than we know. Susan Fiske wrote even though we may be hardwired to harbor p... against those who seem different to us, it is possible to override our w... i... to reduce them. *MLK: Judge people by the content of their c... and not the color of their skin, 1963. Since then, the U.S. government has passed laws that include but move beyond skin color when defining d... Federal laws describe 'p... c...' for which d... is specifically forbidden (race, color, religion, national origin, sex, disability, veteran status, people older than 40, or pregnancy/childbirth status). *It is illegal to pay unequally based on gender for instance, or use genetic info to discriminate. Also illegal to retaliate against people who have complained about mistreatment. These federal laws have changed and been interpreted to include sexual orientation and gender status. *Different states have additional rules related to the number of workers in an establishment s... to the l..., or whether the organization is r... a... *These laws are generally aimed at w..., but similar laws forbid discrimination in t..., h..., and other enterprises. *Some rules are aimed at media organizations: specifically over-the-air b-casters regulated by the ..., charter forbids discrimination. Requires more broadcast stations plus cable and satellite operators to show they are seeking d... c... when they h... Cannot discriminate by race/ethnicity when it comes to a... s... either. The additional rules for b... exist because they receive access to a... in exchange for operating in p...'s i... *These laws are necessary in defining concerns about diversity, but they are i... because diversity issues move us beyond l... and go into e... The First Amendment gives b... the right to show materials that s... or may otherwise o... people with regard to characteristics and complaints should go to the STATION and not the network. May be legal but not ethical. *Also not alike when it comes to p... - most thinkers agree that p... r... lie at core of racism, sexism, etc. Our society is h...; some groups have more power than others. Allows dominant group to consider itself superior to subordinated groups. Treat members of subordinated groups differently because of membership in that group. Also allows dominant group to determine in which group n individual belongs and the normative/proper place of the subordinated group. *Media play a role in this: set a... when deciding what they will and not c... *Media makes f... d... - choosing the images, words, symbols and deciding what is in a message and what is left out/changed. *Media also have the power to c... s... on people/groups, why some are celebrities and others not.

Defining the IssuesWe are not like, and that is a good thing. Otherwise, life would be boring as we all looked, communicated, acted, and thought alike. While few of us would acknowledge being prejudiced and most of us have good intentions, 'our brains and our impulses often betray us' and we may be more prejudiced than we know. Susan Fiske wrote, even though we may be hardwired to harbor prejudices against those who seem different or unfamiliar to us, it's possible to override our worst impulses and reduce these prejudices.A better life requires all of us to be able to become comfortable with and contribute to different ideas, and as MLK said in 1963, to judge people by the content of their character not by the color of their skin. In the decades since that speech, the US government has passed laws that include but move beyond skin color when defining discrimination. Federal laws describes 'protected classes' for which discrimination is specifically forbidden, including on race, color, religion, national origin, sex, disability, veteran status, people older than 40, or pregnancy or childbirth status. It's illegal to pay unequally based upon gender, or use genetic info to discriminate. It's also illegal to retaliate against people who have complained about mistreatment. These federal laws have changed and been interpreted to include sexual orientation and gender status. Different states have additional rules - some more expansive than others - related to the number of workers in an establishment subject to the laws, or whether the organization is religiously affiliated. Those laws are generally aimed at workplaces, but similar laws forbid discrimination in travel, housing, and other enterprises. Some rules are aimed at media organizations - specifically the over-the-air broadcasters regulated by the FCC, whose charter forbids discrimination. The FCC requires more broadcast stations, plus cable and satellite TV operators, to show they are seeking diverse candidates when they hire. Moreover, stations cannot discriminate by race or ethnicity when it comes to ad sales. The additional rules for broadcasters exist - and are legal - because broadcasters receive access to airwaves in exchange for operating in public's interest. Those laws are necessary in defining concerns about diversity, but they are insufficient because diversity issues move us beyond law and into ethics. In fact, the FCC notes that the First amendment gives b-casters the right to show material that stereotypes or may otherwise offend people with regard to their religion, race, national background, gender, or other characteristics and that complaints should go to the station and not the network. That might make it legal - BUT NOT NECESSARILY ETHICAL. We are also not alike when it comes to power - and most thinkers on the topic argue that power relationships lie at the core of racism, sexism, and similar issues. Rebecca Ann Lind: Our society is hierarchical; some groups have more power than others do. The hierarchy allows the dominant group to consider itself superior to the subordinated groups. To treat members of the subordinated groups differently because of their membership in that group. Hierarchy also allows the dominant group to determine, among other things, in which group an individual belongs and the normative or proper place of the subordinated group. Media play a role in this: Media practitioners set agendas when deciding what they will and will not communicate. Media then make framing decisions - choosing the images, words, and other symbols, and deciding what is in a message and what is left out or changed. Finally, media have the power to confer status on people or groups, which is why some people are celebrities and others are not, and why you hear more about NFL teams than high school teams.

Specific diversity concerns for each media environment... 2) Digital media *The gift of the internet is its platform for everyone (versus concern of traditional media, lack of diversity). Helped level playing field in marketplace of ideas. *Amplified millions not previously heard in media. 'Strong e... p... outlets are critical elements in today's media environment. Serve to challenge the hegemonic narratives of the m... p... and give voice to sources and perspectives missing from traditional news media. *Blogs and smaller media orgs have taken place of some traditional news orgs, while also enabling the ability of smaller groups to t... among themselves. Podcasts and other emerging media forms give additional ways to reach audiences u..., m... by older media. *But still concerns: Internet used to make connections ... but also to stir a... *Southern Poverty Law Center: 'H... g...' hit historic high in late 2010s. 2020 report says online platforms lets people interact with h... and anti-... groups without joining them. Form connections and talk with likeminded people. *When online, what you say to one audience can be interpreted differently when presented to a l... a... (miscommunication that sows discontent among groups).

Digital Media: Among concerns about traditional media have been a lack of diversity. The gift of the internet is its platform for everyone, which has helped level the playing field in the marketplace of ideas and made one person's voice as potentially prominent as everyone else's. It has amplified millions of voices that have not been previously heard in media, leading two academics to say 'strong ethnic press outlets are critical elements in today's media environment. They serve to challenge hegemonic narratives of the mainstream press and give voice to sources and perspectives missing from' traditional news media. Blogs and smaller media orgs have taken the place of some traditional news orgs, while also enabling the ability of smaller groups to talk among themselves. Podcasts and other emerging new media forms give additional ways to reach audiences who were underserved, mis-served, by older media. But like other human enterprises, there are concerns. The internet is used to make connections and discuss important issues in their communities - and to stir animosity. The Southern Poverty Law Center said 'hate groups' hit historic highs in the late 2010s, and its 2020 report said that online platforms let people 'interact with hate and antigovernment groups without joining them, as well as to form connections and talk with likeminded people. Even as some of these groups have been kicked off online platforms, they are finding other ways to communicate. Another ethical consideration is to understand that when online, what you say to one audience can be interpreted differently when presented to a larger audience. Nearly every day, you can find examples of miscommunication that sows discontent among groups. A lack of cultural knowledge can inadvertently lead to trouble.

Diversity and Specific Media Tips -Framing matters! Considerations of diversity matter across the media ethics environment because 1) Media helps decide what people t... a... the w... around them. Reinforcing s... does a service to no one, it deprives the public of learning the n... of the world and peoples around them. 2) Media practitioners are often the ones who 'c... o...' the transgressions of others, or amplify the 'c... o...' by private people on social media. Ethics requires us to set a good example and meet the s... we expect of others. May also require that we be c... wen deciding when to call attention to problems, even as situations are different and different people have different understandings of the principles at stake. 3) The ethical l... and other mistakes we make as media practitioners are r... to the e... w... Countless transgressions over past years. Many have been toppled from their media jobs - some convicted on criminal charges (#MeToo movement). Bigoted and sexist words have drawn condemnation on national networks or social media. Ads and PR campaigns have been ridiculed and backfired for insensitivity. Entertainment media faces criticism for decisions make in hiring, story decisions, distribution channels. 4) The m... of media organizations influences the d... that are made. Media org staffs often do not match the d... of the w... around them. It is difficult to inform, persuade, entertain a population without understanding or being a part of that population. x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x What Codes of Ethics say about diversity... SPJ: -Be vigilant and courageous about holding those with p... a... Give v... to the v... -Support open and civil e... of v.., even views they find repugnant. -Boldly tell story of the diversity and magnitude of the h... e... Seek sources whose voices we seldom hear. -Avoid s... Journalists should examine the ways their values and experiences may shape their reporting. -Show c.. for those who may be affected by news coverage. Use h... s... when dealing with juveniles, victims of sex crimes, and sources or subjects who are inexperienced or unable to give consent. -Deny f... c... to advertisers, donors, any other special interests. Poynter Institute -Journalists seeking to cover race fully and fairly should ask these ?s. -Have I covered the story with s..., a..., f..., and b... to all people involved? -What are the likely c... of publishing and broadcasting this story? Who will be hurt/helped? -Have I sought a diversity of sources? -Am I seeking true diversity or using 't...,' allowing one minority person to represent a community or POV? -Have I allowed p... i... to limit my efforts to include diversity? -Am I flexible about the possibility that the focus of the story may c... when different sources are included? -Am I being r...? Are there stories that cannot be diversified? Is there reasonable effort to balance story and avoid exclusion? -Have I developed a meaningful list of minority sources to bring perspective and expertise into mainstream daily news coverage? -Have I spent time in minority communities and with residents to find out what people are thinking and to learn more about lifestyles, perspectives, customs, etc.? -If I am writing about achievements, am I writing about them on their o... m... rather than as s...-breakers? -Am I letting p... n... become code words for crime or other negative news (south side, inner city)? -As I seek diversity, am I being true to my other goals as a journalist? -Will I be able to explain clearly and honestly, not r..., my decision to anyone who challenges? PRSA -Diversity can be defined as the sum of the ways that people are both a... and d... -The way that people react to diversity is driven by v..., a..., and b... Full acceptance of diversity is a major principle of SJ. The concept of diversity presents both extraordinary promise and daunting challenges. -Inclusion is not just about having that 'SATT' but is about ensuring everyone's voice is h... and fully c... Diversity and inclusion are proactive behaviors. AAF Ad industry must... -R... to develop an inclusive industry -Provide greater access to d... and l... opportunities -Implement f... b... practices - supplier diversity -Recognize the diversity of talent w... the industry -Encourage the industry to portray m... i... of multicultural communities -Showing real, m... images will help create a society that is inclusive of the many consumers who define the American marketplace and dispel the stereotypes that have been perpetuated for too long. UCLA, College of Social Sciences (By All M.E.A.N.S. Necessary: Essential Practices for Transforming Hollywood Diversity and Inclusion Report) Entertainment companies will be able to better reflect society and its stories if they... -M... your worldview to reflect changing US demographics -E... the net in routine talent searches -A... the voices of women, especially women of color, within organizations groups. -N... compensation practices to reduce barriers of entry for marginalized groups. -St... incentives for decision makers to prioritize diversity and inclusion. Companies should tie management pay to meeting goals and promote from within.

Diversity and Specific Media Tips: As mass communicators, framing matters. Considerations of diversity matter across the media ethics environment BECAUSE: è Media help decide what people think about the world around them. Reinforcing stereotypes does a service to no one, as it deprives the public of learning the nuances of the world and peoples around them. è Media practitioners are often the ones who 'call out' the transgressions of others, or amplify the 'calling out' by private people on social media. Ethics require us to set a good example and meet the standards that we expect of others. Ethics may also require that we be consistent when deciding when to call attention to problems, even as situations are different and different people have different understandings of the principles at stake. è The ethical lapses and other mistakes we make as media practitioners are revealed to the entire world. Seemingly countless transgressions over the past years, and any specific roll call of offenders will be outdated. Hundreds of men (a few women) have been toppled from their media jobs - some convicted on criminal charges (#MeToo movement empowered people to call their abusers to a reckoning). Bigoted and sexist words and images have drawn condemnation - some published recently and others years before, on national networks or through social media. Ads and public relations campaigns have been ridiculed and backfired for their insensitivity. Entertainment media face criticism for the decisions they make in hiring, story decisions, and distribution channels. è The makeup of media organizations influences the decisions that are made. With some exceptions, media organization staffs often do not match the demographics of the world around them. Finding a perfect math may be impossible, given that people are many things, but it is difficult to inform, persuade, or entertain a population without understanding or being part of that population. Practitioners of color say they are often the lone minority voice, but not a decision maker or even in the room when decisions are made. SPJ: -Be vigilant and courageous about holding those with power accountable. Give voice to the voiceless. -Support open and civil exchange of views, even views they find repugnant. -Boldly tell story of the diversity and magnitude of the human experience. Seek sources whose voices we seldom hear. -Avoid stereotyping. Journalists should examine the ways their values and experiences may shape their reporting. -Show compassion for those who may be affected by news coverage. Use heightened sensitivity when dealing with juveniles, victims of sex crimes, and sources or subjects who are inexperienced or unable to give consent. Consider cultural differences in approach/treatment. -Deny favored coverage to advertisers, donors, any other special interests. Poynter Institute (Florida think and do tank for journalists) -Journalists seeking to cover race fully and fairly should ask these ?s. -Have I covered the story with sensitivity, accuracy, fairness, and balance to all people involved? -What are the likely consequences of publishing and broadcasting this story? Who will be hurt/helped? -Have I sought a diversity of sources? -Am I seeking true diversity or using 'tokenism,' allowing one minority person to represent a community or POV? -Have I allowed preconceived ideas to limit my efforts to include diversity? -Am I flexible about the possibility that the focus of the story may change when different sources are included? -Am I being realistic? Are there stories that cannot be diversified? Is there reasonable effort to balance story and avoid exclusion? -Have I developed a meaningful list of minority sources to bring perspective and expertise into mainstream daily news coverage? -Have I spent time in minority communities and with residents to find out what people are thinking and to learn more about lifestyles, perspectives, customs, etc.? -If I am writing about achievements, am I writing about them on their own merits rather than as stereotype-breakers? -Am I letting place names become code words for crime or other negative news (south side, inner city)? -As I seek diversity, am I being true to my other goals as a journalist? -Will I be able to explain clearly and honestly, not rationalize, my decision to anyone who challenges? PRSA -Diversity can be defined as the sum of the ways that people are both alike and different. The dimensions include, but are not limited to, race, ethnicity, gender, SO, language, culture, religion, m and physical ability, class or immigration status. The way that people react to diversity is driven by values, attitudes, and beliefs. Full acceptance of diversity is a major principle of social justice. The concept of diversity presents both extraordinary promise and daunting challenges. -Inclusion is not just about having that 'seat at the table' but is about ensuring everyone's voice is heard and fully considered. Diversity and inclusion are proactive behaviors. AAF [think tank on diversity : Mosaic Council] Ad industry must... -Recruit to develop an inclusive industry -Provide greater access to development and leadership opportunities -Implement fair business practices - supplier diversity -Recognize the diversity of talent within the industry -Encourage the industry to portray multifaceted images of multicultural communities -Showing real, multicultural images will help create a society that is inclusive of the many consumers who define the American marketplace and dispel the stereotypes that have been perpetuated for too long. Entertainment: UCLA, College of Social Sciences (By All M.E.A.N.S. Necessary: Essential Practices for Transforming Hollywood Diversity and Inclusion Report) Entertainment companies will be able to better reflect society and its stories if they... -Modernize your worldview to reflect changing US demographics (Companies must see this as a business imperative, which requires transparent efforts in recruiting, training, and creating measurable goals) -Expand the net in routine talent searches -Amplify the voices of women, especially women of color, within organizations groups. Means better pay to hire and retain talent. NORMALIZE compensation practices to reduce barriers to entry for marginalized groups -Structure incentives for decision makers to prioritize diversity and inclusion. Companies should tie management pay to meeting goals and promote from within.

Four Approaches to Moral Development Insights we can apply to ourselves as individual decision makers and the work of others (media practitioners) 1) I... and e... development in young adults. Men and women grow i... and m..., as they move from relying on ... ... to a time of ..., and then to ... (Perry and Belenky) 2) J..., Kohlberg 3) C... and c..., Gilligan 4) Four components described by Rest, asks us to consider the s... of making good decisions but also the importance of ... on those decisions. *Intellectual and Ethical Development in Young Adults Perry studied how college students change their understanding of the world. Research with young men, nine positions grouped in four categories [epistemological development] (the path many took in their development). Belenky advanced his work, reinterpreted it while introducing five perspectives of how women view themselves and knowledge. BOTH APPROACHES show how the path from a b...-to-w..., ...-imposed worldview to a mindset where people make and live their own ... based upon knowledge, experiences, and thinking. You move from accepting A... to questioning it, to later using it as only part of your own understanding and experiences to make and live your own c... The four categories of intellectual/ethical development: 1) Receiving '...-and-...' knowledge or D... Thinking the world is c..-c..., and teachers and other A... provide 'r...' ... to students. Uncertainty is either a ..., a '... ...' or you wait for A... to deliver a... a... 2) Dealing with 'm.../...' knowledge, recognize there are many ways to discover truth and begin to trust your own i... v... and not A... 3) Working through r... (some things are ...), and p... knowledge (knowledge about performing a task) 4) Developing c... while 'c...' your ... knowledge

Four Approaches to Moral Development Insights we can apply to ourselves as individual decision makers and to the work of others, including media practitioners. Moral development is related to: 1. Intellectual and ethical development in young adults. Men and women grow intellectually and morally, as they move from relying on authority figures to a time of relativism, and then to commitment. Looming large are the formulative works of William Perry and a perspective about women from Mary Belenky. 2. Justice, under the theory Lawrence Kohlberg 3. Care and community, Carol Gilligan's approach to moral development 4. Four components described by James Rest, who ask us to consider the steps of making good decisions but also the importance of acting on those decisions. x x x x x x x x x x x x Perry: studied how college students and other young adults change their understanding of the world. In research with young men, described nine positions, grouped in four categories, to describe the path many young adults took in their development.Belenky: Advancing Perry's work, who reinterpreted his approach while introducing five perspectives of how women view themselves and knowledge. Both approaches show how the path from a black-to-white, other-imposed worldview to a mindset where people make and live their own commitments based upon our own knowledge, experiences, and thinking. May recognize your own journey as a student or media practitioner through four categories ofepistemological development, with nine positions in those four categories. You move from accepting Authority to questioning it, to later using it as only part of your own understanding and experiences to make and live your own commitments. 1. Receiving 'black-and-white' knowledge, or DUALISM. You think the world is clear-cut, and teachers and other Authority provide 'right' answers to students. In such a world, uncertainty is either a fraud, a 'head game' where you're being messed with, or you wait for Authority to deliver absolute answers. 2. Dealing with 'multiplicity/subjective' knowledge, as you recognize there are many ways to discover truth and begin to trust your own inner voice and not Authority. 3. Working through relativism (as you realize some things are relative) and procedural knowledge(related to knowledge about performing a task). 4. Developing commitment while 'constructing' your own knowledge.

What is empathy? (The ability to u... and a... another p... f..., e..., etc.) -Can occur when we suspend... [our s...-m... f...s of a... and adopt a d...-m... f... of a...] -How is it different from sympathy [not u... what the p... is going through]? Pity [not feeling a...]? Being empathetic means feeling a c... with that person. What can huge declines in empathy recently be attributed to? -Smart phone usage The first step toward being empathetic is s... ... ... That 's...' often comes from mass media as news, persuasion, entertainment providing our introduction to ideas and people not yet encountered in person. -Marshall McLuhan's idea of a G.. V.. -> Media practitioners have at least some moral obligation in shaping how people s... and u... o... *Examples in mass media 1) Empathetic journalism providing accurate info that reinforces common humanity, the development of stronger community. Big problem in journalism? Journalists can forget that the people they cover, especially p... people who become news after v... or other m... are people whose p... can be made g... by how they are treated by news workers. 2) In PR empathy can tie together disparate publics, ease damage in a crisis when the organization you represent is perceived as both empathetic and worthy of empathy from other stakeholders. 3) In advertising empathy can be a way to connect a product to the potential audience. 4) Entertainment - creative works often offer first glimpses that people see into other people. Enhances our ability to empathize with other people, connect with someone larger than ourselves 5) Social media: Introducing people to other people and ideas unlike them, yet not cause social disconnect.

German word, 'feeling into.' Empathy is the ability to understand and appreciate another person's feelings, experience, etc. Empathy can occur when we suspend our single-minded focus of attention and instead adopt a double-minded focus on attention. A lack of empathy is the first step toward evil, whereas empathy is a first step to compassion. Different from sympathy: You can be sympathetic for someone yet not understand what the person is going through. Also is different from pity - while both are altruistic emotions, you can pity someone without feeling attached to that person. Being empathetic means feeling a connection with that person. Huge declines in measure of empathy along college students between 1979-2009, more extensive smartphone use may be contributing to declines in psychological well-being measures among teenagers. Ties into a long-understood thinking about empathy: The more we stay inside in our own groups, connecting and communicating only with people who share our views, the less likely we may feel empathetic toward people outside our own groups. The rise of social media makes it easy for people who are not full-time media practitioners to also 'use people' to get stories, or to sell to them, or to entertain others (a criticism of media workers) The first step toward being empathetic is seeing other people. That 'seeing' often comes from mass media, as news, persuasion, and entertainment provide our introduction to ideas and people not yet encountered in person. Using media to see the world makes us part of what Marshall McLuhan called a 'Global Village.' The introduction of radio in the 1920s, first one-to-many medium that brought people into intimate contact with one another. If most people learn about others through mass media, then it follows that media practitioners have at some moral obligation in shaping how people see and understand others. News workers: Empathetic journalism providing accurate info and commentary that reinforces through his/her storytelling the notion of common humanity and making possible, therefore, the development of stronger community. One of the hardest and often most accurate claims against journalists is they are not empathetic toward their sources and subjects of their stories. Journalists can forget that the people they cover, especially private people who become news after violence or other misfortune are people whose pain can be made greater by how they are treated by news workers.PR practitioners: like advertisers can misuse empathy when they are inauthentic, use people as means toward own ends ("Secret of success is sincerity. Once you fake that, you've got it made" has been attributed to many speakers). On the other hand, empathy used correctly can tie together disparate publics, and especially ease damage in a crisis when the organization you represent is perceived as both empathetic and worthy of empathy from other stakeholders. Advertising: Empathy can be a way to connect your product to the potential audience. But it can be misused when empathy become a tool to create a false connection whose only end is selling goods and services that may not be worthy of that audience. Entertainment: Recognizing that creative works often provide first glimpses that people see into other people. Fiction measurably enhances our abilities to empathize with other people and connect with something larger than ourselves" Social media: The virtue may lie in introducing people to other people and ideas that are unlike them, yet not cause social disconnect. Social media can bring us together and introduce us to others - or give us the forum to be hateful when we disagree with someone and say things we would be less likely to say in the physical presence of that other person. Social media are filled with internet tough guys who hide behind online personas, commenting on things without a deep understanding of those situations or people involved. But social media also bring the ability to support and rally around others we might otherwise not know.

Level 3: Post-conventional stage 5 (respecting rights) and 6 (justice seeking/conscience-driven) Not many people reach these higher stages that lead people to ? some l... and are driven by u... c... Individuals live by a social c... with others, a freely entered ... to f..., f..., t..., and w... o... - and to a ... ... (5) Contract is ut... in nature, focusing impartially on r..., l..., l..., d... p... for the g... n... COMBINING L... AND M... POV that often conflict, difficult to resolve. *Appeals to COE, general professional duties, and social contracts with stakeholders *Others might apply to the extent the person considers how to make general decisions based on their special professional roles. To the extent these arguments apply u... and regardless of any special p... r... reflect the FINAL STAGE. U... perspective, reached only by truly conscience-driven adult (6). 'R...' moral decisions are NOT MADE because of a..., or ... of p..., or p... p..., or c... to social standards. Emerge as self-chosen ethical principles. *Self-actualized respect for broad general p... of j..., d..., and h... r... Decision makers treat all people as ends in and of themselves. ONE IS NOT L...-B... WHEN L... VIOLATES THESE P... Moving from our professional or personal roles and thinking in universal terms about e...'s obligation to e... e... regardless of time, place, other variables. *Martin Luther King Jr. Summary of Kohlberg -At the pre-conventional level, do whatever the boss tells us to do because we're afraid we'll be ...? Do we make special deals with sources thinking they'll ...? -At the conventional level, do we strive hard not to ... the ..., thinking we need to go along with our colleagues, do whatever it takes to win ...? Do we follow rules, COE, merely because that's what ... ... are ... to do? -At the post-conventional level, do we find ourselves asking whether we're doing the right thing for s... in g..., rather than just for ourselves, co-workers, folks in immediate contact with? Base our decisions on freely-agreed upon m... p..., knowing the implications of adherence even if it entails breaking a c... r...? Criticisms of Kohlberg -Only used men and measured development levels by asking people to explain the reasons behind their decisions (original methodology was problematic). Can be morally developed without being able to fully explain yourself. -Primary focus on justice ignored more important ethical considerations. His focus on rational thinking came at expense of other considerations like the role emotions play in decision-making.

Level 3: Post-conventional stage 5 (respecting rights) and 6 (justice seeking/conscience-driven) Not many people reach these higher stages that lead people to question some laws and are driven by universal concerns (according to Kohlberg). At Stage 5, individuals live by a social contract with others, a freely entered commitment to friends, family, trust, and work obligations - and to a wider society. The contract is utilitarian in nature, focusing impartially on rights, life, liberty, due process, etc. for the greatest number. Persons at this stage combine LEGAL and MORAL points of view, perspectives that often conflict and are difficult to resolve. "Always abide by your craft's codes of ethics and pertinent laws" "Live up to your expectations and fulfill your professional duties" "Ought to abide by the social contracts you made with your sponsor, employer, family, community. Try mightily to reach a conclusion that will bring about the most good and least harm over long term" Several arguments with their appeals to codes of ethics, general professional duties, and social contracts with stakeholders. "Conscience should be your guide in both cases. Made tacit promises your sponsors and bosses, and everyone should always keep promises, regardless of consequences" "Conscience should be your guide in both cases. Cannot live in a community that is not completely honest and forthright or does not respect the notions of justice" "As a good person and competent professional, must resolve contradictions between your personal and professional roles. Must consider the need for bloggers and PR people - indeed all persons - to develop and abide by your professional norms and individual conscience" "As a good person and competent professional who has resolved contradictions between your personal and professional roles, should anticipate ways to minimize harm to all stakeholders. Can speak eloquently at meeting to say the company should find ways to stay open or at the very least treat everyone in the community equally by fully disclosing the company's plans now" "Decisions should be based on genuine caring and desire to maintain the greater community. As blogger, should consider whether to disclose your financial entanglements fully. As PR person, should consider whether to tell your family, local newspaper, other stakeholders that the plant will close soon" Others might also apply, to the extent that the person considers how to make general decisions based on their special professional roles. However, to the extent that these arguments apply universally and regardless of any special professional roles, those arguments reflect his final stage. Stage 6, with its universal perspective, is reached only by the truly conscience-driven adult. At this level, 'right' moral decisions are not made because of authority, or fear of punishment, or peer pressure, or conformity to social standards. Rather, they emerge as self-chosen ethical principles. People show self-actualized respect for broad general principles of justice, dignity, and human rights. In this stage, decision makers treat all people as ends in and of themselves. One is not law-bound when law violates these principles; one acts in accordance with the principles, knowing that to do so may mean having to pay the consequences. Once we moved beyond 'special circumstances' of our personal or professional roles and think in universal terms about everyone's obligations to everyone else, regardless of time, place, or other variables, we have moved to the most morally mature stage of development. The final argument reflects this post-conventional reasoning. *MLK, Letter from a Birmingham Jail (post-conventional moral choices): Arrested for breaking the city's draconian racial segregation laws, and from his cell he wrote one has a moral responsibility to break unjust laws. "An unjust law is no law at all" One who breaks an unjust law must do so openly, an individual who breaks a law that conscience tells him is unjust and who willingly accepts the penalty of imprisonment in order to arouse the conscience of the community over its injustice is in reality expressing highest respect for the law. Summary how Kohlberg's theory plays out in the real world of media work è At the pre-conventional level, do we do whatever the boss tells us to do because we're afraid we'll be penalized if we don't? Do we make special deals/promises with sources or clients, thinking that they'll look out for us if we do for them? è At the conventional level, do we strive hard not to rock the boat at work, thinking we need to go along to get along with our colleagues or do whatever it takes to win recognition or prizes? Do we follow the rules, COE, or other professional standards merely because that's what good workers are supposed to do? è At the post-conventional level, do we find ourselves asking whether we're doing the right thing for society in general, rather than just for ourselves, our co-workers, or folks we are in immediate contact with? Do we base our decisions on freely agreed-upon moral principles, knowing the implication of adhering to a substantive moral philosophy, even if it entails breaking a conventional rule?

Loyalty and moral development -Loyalty extends in an e...-w... a..., as do empathy and m... d... -It begins with loyalty to ..., then to people in a position to directly .../... (bosses, colleagues, subordinates, sources, subjects, clients), then to our p... and l... c..., then to ... and p... in general. -Lists by two leading media ethicists also reflect this arc: Loyalty to i... c..., objects of m... j..., to f... supporters, to the i..., to p... c..., and to s... -The development of loyalty mirrors the development of? BUT loyalty can be m... j... at each and every step Little to criticize about being loyal to yourself, especially if driven by s...-a..., s...-r..., and an articulated c... that considers the needs of o... CONSCIENCE IS NOT THE SAME AS EGOISM (I couldn't live with myself if I had done such and such!) It is appropriate to demonstrate loyalty to peer group, boss, people you rely upon to do your job well, so long as you have more than a non-moral, '... or ... ...' or '... for ...' relationship: A fixation on reciprocal loyalty (If you take ... of ..., I'll take ... of ...) reflects a pre-conventional stage of moral development. It is frequently obvious still in the contemporary media business world. When bosses aren't loyal, why should you be? you will likely have to work in more than one profession (many sets of bosses, colleagues throughout career). Given this, why make p... c... and why expect others to be c... to you? Why shouldn't your loyalties be t... and c...? -A pragmatic answer is that the more ... you show, the more likely ...? This may not be true, why? Moreover, the pragmatic answer is NOT ALWAYS the m... m... one. The better option is to display and feel loyalty to something greater than your i... s... *It is praiseworthy to demonstrate loyalty even in the abstract to people you ... ... ... and from cultures d... from your own.

Loyalty and Moral Development Loyalty expands in an ever-widening arc, as do empathy and moral development. It begins with loyalty to ourselves, then to people in a position to directly punish or reward us (bosses, colleagues, subordinates, sources, subjects, clients), then to our professional and local communities, then to society and posterity in general. Concentric circles of loyalty: Self -> People who can punish or help -> Professional/local communities -> Society and posterity in general The lists by two leading media ethicists reflect this arc, as they describe loyalty to individual conscience, loyalty to objects of moral judgment, loyalty to financial supporters, loyalty to the institution, loyalty to professional colleagues, and loyalty to society. In this sense, the development of loyalty mirrors the development of morality. HOWEVER - LOYALTY CAN BE MORALLY JUSTIFIED AT EACH AND EVERY STEP ALONG THE WAY. There is little to criticize about being loyal to yourself, especially if you are driven by self-awareness, self-respect, and an articulated conscience that considers the need of others. Conscience is not the same as egoism, as seen: I couldn't live with myself if I had done such and such! Similarly, it is appropriate to demonstrate loyalty to your peer group, boss, and people you rely upon to do your job well, so long as you have more than a non-moral 'use and be used' or 'tit for tat' relationship. A fixation on reciprocal loyalty - If you take care of me, I'll take care of you - reflects a pre-conventional stage of moral development. Kohlberg level 2! Nevertheless, it is frequently obvious in the contemporary media business world. Raise the issue: When your bosses aren't loyal, why should you be? If you are typical of today's college students and young adults, you'll likely have many employers, sets of bosses, and colleagues throughout your career. Indeed, you will likely have to work in more than one profession. Given this, why make permanent commitments, and why expect others to be committed to you? Why shouldn't your loyalties be tentative and conditional? A pragmatic anser is that the more loyalty you show, the more likely it is that others will be loyal to yu (It may not be true, as some companies lay off the longest-serving workers despite laws against age discrimination, because they may have the highest salaries). Moreover, the pragmatic answer is not always the morally mature one. Tough as it may be, the better option is to display - and to feel - loyalty to something GREATER THAN YOUR IMMEDIATE SURROUNDINGS. It is praiseworthy to demonstrate loyalty, even in the abstract, to people you may never meet and form cultures distinct from your own. "I want to leave my campsite better than I found it, out of loyalty to my grandchildren and people around the world who might be remotely affected by my carbon footprint."

Media Applications of ethics of care -C... ethic that seeks strong connection between individuals and the c... 1) At the pre-conventional stages, do we as media practitioners and media consumers perceive ourselves as v..., powerless in a world that imposes d... with no consideration of their i... on us? Do we treat sources, subjects, or audiences in the same vein, assuming they too are p...? Stereotyping and objectifying individuals and classes of society. 2) At the conventional level, is s...-s... rewarded? Do we media workers take on extra assignments for little or no additional c..., doing what we can to help our c.../s.../s..., all the while trying to balance the equally compelling demands of our own families and friends? 3) At the post-conventional level, do we focus on the broad goals of n... e..., including o..., by sustaining a constant community of persons who deserve to be cared for and cared about? Report stories that show community connectedness, stories of hope and nonviolence. Morality is not gender-based. Justice and care are closely connected characteristics of morally mature people. Should try to recognize i... (lack of justice) and v... (lack of care), which work against both parties in an unequal relationship. Ethics of justice proceeds from the premise of e... (treating everyone the same), ethics of care rests on premise of n... (no one should be hurt).

Media applications of ethics of care Media ethics scholars have adopted the theories of G and others as part of a communitarian ethic that seeks strong connection between individuals and the community. è At the pre-conventional stages, do we as media practitioners and media consumers perceive ourselves as victims, powerless in a world that imposes decisions with no consideration of their impact on us? Do we treat sources, subjects, or audiences in the same vein, assuming that they, too, are powerless? Do our entertainment programs and advertising and PR campaigns stereotype and objectify individuals or classes of society? è At conventional level, is self-sacrifice rewarded? Do we media workers take on extra assignments for little or no additional compensation, doing what we can to help our colleagues/subjects/sources, all the while trying to balance the equally compelling demands of our own families and friends? Do we feel guilty when our efforts fall short of our self-imposed expectations? Do entertainment and persuasion media continually depict characters and stakeholders as self-sacrificing, struggling to cope with mini-dramas of 10-30 seconds (ads) or 30 minutes (dramas)? è At the post-conventional level, do we focus on the broad goals of nurturing everyone, including ourselves, by sustaining a constant community of persons who deserve to be cared for and cared about? As journalists or documentarians, do we seek out and report stories that show community connectedness, stories of hope and nonviolence? As persuaders, do we try to move public opinion away from its fixation on all the big and little things that are going wrong, and shift it toward solutions that have more general value? G did not insist that morality is gender-based. She said that justice and care are closely connected characteristics of morally mature people. She said all should recognize and try to overcome inequality (lack of justice) and violence (lack of care), which work against both parties in an unequal relationship. FEMINIST ethics, focus on caring and community that goes beyond biological considerations. ETHIC OF JUSTICE PROCEEDS FROM PREMISE OF EQUALITY (EVERYONE TREATED THE SAME), ETHIC OF CARE RESTS ON PREMISE OF NONVIOLENCE (NO ONE SHOULD BE HURT).

The Four Components of Morality, James Rest 3. Moral motivation and commitment -How you prioritize your competing c..., v..., and l... against one another. For moral actions to occur, higher-level m... cl... must rise to the top of your p... Problems occur when you rank m... v... lower than others, such as v... like winning, meeting deadline, making a profit than treating people with respect, keeping promises, telling truth. -Young people do well to develop an i... m... i... and sense of rootedness in a c..., more mature people distinguish between and prioritize v..., develop a sense of p... m... i..., clarify beliefs that lead each individual to be an autonomous moral decision maker. *Even before exploring m... and non-m... v..., you have hard to sort through these already. Some are unabashedly moral like truth-telling/honesty, keeping promises/loyalty, or standing up for beliefs/courage. Others are non-moral, pragmatic, or craft-based v... like beating competition, earning more $, living a comfortable life, gain social recognition. Which v... motivated you? How did you resolve the conflicts between m... v...? 4. Moral character and implementation -E... strength, p..., b..., t..., strength of c..., c... Knowing what is right, and d... what is right are different. People may be morally sensitive, may make good moral judgments, and may place high priority on moral values. But people who w... under p..., easily d... or d..., w...-w..., fail when they lack this fourth component. Develop this treat by focusing on i... control, self-d..., resistance to p... p... More mature people develop self-r... and implement abilities needed for effective moral action. Skills in conflict resolution, interpersonal skills, active listening Find the S... AND DEVELOP s...-c... to do what they believe is right, even when it is not c..., e..., or for their own p... b... Now the rubber meet the road. No matter which argument posed, or theory or values had the most appeal, how sophisticated our reasoning process, the whole thing has just been a t... e... if we do not d... e... Actions speak louder than words.

Moral motivation and commitment considers how you prioritize your competing claims, values, and loyalties against one another. For moral actions to occur, higher-level moral claims must rise to the top of your priorities. Problems occur when you rank moral values lower than other values, such as when values like winning, meeting deadline, making a profit become more important than treating people with respect, keeping promises, telling the truth. Young people do well to develop an individual moral identity and sense of rootedness in a community. More mature people distinguish between and prioritize values, develop a professional moral identity, clarify the social contract that undergirds their profession, and clarify beliefs that lead each individual to be an autonomous moral decision maker. Even before exploring moral and non-moral values, you've had to sort through competing values. Some of those values are unabashedly moral, like truth telling/loyalty, keeping promises/loyalty, or standing up for beliefs/courage. Others tend to be non-moral, pragmatic, or craft-based values like beating the competition, earning more $, living a comfortable life, or gaining social recognition. Which values motivated you? How did you resolve the conflicts between multiple values - in particular, the values of loyalty and honesty, or honesty and money? These are all values with worthwhile claims to make, and it's up to us to choose among them. Moral character and implementation involves ego strength, perseverance, backbone, toughness, strength of conviction, and courage. Some scholars have quoted Plato, know the good is to do the good. Knowing what is right, and doing what is right, are different. People may be morally sensitive, may make good moral judgments, and may place high priority on moral values. But people who wilt under pressure, easily distracted or discouraged, weak-willed wimps, ultimately fail when they lack this fourth component of morality. Young people develop this ideal trait by focusing on impulse control, self-discipline, and resistance to peer pressure. More mature people develop self-regulation and implement abilities needed for effective moral action. They develop skills in conflict resolution, develop interpersonal skills, practice active listening, and have strong written and oral communication skills. Find the strength and develop the self-control to do what they believe is right, even when it is not convenient, easy, or for their own personal benefit. Now the rubber meets the road. No matter which argument we posed, no matter which theory or values had the most appeal, no matter how sophisticated our reasoning process, the whole thing has just been a theoretical exercise if we don't DO ETHICS. Our actions speak louder than our words.

The Four Components of Morality, James Rest 1. Moral sensitivity Being aware of how our actions a... o... Involves being aware of different possible lines of a... and how each line of a... could affect all p... c... Involves imaginatively constructing possible s..., and knowing c...-and-c... chains of events in the real world. Requires e... and r...-taking skills. To appropriately include one's emotional responses to repugnant situations. All of this is learned from training, through r... or h... s... to require us to identify and 'make v...' the situations of o..., and through peer meditation and conflict resolution. LOW LEVELS OF MORAL SENSTIVITY WHEN ARGUE FROM S...-I... Need to downplay p... a... in the calculus, using insights and incorporating theories of m... p... Necessary but insufficient. It is one thing to know that a m... i... exists, but another to find a st... that leads to a s... 2. Moral judgment Being aware of possible l... of a... and how different s... would be affected by each. Then judges which a... is more morally j... than others. Young people tend to distinguish right from wrong through s... r... More morally developed people can: -Learn p... r... and p... c... -State criteria for judging the a... of a moral argument -Distinguish w...-r... arguments from weaker ones -Make morally d... d... -Apply the ideals of great ... ... to current m... p... -Distinguish premises and conclusions of an argument -Understand distinctions between t... and v... in logical argument -Uncover unstated premises in argument -Test hypotheses s... -Identify m... a... of various m... t... -Apply m... t... to s... c... Weighing the pros and cons of various r..., rather than being satisfied with your initial thoughts. Retrospect, look at the arguments at the beginning and determine if they are less justifiable. Do latter arguments motivate you to think of an expanding number of s..., i... each of them might have in a final decision you might make. Noting logical and moral weaknesses in arguments. Noting how professional COE may or may not help you to make your own decisions.

Moral sensitivity involves the being aware of how our actions affect others. Involves being aware of different possible lines of action and how each line of action could affect all parties concerned. Involves imaginatively constructing possible scenarios, and knowing cause-and-consequence chains of events in the real world. Requires empathy and role-taking skills. Also involves seeing things more abstractly - from legal, institutional, and national perspectives - to develop interpretive abilities needed in life and work settings. Means being able to appropriately include one's emotional responses to repugnant situations. All this is learned from training, through real or hypothetical situations that require us to identify and 'make vivid' the situations of others, and through peer meditation and conflict resolution.Freedonia blogger and PR person demonstrate low levels of moral sensitivity when they argue from self-interest. Most arguments demonstrate an increasing degree of empathy, role-taking skills, and abstract reasoning. The final few show the blogger/PR practitioner downplaying their personal agendas in the calculus, using insights that incorporate theories of moral philosophy. Rest would applaud your efforts to look at these hypothetical cases from a variety of perspectives. You have been working on your moral sensitivity when you go beyond the simple, pat answer. Moral sensitivity is necessary but insufficient. It is one thing to know that a moral issue exists, but another thing to find a strategy that leads to a solution. Moral judgment entails being aware of possible lines of action and how different stakeholders would be affected by each decision. It then judges which action is more morally justifiable than others. Young people tend to distinguish right from wrong through society's rules. More morally developed people generally can: è Learn pertinent rules and professional codes è State criteria for judging the adequacy of a moral argument è Distinguish well-reasoned arguments from weaker ones è Make morally defensible decisions è Apply the ideals of great moral thinkers to current moral problems è Distinguish the premises and conclusions of an argument è Understand the distinctions between truth and validity in logical argument è Uncover unstated premises in an argument è Test hypotheses systematically è Identify the moral assumptions of various moral theories è Apply moral theories to specific cases Have you weighed the pros and cons of various resolutions to the case studies, or were you satisfied with your initial thoughts about what you would do? In retrospect, do the arguments at the beginning of the list seem less justifiable than the arguments near the end? Do the latter arguments motivate you to think of an expanding number of stakeholders, and the interests each of them might have in a final decision you would make? Do the professional COE help you choose, or do you have to make some of your own decisions, based on moral philosophy? Have you noted logical and moral weaknesses in any of the arguments?

*Intellectual and Ethical Development in Young Adults CATEGORY 1: DUALISM/RECEIVED KNOWLEDGE Position 1: Black and White: Students see the world as p... (we/right/good vs. other/wrong/bad). Everything has absolutely ... ... Authorities know these ... and teach them. Through hard work and obedience, students collect these ... and gain goodness. *Worrying about b... the ... or ... the boss or we worry about not ... c... and looking out for ... Position 2: Uncertainty as fraud or merely an exercise: Students recognize a d... in opinion and uncertainty, account for the ... as unwarranted c... in ... qualified Authorities, like a bad teacher. Or students might see questions as e... set by Authority. *Belenky: 'Silent' women who felt no connection to knowledge and its sources, soon recognized some women d.. to authority. Seeking g... through selflessness while pleasing others and following sex-role stereotypes. LITTLE AWARENESS of a centered ... or ... ... *We focus on promises of r... and the fuzziness of the dilemma, reflect a beginning of the relativistic process. Things are no longer ... and ..., but we're not sure what could replace that d...

Position 1: Black and White: Students see the world as polarized: we/right/good vs. other/wrong/bad. Everything has absolutely right answers. Authorities know these absolutes and to teach them to students. Through hard work and obedience (like passing a spelling test), students 'collect' these absolutes and gain goodness. "Should not take money unless follow govt. rules that say the public should know you were paid (even if you think those rules violate your right to free speech), you may be breaking the law and could get caught." "Should absolutely abide by managers' request for silence, they are your bosses and you are powerless to do otherwise." We worry about breaking the law or obeying the boss. We worry about breaking the law or obeying the boss. "You can safely assume that - if you are careful - you will not get caught or punished, regardless of decision" "Primary motivation should be to 'look after No. 1' you have worked hard to make this blog profitable, and as the PR person, have no assurance that anyone else will look after you." We worry about not getting caught and looking out for ourselves. The black-and-white world often defined by our authority figures, who seem to expect our obedience. Disobedience entails risk. Position 2: Uncertainty as fraud or merely an exercise: Students recognize a diversity of opinion and uncertainty, and they account for the diversity as unwarranted confusion in poorly qualified Authorities, such as a bad teacher. Or students might see questions as exercises set by Authority, "so we can learn to find The Answer by ourselves.' Often begins in English class, where people disagree about a poem's meaning. According to students in this position, math and science teachers seem to 'see' more clearly, and teach more effectively than English or philosophy teachers. Belenky's low level describes 'silent' women who felt no connection to knowledge and its sources, but soon recognized that some women defer to authority. Women at this stage seek gratification through selflessness while pleasing others and following sex-role stereotypes. They have little awareness of a centered self or unique voice. "Generally follow the company's wishes. After all, the company treated you well in the past, and your bosses implied that you would be rewarded for cooperating" "Relativistic world - everything is uncertain, no single satisfactory resolution to any of dilemmas, all just depends" We focus on promises of rewards and the fuzziness of the dilemma, reflect a beginning of the relativistic process. Things are no longer black and white, but we're not sure what should replace that duality. Authority figures aren't as authoritative as we previously thought.

ETHICS OF CARE: People move from a care of ... to a care of ... to a final, mature level of integrating the care of ... and ... -In a pattern that shows pre-conventional, conventional, and post conventional morality. Position 1: S... (orientation to i... s... and p...) Concerned solely with h..., a ... she perceives as powerless. Goal is p... h... and avoiding p... h... Position 2: Goodness as giving to ... (self-s...). Person begins the transition from s... to r... 'Being good' entails s... herself for the good of ... Since she perceives herself as good if she is being a good c..., she considers herself responsible for the actions of ... *Doing what it takes to be a good team player. Be willing to do whatever it takes to help your children and immediate family to survive (PR practitioner example, sacrifice as PR person for family). Position 3: Giving becomes a more s..., g... responsibility, and includes one's o... w... (non...). Moral agent no longer troubled by a perceived conflict of caring for ... or caring for ... Obligation to care for A... P..., automatically includes the s... The person accepts non... as the ultimate principle; being moral means minimizing ... and p... for everyone. See a transition from goodness to truth. Non..., u... caring perspective. Resolve conflicts between 'care of s...' and 'care of o...' Competent professional can be proactive and seek to minimize harm before it occurs.

Position 1: Selfishness (orientation to individual survival): A person at this stage is concerned solely with herself, a self she perceives as powerless. The goal is personal happiness and avoiding personal hurt. "Should absolutely abide by managers' request for silence, they are your bosses and you are powerless to do otherwise." "Primary motivation should be to 'look after No. 1' you have worked hard to make this blog profitable, and as the PR person, have no assurance that anyone else will look after you." Arguments most representative of the 'individual survival' and 'powerlessness'. Several other justifications imply some selfishness and deference to authority. Position 2: Goodness as giving to others (self-sacrifice). Here, a person begins the transition from selfishness to responsibility. 'Being good' entails sacrificing herself for the good of others. Since she perceives herself as good if she is being a good caretaker, she considers herself responsible for the actions of others. "Generally do whatever it takes to be a good team player at work and not rock the boat, even if it means sacrificing some of your own self-interests" "Generally follow the company's wishes. After all, the company treated you well in the past, and your bosses implied that you would be rewarded for cooperating" Clearest example: doing whatever it takes to be a good team player. Another argument that appears to reflect, with its implications of some sacrifice as the PR Person. Several arguments suggest that as the PR person you should be willing to do whatever it takes to help your children and immediate family to survive the plant's closing. Position 3: Giving becomes a more social, global responsibility, and includes one's own welfare (nonviolence). At this level, the moral agent is no longer troubled by a perceived conflict of caring for self or caring for others. Once obligation to care for ALL PERSONS is understood, it automatically includes the self. The person accepts nonviolence as the ultimate principle; being moral means minimizing harm and pain for everyone. We see a transition from 'goodness' to truth. Nonviolent, universal caring perspective. Resolve the conflicts between 'care of self' and 'care of others.' The competent professional can be proactive and seek to minimize harm before it occurs.

*Intellectual and Ethical Development in Young Adults CATEGORY 2: MULTIPLICITY/SUBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE Position 3: Uncertainty is temporary Students accept d... and uncertaintyy as being l... but still temporary in areas where the Authority 'hasn't ... the answer ...' Think Authorities grade them in areas of 'good e...' but students remain puzzled about s... being applied. *We accept - but do not fully ... ... - the relativistic perspective. Not sure how much to ... on authority figures. Fairly uncomfortable. Position 4: Some things are a matter of opinion, but others are certain Students perceive l... uncertainty (therefore d... of opinion) to be excessive, and begin to think that the world is not divided between ... and ..., but into two realms: one where everyone has ... ... ..., and another where ... and ... remain certain. *Belenky, women at this level begin to see truth as s... and p... Doubt external, male authority. Multiple p... truths emerge, derived from the small voice within. People turn from others and from the past and have a new sense of powerful i... Forge new rules and boundaries for relationships, though may have few tools to express themselves or persuade others. SHAPING AND DIRECTING o... their o..., may break old relationships to seek new turf independently. However their journey toward independence may not be grounded in an integrated and enduring ...-c.... *In the working world, we're entitled to our own opinion even if that opinion is egoistic and based on as much I feel as I think. It makes sense to pander to people who can h... us, or those with whom we have sp... r... We make decisions solely in our b... i...

Position 3: Uncertainty is temporary: Students accept diversity and uncertainty as being legitimate but still temporary in areas where the Authority 'hasn't found the Answer yet.' Students think Authority grades them in these areas on 'good expression,' but students remain puzzled about the standards being applied. The clouds begin to spread to social sciences, as Authority doesn't have all the answers yet. It is scary when the physics teacher says, 'We don't know yet.' "Generally follow the company's wishes. After all, the company treated you well in the past, and your bosses implied that you would be rewarded for cooperating" "Relativistic world - everything is uncertain, no single satisfactory resolution to any of dilemmas, all just depends" We accept - but don't fully buy into - the relativistic perspective. We're not sure how much to rely upon our authority figures. This is a fairly uncomfortable position to be in. Position 4: Some things are a matter of opinion, but others are certain: Students perceive legitimate uncertainty (and therefore diversity of opinion) to be excessive, and begin to think that the world is not divided between right and wrong, but into two realms: one where everyone has their own opinion, and another where right and wrong remain certain. Students may realize that lit or art can be interpreted from many valid perspectives, but they still say that scientific principles are fixed. Belenky, women at this level begin to see truth as subjective and personal. Begin to doubt external authority, particularly male authority. Multiple personal truths emerge, intuitively derived from the still, small voice within. People turn from others and from the past and have a new sense of powerful intuitions. Begin to assert authority and autonomy, and forge new rules and boundaries for relationships, although they may have few tools to express themselves/persuade others. Also, women may insist on shaping and directing on their own. They may break old relationships - marriages, family ties - to seek new turf independently. Trust their intuitions and have a newfound energy and openness to novelty. Their journey toward independence, however, may not be grounded in an integrated and enduring self-concept. They may take out their frustration on others -particularly men. 'Going it alone' has consequences many of them negative. But this stage provides a logical transition from the subjectivists' reliance on outside authority figures to the development of a truly integrated voice. "Generally follow the company's wishes. After all, the company treated you well in the past, and your bosses implied that you would be rewarded for cooperating" "Relativistic world - everything is uncertain, no single satisfactory resolution to any of dilemmas, all just depends" "Owe special allegiance to family, so justified in telling them and only them of plant closing" "Disclose the demise to anyone who would be in a position to help you if or when you lose your job" In the working world, we're entitled to our own opinion, even if that opinion is egoistic and based as much on 'I feel' as 'I think.' It makes sense to pander to people who can help us, or those with whom we have special relationships. We make decisions that are solely in our best interest.

*Intellectual and Ethical Development in Young Adults CATEGORY 3: RELATIVISM/PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE Position 5: All is relative Students perceive all knowledge/values (even Authority's) as viewed in c... C... r... means is relative but not equally v...d Theories are not ... but m... with which to interpret data. Dawns on students that there is a relationship between validity of opinions and data to support them. Some return to d... or escape responsibility to become d..., doing what they need to get by. Most do recover from emotional crisis. (Begin to think about our own ...) *We don't know what the 'c...' ... is, but some tentative answers seem to make more sense than others. However, in our discomfort, we may revert to comfortable d... of some earlier responses and the f... r...answers. Or may throw our hands up and say What the heck? Position 6: Orientation to a relativistic, uncertain world Students recognize that even in a place where there are several i... of the world, some positions may be c... for them. Realize the necessity of getting o... in a relativistic world through some form of p... c... Realize the decision is ultimately ..., the agency of choice lies w... Authorities become ... or ... for students to tentatively rely upon. *Belenky, separate and connected knowing What is separate knowing (cr... t... and d... the word of others). Emerges from own experiences and relationships that are r..., l..., t...-minded. Assume everyone including themselves may .... ...; they are s... of ideas that 'feel right' Connected knowing (e... and sustained ca... relationships are valued on their own terms. Rely on historical and personal events to seek uniqueness, complexity, connections. Capacity to listen deeply to others provides many insights. See others not in ... ... terms, but in the ... terms. *Overall both separate and connected knows tend to be oriented away from 'the ...' Accommodate either o... knowledge or knowledge gained from c... with others. Not yet a single, unified v... *Still OK with the relativistic arguments, but with an increasing awareness that ultimately, it's up to ... to ... We're not expecting our bosses or COE to s... our problem, eventually though it will need to be s...

Position 5: All is relative: Students perceive all knowledge and values (including Authority's) as viewed in context. Contextual relativism means is relative but not equally valid. You begin to understand how each context works. Theories are not Truth but metaphors with which to interpret data. You think about your thinking. It dawns on students that there is a relationship between the validity of opinions and data to support them. Wonder and despair. Crisis. Some return to dualism with vehemence. Some escape responsibility to become drifters, just doing what they must to get by. Most recover from emotional crisis and go on. We don't know what the 'correct' answer is, but some tentative answers seem to make more sense than others. However, in our discomfort, we may revert to the comfortable dogmatism of our earliest responses: "Should not take money unless follow govt. rules that say the public should know you were paid (even if you think those rules violate your right to free speech), you may be breaking the law and could get caught." "Should absolutely abide by managers' request for silence, they are your bosses and you are powerless to do otherwise." "You can safely assume that - if you are careful - you will not get caught or punished, regardless of decision" and the fuzzy relativistic answers: "Primary motivation should be to 'look after No. 1' you have worked hard to make this blog profitable, and as the PR person, have no assurance that anyone else will look after you." "Generally follow the company's wishes. After all, the company treated you well in the past, and your bosses implied that you would be rewarded for cooperating" "Relativistic world - everything is uncertain, no single satisfactory resolution to any of dilemmas, all just depends" "Owe special allegiance to family, so justified in telling them and only them of plant closing" "Disclose the demise to anyone who would be in a position to help you if or when you lose your job" Or we might just throw our hands up and ask, 'What the heck?' Position 6: Orientation to a relativistic, uncertain world: Students recognize that even in a place where there are several interpretations in the world, some positions may be correct for them. They realize the necessity of getting oriented in a relativistic world through some form of personal commitment (as distinct from unquestioned or unconsidered commitment to a simple belief in uncertainty). Realize the decision is ultimately personal, and the agency for choice lies within. At this point, Authorities become resources or mentors for the students to tentatively rely upon. Belenky, takes form of 'separate' and 'connected' knowing. Critical thinking and doubting the word of others are at the heart of separate knowing, while empathy and care are essential for connected knowing. Separate knowing emerges from your own experiences and relationships that are reciprocal, logical, and tough-minded. Separate knowers assume that everyone including themselves may be wrong; they are suspicious of ideas that 'feel right' and critical examine ideas. In connected knowing, empathy and sustained caring relationships are valued on their own terms. Connected knowers rely on historical and personal events to seek uniqueness, complexity, and connections. Their capacity to listen deeply to others provides many insights. See others not in their own terms, but in the others' terms. Separate and connected knowing may not be gender-specific, although evidence suggests men are more likely to be doubters and women more likely to be believers. Believing feels real to women (genuine care and because it promises to reveal the kind of truth they value - truth that is personal, particular, grounded in firsthand experience). Connected knowers refuse to judge, seeking rather to understand and collaborate in nurturing groups. Overall, both S and C knowers tend to be oriented away from 'the self.' Accommodate either objective knowledge or knowledge gained from connections with others. Do not yet have a single, unified 'voice.' "Primary motivation should be to 'look after No. 1' you have worked hard to make this blog profitable, and as the PR person, have no assurance that anyone else will look after you." "Generally follow the company's wishes. After all, the company treated you well in the past, and your bosses implied that you would be rewarded for cooperating" "Relativistic world - everything is uncertain, no single satisfactory resolution to any of dilemmas, all just depends" "Owe special allegiance to family, so justified in telling them and only them of plant closing" "Disclose the demise to anyone who would be in a position to help you if or when you lose your job" Still OK with the relativistic arguments, but with an increasing awareness that ultimately, it's up to us to decide. We're not expecting our bosses or our codes of ethics to solve our problem, but eventually it will need to be solved.

*Intellectual and Ethical Development in Young Adults CATEGORY 4: COMMITMENT/CONSTRUCTED KNOWLEDGE Position 7: Commitment is begun Students make an i... commitment in some area. Sense the necessity of n... o..., of giving up the freedom to choose and/or do absolutely nothing. Causes some grief. Then they realize the expansion can lie within the chosen field of commitment. *No longer comfortable with a fuzzy, relativistic response. Begin to turn to a general t... f... for guidance. May be not rocking the boat or invocation of codes, laws, statutes. Not appeals to ..., but to something over and above our ...-... Position 8: Implications of commitment explored Students experience the implications of commitment, explore the subjective and stylistic issues of responsibility. Must decide how widely to s... t..., how f... they should be. Realize they have a number of ... commitments, may develop a sense of irony regarding implication of multiple commitments. *We recognize that we have several commitment, so we might balance those by tentatively '... ...' one or more of the morally mature perspectives - adhering to self-chosen duties, or a social contract, or relying on an examined conscience. Position 9: Commitment lived Students experience the a... of i... among multiple responsibilities and realize commitments as on..., un..., c... e... activity through which they express their lifestyle. May try to maintain c... in life and commitments, recognize that change is constant. *Arguments no longer '... ...,' but committed to. Last argument especially as it entails to justice, and willingness to expose that commitment to the test of publicity. If we made a legitimate commitment that helps us resolve these specific moral problems, that commitment should be g... to other problems on other days. It speaks to who we are. *Belenky, Constructed knowledge used by women at the highest stage of development. Developed an integrated and i... v... Have successfully grappled with pieces of themselves that seemed to be fragmented and contradictory. In media, journey of a young person going from a silent victim to a fully integrated, moral voice. The reluctant comfort of working a highly structured, autocratic moralizing workplace. Test inner voice as growing more independent. Then base judgments on reason, looking and listening hard before taking anything for granted from colleagues, superiors, sources, etc. Balance judgements based on justice and with notions of care. A fully integrated knower. Truly caring for and caring about.

Position 7: Commitment is begun: Students make an initial commitment in some area. They sense the necessity of narrowing options, of giving up the 'freedom' to choose and/or do absolutely nothing. This causes some grief. But then they realize the expansion that can lie deep within the chosen field of commitment. "Generally do whatever it takes to be a good team player at work and not rock the boat, even if it means sacrificing some of your own self-interests" "Always abide by your craft's codes of ethics and pertinent laws" No longer comfortable with a fuzzy, relativistic response, we begin to turn to a general, theoretical framework for guidance. It may be the first argument's appeal to not rocking the boat, or the second's invocation of codes, laws, or statures. These are not appeals to authority, but to something over and above our self-interest. Position 8: Implications of commitment explored: Students experience the implications of commitment, and they explore the subjective and stylistic issues of responsibility. They must decide how widely to spread themselves; how focused they should be. Students realize they have a number of simultaneous commitments, and may develop a sense of irony regarding the implications of multiple commitments. "Live up to your expectations and fulfill your professional duties" "Ought to abide by the social contracts you made with your sponsor, employer, family, community. Try mightily to reach a conclusion that will bring about the most good and least harm over long term" "Conscience should be your guide in both cases. Made tacit promises your sponsors and bosses, and everyone should always keep promises, regardless of consequences" "Conscience should be your guide in both cases. Cannot live in a community that is not completely honest and forthright or does not respect the notions of justice" "As a good person and competent professional, must resolve contradictions between your personal and professional roles. Must consider the need for bloggers and PR people - indeed all persons - to develop and abide by your professional norms and individual conscience" "As a good person and competent professional who has resolved contradictions between your personal and professional roles, should anticipate ways to minimize harm to all stakeholders. Can speak eloquently at meeting to say the company should find ways to stay open or at the very least treat everyone in the community equally by fully disclosing the company's plans now" "Decisions should be based on genuine caring and desire to maintain the greater community. As blogger, should consider whether to disclose your financial entanglements fully. As PR person, should consider whether to tell your family, local newspaper, other stakeholders that the plant will close soon" "Should show strength of conviction by openly disclosing your decision-making processes, regardless of your decision. Believe your clients, company, and community should be morally sensitive, make defensible moral judgements, and act out of articulated values that demonstrate motivation and commitment. The bottom line: Your decisions should pass the test of publicity" Many of the ideas raised above can apply. We recognize that we have several commitments, so we might balance those commitments by tentatively 'trying on' one or more of the morally mature perspectives - adhering to self-chosen duties, or a social contract, or relying on an examined conscience. Position 9: Commitment lived: Students experience the affirmation of identity among multiple responsibilities and realize commitment as an ongoing, unfolding, constantly evolving activity through which they express their lifestyle. May try to maintain continuity in life and commitments, but they recognize that change is constant. "Should show strength of conviction by openly disclosing your decision-making processes, regardless of your decision. Believe your clients, company, and community should be morally sensitive, make defensible moral judgements, and act out of articulated values that demonstrate motivation and commitment. The bottom line: Your decisions should pass the test of publicity" Same arguments for position 8, but these arguments are not just 'tried on,' but committed to. Last argument is probably appropriate, it entails a commitment to caring or justice, and a willingness to expose that commitment to the test of publicity. If we made a legitimate commitment that helps us resolve these specific moral problems, that commitment should be generalized to other problems on other days, because it speaks to who we are. Belenky, constructed knowledge is used by women at the highest stage of development. Each has developed an integrated and individual voice. Women in this stage have successfully grappled with the pieces of themselves that seemed to be fragmented and contradictory. They deal comfortably with ambiguity and conflicting role-based responsibilities, integrating rather than compartmentalizing thought and feeling, home and work, self and other. Open-minded, seeing truth in context, with rational rather than blind reliance upon 'experts' and authority. Care for and care about at the highest levels fo moral development. Conversation includes discourse and exploration, talking and listening, questions, argument, speculation, and sharing. Believe in commitment and action. Ultimately, they listen to their own voices. And they want those voices to be heard and heeded. We can apply Belenky to media work: The journey of a young person - a young woman - could take from being a silent victim to having a fully integrated, moral voice. Would note the comfort (reluctant, perhaps) she might feel while working in a highly structured, autocratic, moralizing workplace. We would then watch her begin to test her inner voice as she grows more independent. She might then base her judgments on reason, looking and listening hard before taking anything for granted from her colleagues, superiors, sources, clients. She could integrate - or struggle with - notions of separate and connected learning. She could balance judgments based on justice and with notions of care. Ultimately, she might become a fully integrated knower: an open-minded, rational, highly competent communicator who truly cares for and cares about others. The argument seen show steady progression from silent powerlessness to fully integrated, open-minded caring and justice seeking.

Stereotypes and Archetypes 1) Stereotypes -Media's power brings responsibility; it is easy for communicators to actively ignore or mistakenly overlook groups without power. Or depict them in ways that do not m... r... or perpetuate stereotypes. *We do not have the time nor mental capacity to think through every situation and every person/group we encounter. We develop schemas - q... j... based upon our p... e... or u..., some of which come through MEDIA PRIMING AND FRAMING. Problem is when stereotypes become unthinkingly a... or o... b... about the characteristics of members of a particular groups, which are represented as f... by N... *Stereotyping fixes d... among groups, excludes what does not fit in the stereotype, occurs when there are gross i... of p... *Stereotypes define for us what we think about g... c..., including how individual people in groups share s... t... and how those groups are p... by other parts of society. Also particularly problematic because they most frequently come from o... the c..., framed in a... t... without acknowledging i... d..., often overly s..., more frequently n... Even positive stereotypes can be bad when they put p... on group members to l... u... to the stereotype. *The word has a media history: metal plate of an image that was attached to a printing press, a photocopy. Saves time over handwriting each copy, ethically neutral. *You recognize stereotypes instantly: Girls play with dolls, boys like trucks. Journalists are unethical snoops. While these things may sometimes be true, they are not always and do not reflect ALL boys, girls, media practitioners. Can be dangerous - leave us prone to b... May highlight some info yet ignore more important info, and we make conclusions that r... what we already believe. *While people of p... may be more likely to have stereotypes and have the power to p... them, no one is free from b..., p..., j... Even if a member of the group often misunderstood or inaccurately portrayed in the media, even if you fit in a category of people who may seem to be typically victims and not perpetrators of a... and stereotypes - not exempt from b... Media practitioners must be aware of their own b... - and work to consciously not p... b... in their work. Skewed media representations can not only promote p... h... toward other ethnic groups but also lower ethnic minority individuals' s...-e... *Privilege [classroom example: White people in North America live in a society that is deeply s... and u... by race, and white people are the b... of that s... and i... As a result, we are insulated from r... s..., at the same time we come to feel e... to and deserving our advantage.]

Stereotypes and Archetypes Media's power brings responsibility. It is easy for communicators to actively ignore or mistakenly overlook groups without power - or to depict them in ways that do not match reality or perpetuatestereotypes.We do not have the time or mental capacity to think through every situation and every person or group we encounter. As a result, we develop schemas- quick judgments based upon our past experiences or understanding, some of which come through MEDIA PRIMING AND FRAMING!The problem is when stereotypes become unthinkinglyautomaticor'overgeneralized beliefs about the characteristics of members of a particular group, which are represented as fixed by Nature.' Stereotyping fixes difference among groups, excludes what does not fit the stereotype, and occurs where there are GROSS INEQUALITIES OF POWER.Stereotypes define for us what we think about group characteristics, including how individual people in groups sharesimilar traits, andhow those groups are perceived by other partsof society. They also are particularly problematic because they 'most frequently come fromoutside the culture, are framed in absolute terms without acknowledging individual differences, are often overly simplistic, and are most frequently negative.' Even positive stereotypes can bebadwhen they put pressure on group members to live up to the stereotype.The word stereotype has a media history, as it was themetal plate of an image that was attached to a printing press.(Photocopy). A copy certainly saves time over handwriting each copy. And photocopies are ethically neutral - they can help you send wonderful resume to potential employers eager to hire you if they only knew you, or photocopies can spread child pornography or copyrighted materials.You recognize stereotypes instantly: Girls play with dolls, boys like trucks. Journalists are unethical snoops. While these things may be sometimes true, they are not always true and certainly do not reflect all girls, boys, or media practitioners. Stereotypes are DANGEROUS because theyleave us prone to bias. S may highlight some info yet ignore more important info, and we make conclusions that reinforce what we already believe. Privilege: All-white classroom of young men and women where students led sessions: Each leader chose an 'icebreaker' to get students talking, and one chose this: If you could choose a decade from the 20th century to live in, which would you choose? Some said 1940s (sense of national purpose during WW2), and the 80s (music and movies). The professor stopped class, But what decade would you choose if you were not a white person in America? Class discussion changed. Many could not think of an answer. Students had an insight into white privilege. Began to understand (Robert DiAngelo): White people in NA live in a society that is deeply separate and unequal by race, and white people are the beneficiaries of that separation and inequality. As a result, we are insulated from racial stress, at the same time we come to feel entitled to and deserving our advantage. While people of privilege may be more likely to have stereotypes and have the power to perpetrate them, Sue Ellen Christian reminds us... No one is free from biases and prejudices and judgments. No one. So if you happen to be a member of the group often misunderstood or inaccurately portrayed in the media - even if oyu fit into a category of people who may seem to be typically victims and not perpetrators of assumptions and stereotypes - you are not exempt from biases. We are all human with the same wiring in our brains. Important reminder: Media practitioners must be AWARE of their own biases - and work to consciously not perpetuate biases in their work. It can be difficult in the best of circumstances, given the need for communicators to pare down info and create stories that are quickly understood by their audiences. Mistakes bring a cost to society: Skewed media representations can not only promote public hostility toward other ethnic groups but also lower ethnic minority individuals' self-esteem.

The Four Components of Morality, James Rest One thing to do 'above the neck' ethics work to reach a decision; something different to do 'below the neck' work to act upon a decision. Both Gilligan and Kohlberg were right and wrong. Consider care and justice, but those moral attributes should be considered t... and not as a... s... that develop along different pathways. Right to seek variables that determine moral decision making, but wrong in presuming a ...-and-... relationship between moral sophistication or decision-making skills on the one hand and actual m... b... on the other. *Some people show advanced moral reasoning skills BUT STILL BEHAVE in e... w... The disconnect between r... and b... Defining Issues Test (DIT), simpler way to measure moral development. Responses to case studies to assess differences in moral judgment across a wide range of p... g... and without g... b... Provides more information about S... (the shifting distributions among/between stages and variables) THAN r... s... (Kohlberg). What must actually occur for a moral action to occur? FOUR-COMPONENT SCHEMA FOCUSES ON... 1. M... S... - How do our actions affect others? How aware are we of the consequences of our behavior? How much empathy do we display? How sophisticated are our 'role-taking' skills as we put ourselves in the shoes of others? 2. M... J... - Faced with choices, which line of action is more morally justifiable? 3. M... M... AND C... - How do various values compete with one another? Can we effectively sift and sort through the competing moral and non-moral values? 4. M... C... AND I... - What kind of job do we do in walking the walk, having ego strength, perseverance, backbone, toughness, strength of conviction, and moral courage?

The Four Components of Morality (Expands K's focus to the importance of motivations and actions) It is one thing to do 'above the neck' ethics work to reach a decision. It is something different to do the 'below the neck' work to act upon a decision. James Rest integrating various theories of moral development for decades. Both G and K were right and wrong. They were right to consider care and justice, but those moral attributes should be considered together not as 'alternative sequences that develop along different pathways with different endpoints.' They were right to seek variables that determined moral decision making, but wrong in presuming a cause-and-effect relationship between moral sophistication or decision-making skills on the one hand and actual moral behavior on the other.Had other major concerns: Some people show advanced moral reasoning skills by scoring high on K's scale, yet they still behave in evil ways. The disconnect between reasoning and behaving needed more investigation. Women could focus on justice at least as much as men, which brings some of G's thinking into question.Moved beyond the distinction between cognitive (thinking) and affective (emotional) realms. Created a simpler way to measure moral development than previous researchers with the Defining Issues Test (DIT), uses responses to case studies to assess differences in moral judgment across a wide range of professional groups and without gender bias. K's stage and sequence theory uses fairly rigid steps. The DIT provides more information about schema, in the shifting distributions among/between stages and variables of moral development. Asks the question, What must occur for a moral action to occur? Eclectic agenda than other moral psychologists: Their four-component schema focuses on 1. Moral sensitivity - How do our actions affect others? How aware are we of the consequences of our behavior? How much empathy do we display? How sophisticated are our 'role-taking' skills as we put ourselves in the shoes of others? 2. Moral judgment - Faced with choices, which line of action is more morally justifiable? 3. Moral motivation and commitment - How do various values compete with one another? Can we effectively sift and sort through the competing moral and non-moral values? 4. Moral character and implementation - What kind of job do we do in walking the walk, having ego strength, perseverance, backbone, toughness, strength of conviction, and moral courage?

The question is not merely whether we should be loyal. The answer is obvious: We should factor loyalty somewhere in our m.. d... m... -It is a key to finding out who ..., who ..., and where on the win/loss c... the ... .... might ... The problem occurs when multiple parties have a le... cl... on our loyalty. *Ask yourself: To whom do you owe your p... l..., and to whom do you owe s... l...? Important to define the conflicting loyalties BEFORE reaching a conclusion about dilemma. -What explicit and implicit promises have you made to be a 'good worker?' In a broader sense, what is expected of you by virtue of needing to put food on table, or by being a p..., s..., f..., member of a w... c...? IT IS TEMPTING TO ANSWER THESE ?S WITH AN EYE TOWARD S...-T... C... AND T... C... You'll find yourself concerned with how these individuals have been to one another, and what temporary effects a given decision might have on those relationships. Will your website incur any immediate benefits or setbacks because made nice with a particular restaurant? Will you and the marketing company have a better relationship? As a PR practitioner for a plant that may be closing, what immediate good derives from doing what your boss tells you to do? What do your children and your sister's family gain or lose if you keep quiet about the plant's closing, or if you only tell them? What difference does it make in your relationships, tonight or tomorrow? BUT LOYALTY TAKES A DIFFERENT HUE WHEN YOU USE A W... L... WHEN ASKING AND ANSWERING THESE ?S -> WHAT DO ALL BLOGGERS AND PR PEOPLE - ANY MASS COMMUNICATOR - O... ALL OF THEIR A...? In general, how do professionals balance s...-i... against p... i...? What would happen to notions of t... if all communicators blurred the lines between i... and p... and withheld crucial info from stakeholders? More specifically, media practitioners should ask themselves whether their loyalties impeded their ability to s... the n... of the g... c... *How tightly must you feel loyal to people you deal with regularly (bosses, clients, sources) in order also to have loyalty to the g... c...? If a journalist does not show some degree of loyalty to a source, that journalist may not be in a position to report a story that's important to the public. Or if a persuasion practitioner doesn't show some loyalty to a client, then that client will likely find another firm...

The question is not merely whether we should be loyal. The answer is obvious: We should factor loyalty somewhere in our moral decision making. It is a key to finding out who wins, who loses, and where on the win/loss continuum the best resolution might lie. The problem occurs when multiple parties have a legitimate claim on our loyalty. Case studies: To whom to do you owe primary loyalty, and to whom do you owe secondary loyalties? It is important to define the conflicting loyalties before reaching a conclusion about your professional and personal dilemma. What is expected of you by virtue of needing to put food on your table and a roof over your head, or by being a parent, sibling, friend, and member of wider community? Similarly, by virtue of being an independent blogger or working for the paper company, what explicit and implicit promises have you made to be a 'good worker?' It is tempting to answer these questions with an eye toward short-term commitments and temporary consequences. When doing so, you'll find yourself concerned with how these individuals have been to one another, and what temporary effects a given decision might have on those relationships. Will your website incur any immediate benefits or setbacks because made nice with a particular restaurant? Will you and the marketing company have a better relationship? As a PR practitioner for a plant that may be closing, what immediate good derives from doing what your boss tells you to do? What do your children and your sister's family gain or lose if you keep quiet about the plant's closing, or if you only tell them? What difference does it make in your relationships, tonight or tomorrow? Loyalty, however, takes a different hue when you use a wider lens when asking and answering these questions. What do ALL bloggers and PR people - any mass communicator for that matter - owe all of their audiences? In general, how do professionals balance self-interest against public interest? What would happen to notions of trust if ALL COMMUNICATORS blurred the lines between info and persuasion and withheld crucial info from stakeholders? More specifically, media practitioners should ask themselves whether their loyalties impede their ability to serve the needs of the general community. Are reporters showing more loyalty to their news sources than they are to the public? Are they inevitably biased by their political/religious/gender/demographic characteristics - even their sense of patriotism? Do PR spokespersons spin their internal and external communications to ignore data or claims by anyone except the clients who pay them? Are market-driven news and entertainment media ignoring minority interests, pandering to the lowest common denominator? Are advertisers promoting products and causes in ways that overstate their good qualities and ignore the potential for harm? Are entertainment media more focused on ratings and money than on the effects their programming might have on children? And how tightly must you feel loyal to people you deal with regularly - such as sources, bosses, or clients - in order also to have loyalty to the general community? (Put another way: If a journalist does not show some degree of loyalty to a source, that journalist may not be in a position to report a story that's important to the public. Or if a persuasion practitioner doesn't show some loyalty to a client, then that client will likely find another firm.

History of Loyalty... Root of word loyalty go back to Latin word meaning ... -Ancient considerations less focused on e... than on l...: people not loyal to the King/God were ... the ... a) Days of Old Testament (loyalty to God was n..., disloyalty was p..., loyalty to one's family and tribe was d...) b) Socrates chose death because he chose loyalty to his discipline over ... c) Aristotle asked: Can we be both loyal citizens and ... ...? d) Dante (Inferno) promised people who betray others a spot in the last ..., calling treachery the ...? (1300s) e) Middle Ages: emphasis on single-minded loyalty that was unabated. Tales of King Arthur and other knights and vassals, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in China (1400s, still in print today) Who may have broken the tradition of seeing loyalty as a single-minded devotion when he claimed that people should have m... l...? In Leviathan, the only way to establish and maintain society is through a s... c... based on loyalty. Without loyalty, people would exist in a 'war of ... against ...' after resorting to their natural and base instincts of selfishness, competition, aggression. Life without multiple loyalties would be s..., p..., b..., n..., s... BOTTOM LINE: Laws of ... and moral i... dictate various kinds of c... behavior through relationships that include government, even as we factor self-p... in the equation Some more refined perspectives on loyalty... -> Josiah Royce: Loyalty: the w... and pr... and t... devotion of a person to a cause. The Philosophy of Loyalty (1908), a loyal person should be so p... by a cause that he or she would be able to say, "I am the s... of this cause, its reasonable, its willing, its d... i..., and being such I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak save as this cause shall command." -Loyalty to Royce is a c... v... that promotes self-r..., but implies true loyalty works best in an a...-driven society governed by h... r... relationships. But theses systems would seek to minimize individual autonomy, despite insistence that loyalty is essential to morality? -> MacIntyre built off of Royce's argument to say the ... ... is possible only when we focus on c..., v..., n..., t..., and LOYALTY. P... was high on his list of loyalty-exuding virtues. -> James Q. Wilson, evolutionary biologist, described loyalty as a g... t... a... mechanism, a felt attachment to others that has s... v... -Loyalty, even self-sacrificed loyalty, is directed primarily to g... s... *Soldiers example, media workers

The roots of the word 'loyal' go back to the Latin word meaning 'legal.' Ancient considerations were less focused on ethics than on law: people who were not loyal to the king or God were breaking the law. History's earliest plot lines are filled with stories of loyalty/disloyalty, of fidelity/infidelity, relationships sealed and broken: è Days of Old Testament, loyalty to God was nonnegotiable and rewarded, disloyalty was punished, and loyalty to one's family and tribe was demanded. è Socrates chose death because he chose loyalty to his discipline and fellow philosophers over loyalty to Athenian lawmakers. è Few decades later, Aristotle asked if we can be both loyal citizens and good humans. è Dante's 14th-century poem, Inferno promised people who betrayed others a spot in the ninth and last circle of hell, calling treachery the worse sin of all (special relationship between perpetrator and victim) è Through Middle Ages, emphasis on single-minded loyalty continued unabated. Was son in the Western world, through tales of King Arthur and other knights and vassals. China, stories of 2nd-century military general Guan Yu's loyalty to Hanzhong's king Liu Bei are told in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written in the 1400s and still in print today. Philosopher Thomas Hobbes may have broken the tradition of seeing loyalty as a single-minded devotion when he claimed that people should have multiple loyalties. Leviathan (1651 book), the only way to establish and maintain society is through a social contact based on loyalty. Without loyalty, people would exist in a state of 'war of all against all' after resorting to their natural and base instincts of selfishness, competition, and aggression. Life without multiple loyalties would indeed be how Hobbes described it - solitary, poor, brutish, nasty, short. His bottom line: Laws of nature or moral imperatives dictate various kinds of cooperative behavior through relationships that include government, even as we factor self-preservation into the equation. More refined perspectives on loyalty have emerged. Josiah Royce called loyalty the 'willing and practical and thoroughgoing devotion of a person to a cause' (1908). In The Philosophy of Loyalty, a loyal person should be so possessed by a cause that he or she would be able to say, "I am the servant of this cause, its reasonable, its willing, its devoted instrument, and being such, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak save as this cause shall command." Royce saw loyalty as a complex virtue that promoted self-realization, but it implies that true loyalty works best in an authority-driven society governed by hierarchical role relationships. Such a system would seem to minimize individual autonomy, despite his insistence that loyalty is essential to morality. MacIntyre (1984) built off of Royce's argument to say the 'good life' is possible only when we focus on community, virtues, narrative, traditions - and loyalty. Patriotism was high on his list of 'loyalty-exhibiting virtues' although numerous philosophers have called patriotism a dubious or vexing virtue. Evolutionary biologist James Q. Wilson described loyalty as a genetically transmitted adaptive mechanism, a felt attachment to others that has survival value (1993). Loyalty - even self-sacrificed loyalty - is directed primarily to group survival. Shows itself when soldiers are willing to sacrifice and even die for their country, or media workers who challenge the status quo to reveal truth or do what it takes to serve those to whom they feel loyal.

Why might loyalty not be a virtue? George Fletcher said that loyalties are 'a...' meaning they are neither rational nor irrational but could be either. Loyalties may have nothing to do with i... j..., which is one of the problems when loyalty is misplaced. -> ... is thicker than ...: What if people choose family over what would be obviously higher ethical obligations were family members not involved? -> Praise faithful friend but wonder about someone protecting a c... -> Admire loyal worker but conflicted about w...'s motivations -> Credit people who work to support their professional community but worry when their loyalty undercuts the g... p... i... -> Play f... instead of treating people e... Some duty-based philosophers have argued that loyalties are problematic because we should always treat ... ... We may fall into lower levels of moral development when we extend loyalty based on what that person c... d... for us, or our desire to be ... of a group. -> When overdeveloped sense of loyalty takes precedence over more important v... Can limit our moral i... when our ethical thinking starts and stops with loyalty. Confines you to accepted opinions, forbids you to comprehend sympathetically with dissident fellows. -> Use people as ... to our own ... by playing on their sense of loyalty. LBJ example Stanford's Encyclopedia of Philosophy, loyalty can be c... and c... -Troy Jollimore says most virtues are aimed at a... p... like kindness or honesty. It is impossible to be loyal to ... ... Be especially virtuous to some people but not others BUT NOT because they are especially deserving. -Baron: Not innocuous - misplaced loyalty, the absence of, disloyalty, and fickleness may be vices, but loyalty is not necessarily a virtue. Should we ever choose a cause, or show loyalty, that demands single-minded devotion? Is it healthy? Can we be loyal to a bad cause? *Nazi official Albert Speer example (he had been so d... to Hitler that he had abdicated m... r...y for his actions). If we have blind loyalty, can we ever be open-minded enough to question that loyalty or to consider alternatives? How much of a virtue really is loyalty, whether loyalty can lead us into COIs. Is it unconditional or relative? Who deserves it, and when is it morally permissible or morally mandatory to shift loyalties? John Klening: Loyalty works best when it c... other ...

Why Loyalty is not always a virtue... Philosopher George Fletcher (1993) said that loyalties are 'arational,' meaning they are neither rational nor irrational but could be either. Also noted that loyalties may have nothing to do with impartial justice, which is one of the problems when loyalty is misplaced. Indeed, much of the recent discussion of loyalty focused on how problematic it can be... è Hear that 'blood is thicker than water' but wonder about people who choose family over what would be obviously higher ethical obligations were family members not involved è Praise the faithful friend but wonder about someone who protects a criminal è Admire the loyal worker but are conflicted about the whistleblower's motivations è Credit people who work to support their professional community but worry when their loyalty undercuts the greater public interest è Play favorites instead of treating people equally. Some duty-based philosophers have argued that loyalties are problematic because we should always treat people equally. Others worry we may fall into lower levels of moral development (Kohlberg's levels 2 or 3) when we extend loyalty based on what that person can do for us, or our desire to be part of a group. è Can be ethically blinded when an overdeveloped sense of loyalty takes precedence over more important values. Loyalties can limit our moral imagination when our ethical thinking starts and stops with loyalty. Graham Greene (Virtue of Disloyalty speech), "Loyalty confines you to accepted opinions. Loyalty forbids you to comprehend sympathetically your dissident fellows, but disloyalty encourages you to roam through any human mind." è Can use people as means to our own ends but playing on their sense of loyalty. While rising through political ranks, former U.S. President LBJ would ask people to do small favors for him. He did it not because he needed help, but because he knew that people tended to become emotionally attached to people whom they have helped. As Stanford's Encyclopedia of Philosophy says, loyalty can be corrupting and corruptible. Troy Jollimorenoted that most virtues are aimed at all people, such as kindness or honesty, but it is impossible to be loyal to all people. 'Virtue of loyalty tells us to be especially virtuous towards some people, and not toward others; and not, moreover, because those particular people are especially deserving. How can this be reasonable?" Baron said loyalty is not innocuous. Misplaced loyalty, the absence of loyalty, disloyalty, and fickleness may be vices, but loyalty in and of itself is not necessarily a virtue. The claims of some ancient and modern thinkers can be challenged for their arbitrary nature. Should we ever choose a cause, or show loyalty, that demands single-minded devotion? Is it healthy? Can we be loyal to a bad cause? Nazi official Albert Speer, ultimately concluded that he had abdicated moral responsibility for his evil actions because he had been so absolutely devoted to Adolf Hitler. If we have blind loyalty, can we ever be open-minded to ? that loyalty or to consider alternatives? Can we be so deeply rooted into our family, friends, workplace, university, community, or nation-state that we fail to recognize alternative and generalized loyalties? If we're in the majority, does that mean the minority is disloyal? How much are we permitted to do in the name of loyalty, and how much are we morally required to do? We ponder these ?s when exploring loyalty dilemmas in everyday life and in the media ethics environment. We wonder how much of a virtue loyalty is, or whether it can lead us into conflicts of interest. We wonder whether loyalty is unconditional or relative. We wonder who deserves our loyalty, and when it is morally permissible or morally mandatory to shift loyalties. As John Klening put it, loyalty works best when it complements other values (On Loyalty and Loyalties).

Loyalty: Whether the focus is family, friends, associates, people related to our jobs or other roles, we all rely on people and they rely on you. Feel the need to show allegiance and support to others, and you are revulsed by people who are traitors to the group or unfaithful in a relationship. The ? as to who you owe loyalty, how to balance loyalties to competing stakeholders, when may your loyalties be m... and have i... for everyone from your closest relationships to your obligations to people you may never meet. First ? seems obvious, Who deserves our a... and r..., and to whom are we o...? Simple answer: E... deserves to be treated with respect. Regardless of media specialty, we owe a... to our sources, subjects, audiences, employers, co-workers. *But simple answers lead to gut-level responses. What does r... by media personnel look like? D...?Do all sources/subjects/audiences/employers/colleagues deserve e... r...? If not, how do we morally justify showing more l... to one than another? What does loyalty actually mean? -Some scholars limit it to 'what we o... o... a...' Use words like a..., c..., o... Are concerned primarily with loyalty about ... and secondarily about loyalties to i... Stakeholders like ourselves, family, friends, colleagues, local community, country, individuals that compose ALL of humanity. The order of that list shows how empathy in morally developed peoples moves from the p... to the ... we are in and then to l... ... -Others define loyalty more broadly to include more than ... and ... -Embrace commitments to b..., p..., i..., i.., i..., v... -Have loyalty not only to human stakeholders but b..., cr..., pr...; r... or p... or s... bodies and theories underlying them; abstract v... like truth, happiness, freedom, competition, success. Even loyal to the very notion of loyalty. BUT we focus here on loyalties to people when d... e... -Reveals itself in which three questions of our justification model? -When we ask who wins/who loses, think of loyalty as a matter of our o... 'to ...' rather than 'to ...' Loyalty is a value, but ... are so important they deserve specific attention as we make decisions.

You rely on people, and people rely on you. Nearly everyone intuitively understands the concept of loyalty, whether the focus is family, friends, associates, or people related to our jobs or other roles. You feel the need to show allegiance and support to others, and you are revulsed by people who are traitors to a group, unfaithful in a relationship, or disloyal to you after you showed loyalty to them. But the topic can be confusing. The questions of to whom you owe loyalty, how to balance loyalties to competing stakeholders, and when may your loyalties be misguided, have implications for everyone from your closest relationships to your obligations to people you may never meet. The first question seems most obvious: Who deserves our allegiance and respect, and to whom are we obligated? The simple answer: Everyone deserves to be treated with respect. Regardless of our media specialty, we owe allegiance to our sources, subjects, audiences, employers, and co-workers. Because simple answers often lead to narrow, gut-level responses, we should raise tougher questions: What does respect by media personnel look like, and what does disrespect look like? Do all sources, subjects, audiences, employers, co-workers deserve EQUAL respect? If not, how do we morally justify showing more loyalty to one than another? How do we make those judgment calls? What do we mean by loyalty? Some scholars limit discussions of loyalty to 'what we owe one another.' They use words like allegiance or commitment or obligation. Are concerned primarily about loyalty to people and secondarily about loyalty to institutions. The stakeholders include (but not limited to) ourselves, family and friends, colleagues, local community, country, to the individuals and groups that compose all of humanity. The order of that list shows how empathy in morally developed people moves from the personal to the groups we are in, and then to larger society. Other scholars define loyalty more broadly to include more than people and groups. Embrace commitments to brands, principles, ideas, ideals, ideologies, and values - almost anything to which one's heart can become attached or devoted. We have loyalty not only to human stakeholders, but also to a business, craft, or profession; to religious or political or socioeconomic bodies, and to the theories underlying them; and to abstract values such as truth, happiness, freedom, competition, and success. Should even be loyal to the very notion of loyalty. Back on human stakeholders: Focus loyalties to people when doing ethics. Reveals itself in 3/6 guiding questions, as we sift through 'Who wins, who loses?' 'What's it worth?' and 'What do philosophers say?' When we ask who wins and who loses, we think of loyalty as a matter of our obligations 'to whom' rather than 'to what.' Loyalty is a value, but people are so important that they deserve specific attention as we make decisions.