Ethics-Medical Ethics

Christians attitude on euthanasia

"Love your neighbour as yourself." For: Some Christians believe that ending pain and suffering, even if this means ending a life before God decides, to be an act of love and compassion. Against: When Jesus was being crucified on the cross, we are told in the Gospel of Mark (Mark 15:23) that he refused the mixture of 'wine and gall' which could have eased his pain. Following this example, many Christians believe that suffering is an inevitable part of life that should be endured and offered up to God in union with Jesus's suffering. "Then he put the man on his own donkey, brought him to an inn and took care of him." Against: We should care for the vulnerable, e.g. in a hospice. "You shall not kill." (Exodus 20:13) "Show respect for the elderly." (Leviticus 19:32) "The life of every creature and the breath of all people are in God's hand." (Job 12:10)

Against animal testing

"They may rule over the fish of the sea and the birds in the sky." Other Christians may believe that it is showing people that they are stewards of the Earth and should care for it and not destroy it. "The righteous care for the needs of their animals." (Proverbs 12:10) We should care for the animals, not using them for our benefits. "All the animals in the forest are Mine and all the cattle on thousands of hills." (Psalm 50.10.11) All creatures belong to God. So we will be 'playing' God if we were to use them. Christians recognises that animals are part of God's creation and should be treated with care. They point out that in the Bible God made his covenant with animals as well as humans and that both humans and animals have the same origins in God. "You shall not kill." (Exodus 20:13) suggesting that we should not kill animals. St Francis of Assisi said that animals 'had the same sources as [himself].' These Christians would argue that inflicting pain on any living creature is incompatible with living in a Christ-like way. Animals are weak compare to humans and Christ tells his followers to be kind to the weak and helpless so they should show compassion to animals

Responses to abortion

Absolute Pro-life: Abortion is always wrong on moral or religious grounds or both. Moderate Pro-life: Abortion is never good but on rare occasions it is justified. Moderate Pro-choice: Abortion is undesirable, but necessary in many cases. Absolute Pro-choice: Moral principle of choice says that abortion should be the free decision of the woman.

Key terms on euthanasia

Active Euthanasia-The intentional premature termination of another person's life-giving an injection to end their life. Passive Euthanasia-Treatment, food and hydration are withdrawn from the patient to hasten death-could also include the turning off of a life support machine. Voluntary Euthanasia-The request of the patient to be allowed to die. Involuntary Euthanasia-Without the patient's consent. Sanctity of life-This derives form the idea of God as the creator. We were created in His image and as such only He has the power to end it. Quality of life-The physical and emotional happiness of a person. Life must have some benefits for it to be worth living.

Church of England view on euthanasia (For)

Although the deliberate taking of human life was forbidden, there were strong arguments that people should not kept alive at all costs when they are suffering intolerable pain. Making sure that the old and the ill are made to feel wanted and valuable, the Church should do all it can to make the elderly feel important members of society.

Abortion definition

An abortion is when a foetus is expelled from its mother's uterus before the pregnancy reaches 'full term' (usually 40 weeks). Sometimes this happens naturally and is called a 'miscarriage' or a 'spontaneous abortion'. However, 'abortion' usually means 'procured abortion', where the foetus is removed deliberately.

For animal testing

Animals were not considered as important as humans. Christians do not believe animals have souls or can have a relationship with God. "Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the ground." (Genesis 1:28a) Some Christians may read this passage in such a way that it means they can do what they want with the animal kingdom as they are its rulers. This is dominion. In the second account of creation Adam is told by God to name the animals, which shows he was to have power over them. The Roman Catholic Church tolerates animal experiments, but only if it brings benefit to mankind. It is a sin to cause animals to suffer or die needlessly. They say that animal experiments are allowable so long as it 'remains within reasonable limits and contributes to caring for or saving human lives'. Most Christians take a difference stance: there is a distinction between animals and humans, for example humans can appreciate beauty and have a conscience. Also humans are 'made in the image of God' (Genesis 1:27) which shows that humans are 'on top' with animals below.

The law on animal testing

Any new drugs must be tested on at least two different species of live animals, one of which must be a large non rodent. The way scientists can use animals has been controlled by legislation since 1822, and the law has grown much stricter since then. The Animals Act of 1986, for example, insists that no animal experiments be conducted if there is a realistic alternative. Testing on animals now requires three home office licenses-for the institution, the scientists and the project. They must outline the potential benefits and prove there is no alternative. Random inspections and on-site vets and mandatory.

The law on suicide

Before 1961 it was illegal to commit suicide and anyone who tried and failed could be prosecuted. The Suicide Act 1961 brought a change to the law so that suicide is no longer a criminal act. However, it is still illegal to 'aid or abet' another person in taking their own life, and anyone who does this may face a maximum 14 years imprisonment.

Sanctity of life

Christians believe in the sanctity of life. This means that they believe that we are created in the image of God with a responsibility to look after living things. We are special and contain the spirit of God and we have a purpose. Created-"Then God said, 'Let us make man...'" (Genesis 1:26) Responsibility-"Let them (i.e. humans) rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground." (Genesis 1:27) Image of God-"Let us make man in our image, in our likeness." (Genesis 1:26) Special/spirit-"Don't you know that yourselves are God's temple and that God's spirit lives in you?" (1 Corinthians 3:16) Purpose-"Before I formed you in the womb, I knew you, before you were born I set you apart; I appointed you as a prophet to the nations." (Jeremiah 1:5)

Christian response to suicide

Christians might use "There is a time to be born and a time to die" to show that the body should be treated as a place where God lives, and should be respected. They are not to choose when they die. Most Christians believe that the right response to suicide is to be loving and forgiving. They should be helped, not condemned. Can link to CRISP

Cloning

Cloning is done by fusing the nucleus of one cell with the unfertilised egg of a donor. Theoretically possible to clone a human. Some see this as 'playing God'. You can link all of this to CRISP.

Quakers view on euthanasia (no united view)

Does not have a united view. What is important is that they do the most loving thing. Some believes allow people to stop suffering loving, while others believe it is more loving to be in a place such as a hospice.

The law on euthanasia

Euthanasia is illegal in Britain. It is also illegal to help anyone kill themselves and can even lead to 14 years imprisonment. However, they will take into account if you did this due to love. The Netherlands legalised euthanasia in 2001. But there is a strict criteria.

Fertility treatment definition

Fertility treatment is the medical assistance given to people who want babies but cannot have them.

Two main alternatives to euthanasia (Hospice and refusing treatment)

Hospice - this is where specialist medical staff look after the terminally ill. Palliative drugs are used to help ensure that the person does not suffer any more pain than is absolutely necessary. Staff are able to talk with patients about death and dying and any fears they may have. They are also available to support the family of the dying person. Refusing treatment - in the UK all adults have the right to refuse treatment as long as they have the capacity to understand the situation they are in and to make an informed decision.

Methodist view on abortion

However, some Methodists may disagree with this statement, even though they agree with the sanctity of life argument. Many would argue that there are circumstances where an abortion may be the lesser of two evils. The 1976 Methodist conference gives the example of rape and handicap as two examples of when an abortion could be accepted.

"Animal testing is playing God." (12 marks)

I personally disagree with the statement because it contributes to caring for and saving human lives. Excessive money shouldn't be 'wasted' on animals when human beings are suffering. Animals were not considered as important as humans. Christians do not believe animals have souls or can have a relationship with God. "Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the ground." (Genesis 1:28a) Some Christians may read this passage in such a way that it means they can do what they want with the animal kingdom as they are its rulers. This is dominion. In the second account of creation Adam is told by God to name the animals, which shows he was to have power over them. The Roman Catholic Church has supports my view. They believe it is not a sin to kill animals with as little suffering as possible for food, clothing and the health and safety of humans. Medical and scientific experimentation on animals is a morally acceptable practice if it remains within reasonable limits and contributes to caring for or saving of human lives. Other Christians point out that in the bible god made his covenant with animals as well as humans and that both humans and animals have the same origin in God. "The righteous care for the needs of their animals." (Proverbs 12.10) They may believe that it is showing people that they are stewards of the Earth, and should care for it and not using them for our own benefits. "All the animals in the forest are Mine and the cattle on thousands of hills. All the wild birds are Mine and all living things in the field." It shows that all creatures belong to God, so we will be 'playing' God if we were to use them. "You shall not kill." tells us that we should not kill animals. St Francis of Assisi said that animals 'had the same sources as [himself].' These Christians would argue that inflicting pain on any living creature is incompatible with living in a Christ-like way. Animals are weak compare to humans and Christ tells his followers to be kind to the weak and helpless so they should show compassion to animals. I still think I am right because there is a distinction between animals and humans, for example humans can appreciate beauty and have a conscience. Also humans are 'made in the image of God' (Genesis 1:27) which shows that humans are 'on top' with animals below.

Key terms on IVF

In vitro fertilisation (IVF): Fertilisation in the laboratory outside the mother's body. (Latin: 'in vitro' literally means 'in glass') Artificial Insemination by Husband (AIH): The mother's eggs are fertilised using her husband's sperm. Artificial Insemination by Donor (AID): This involves a mother having her eggs fertilised by a donor, either because her husband is infertile or it's a same sex couple. Artificial Insemination (AI): The process whereby a man's sperm is placed in a woman's cervix by some other means than sexual intercourse. Therapeutic Research: Production of a human embryo so that stem cells can be used for research. Surrogate motherhood: A woman who bears a child for another person, often for pay, either through artificial insemination or by carrying until birth another woman's surgically implanted fertilized egg. HFEA-Human Fertilisation and embryology Authority

Peter Singer and Quality of life

Instrumental view (life is only worthwhile if it can be a fulfilled life). Five 'commandments': - Recognise that the worth of human life varies. - Take responsibility - Respect person's desire to live or die - Only bring wanted children into the world - Do not discriminate on the basis of species.

Methodist Church view on IVF

It is right for scientists to try to learn more about causes and cures of infertility. It accepts that using 'spare' embryos for medical research is important, and believes that this experimentation should be allowed in the early stages up to 14 days after fertilisation.

Pro-choice view on abortion

Needless to day, many absolute pro-choice campaigners would argue that it is the woman's decision, the law should have nothing to do with it. Many would argue that the death of Savita Halappanavar on 28 October 2012 would never have happened if she were given an abortion. Savita died in Northern Ireland from septicaemia, she requested an abortion several times, but it was denied owing to the foetal heartbeat. She has since become the face of the pro-choice campaign. Ann Furedi says, 'We should stop seeing abortion as a problem and start seeing it as a legitimate and sensible solution to the problem of unwanted pregnancy.' If we were to make abortion illegal we would be forcing people to have child that they may not be ready for. This could affect the quality of life for the unborn child.

Church's teaching against IVF

Other Christians might believe that fertility treatment is wrong. They might believe that God chooses whether people have babies or not. They might give example of Hannah in the bible. She was barren (could not have children): "Because the Lord had closed her womb." (1 Samuel 1:5) Christians might say that it is unnatural to bring a child into the world through any means other than sexual intercourse. Fertility treatment can be a good thing, but sometimes it could be wrong. People might believe that it is wrong to use embryos as 'spares' as they believe that life begins as soon as the embryo is conceived and that it should not be experimented on or disposed of when it cannot give consent. People think that babies are meant to be born to heterosexual couples who are under 50 years of age and they argue that it is unfair to bring a child into the world without thinking about the kind of life it will have in these circumstances. Children are seen as a gift from God and a privilege, not something that people can demand.

Quality of life

Quality of life is a personal measure of how good your life is. This could be dependent on happiness, money, friends etc.

Roman Catholic view on IVF

RC believe that life begins at conception. This causes a major problem with fertility treatment as some embryos are thrown away during the process. They do not believe that having a baby is a God-given right: "Life is God's gift and we do not have a right to children." (RC 1990) The church is against any procedure which creates spare embryos that are later destroyed or experimented on. Any embryos should have the statue of a human being. RC Church can only support the use of AI which does not created spare embryos. IVF is acceptable only if the number of eggs which are fertilised are replaced in the mother. It does not approve of the use of AID as it is introducing a third person into the relationship. The sperm has to be collected from the man by masturbation and this is also considered a sin by the Catholic Church.

Baptist Church view on euthanasia (generally against)

Raises the same sorts of issues as abortion about whether people have the right to take away human life. Generally against euthanasia-all human life is sacred and therefore worth striving for. However, allow when 'brain dead' or cannot maintain any kind of relationship with friends.

Key terms on cloning

Reproductive cloning: Creating a human/animal with the same DNA as another human/animal e.g. Dolly the sheep. Therapeutic cloning: A medical procedure where single cells would be taken from a person and 'reprogrammed' to create stem cells, which have the potential to develop into any type of cell in the body.

Church's teaching for IVF

Some Christians believe that fertility treatments such as IVF and artificial insemination should be encouraged because they bring so much happiness to people who would otherwise not be able to have children. They might say that lives come from God, and therefore anything that creates new life has to be good. "Be fruitful and increase in number." (Genesis 1:28) They interpret this as a sign that God wants them to have children. Most loving action is to offer medical help and put to good use the gifts of healing and medicine that God has given.

Explain Christian teaching about animal testing. (6 marks)

Some Christians takes the difference stance: there is distinction between humans and animals, for example, humans can appreciate beauty and have a conscience. Also, humans are "made in the image of God" (Genesis 1:27). Yet God created humans and animals. According to the Bible, Christians have a duty to care for the world "stewardship", including animals. "Let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air." (Genesis 1:28a) Some Christians may take this passage in such a way that they can do what they want with the animals kingdom as they're its rulers. Others may think it shows that they are the stewards of the Earth and should take care of it not destroy it. "You shall not kill." Some people thinks it is suggesting that we should not kill animals. "All the animals in the forest are mine, and the cattles on thousands of hills." This is suggesting that all the living creatures belong to God and we will be 'playing' God if we were to use them. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that it is not a sin to kill animals with as little suffering as possible for food, clothing, health and safety of humans. Medical and scientific experimentation is a morally acceptable practice if it remains within reasonable limits and contributes to caring and saving of human lives.

Stewardship and dominion

Stewardship: we have a responsibility to care for all living things as we are stewards. Dominion: We were given the power in which to control animals.

Suicide definition

Suicide is the premature ending of your own life deliberately.

Anglican Church view on IVF

The AC does support the use of fertility treatment. However, it believes that the rights of the embryo should be observed after 14 days. Anglicans think that people have a right to have children: "Be fruitful and increase in number." (Genesis 1:28) Some Christians think that if the technology is there, and no harm is done, then it is acceptable to carry out the procedure. However, they would be anxious to ensure that no embryo later than 14 days would be used: "We support the recommendation that research, under licence, be permitted on embryos up to 14 days old and agree that embryos should not be created just for scientific research." (Anglican Report 1984)

Christian responses to abortion

The Bible does not specifically mention abortion. Many Christians believe that babies have a soul from the moment of conception. Quotes: "Before I formed you in the womb, I knew you, before you were born I set you apart; I appointed you as a prophet to the nations." (Jeremiah 1:5) "For you created my inmost being; you knit me together in my mother's womb." (Psalm 139:13)

Law on embryology

The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 only allowed research to be carried out on an embryo up to 14 days. Donors have no legal right over any children. Frozen embryos may be stored for a maximum of ten years. In 2008 ban sex selection of offspring for non-medical reasons.

Roman Catholic Church view on abortion

The Roman Catholic Church believes that ensoulment takes place at conception and so it is from this time that life is innately sacred as we are created by God, 'Then God said, 'Let us make man.'" (Genesis 1:26) and that we are created with purpose, 'Before I formed you in the womb, I knew you, before you were born you were set apart.' (Jerimiah 1:5) This has been backed up more recently by the Catholic Catechism of 1997 which states that 'You shall not kill the embryo by abortion and shall not cause the new-born to perish.'.

The Samaritans

The Samaritans is an organisation that was started in 1953 by Reverend Chad and the first thing they did was to conduct the funeral for a girl who committed suicide because she had a period. It is an organisation where people could talk about their problems in confidence, not even giving their names unless they wanted to. This organisation had to be available day and night, whenever people needed help, including over Christmas when there is the biggest demand for their services. Although Chad Varah was a Christian, the Samaritans is available to anyone, of any religion.

The Law on abortion

The abortion is only legal when: (a) Abortions are carried out in a hospital or a specialist licensed clinic. (b) Two doctors agree that an abortion would cause less damage to a woman's physical or mental health than continuing with the pregnancy. Abortion first became legal in 1967. In 1967 an abortion was only legal until the 28th week. Since 1990, abortions are legal only until the 24th week (except in cases when it is necessary to save the life of the woman, there was evidence of extreme foetal abnormality, or there was a grave risk of physical and mental injury to the woman).

Roman Catholic Church view on euthanasia (Against)

Totally against euthanasia, and teaches that any act which deliberately brings about death is the same as murder. Gospel of Life said that euthanasia was a 'grave violation of the law of God'. But it accepts that there is a difference between deliberate killing and the shortening of life by pain-killing drugs. Doctrine of double effect: This doctrine says that if doing something morally good has a morally bad side-effect it's ethically OK to do it providing the bad side-effect wasn't intended. This is true even if you foresaw that the bad effect would probably happen.

Key terms on animal testing

Vivisection-testing an animal for medical research. Transgenic animals-this is when human genes are introduced into an animal so that the animal has similar diseases similar to those in humans, and thus scientists can attempt to find a cure. Cosmetic testing-testing on animals for cosmetic (e.g. shampoo and make-up) Reproductive cloning: Creating a human/animal with the same DNA as another human/animal e.g. Dolly the sheep. Therapeutic cloning: A medical procedure where single cells would be taken from a person and 'reprogrammed' to create stem cells, which have the potential to develop into any type of cell in the body.

Reasons for suicide

➢ Serious or incurable illness, when in a great deal of pain or is deteriorating quickly. ➢ Depression, schizophrenia or other forms of mental illness. ➢ Serious difficulties in coping with life, e.g. drink, money problems. ➢ Bereavement, where a loved one dies and the person feels that there is no point living. ➢ Feelings of being under pressure, when someone believes that they are letting everyone down because they are not living up to other people's expectations. ➢ Bullying, where someone is made to feel so insecure and frightened. ➢ Old age, when a person is unable to live independently and feel it will be better for others. ➢ End life with dignity.