Exam 1 Study Guide - Chapter 2

Identify six important neurotransmitters, and explain their effects on behavior. 1. Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine stimulates muscles to contract and is important in memory, learning, and general intellectual functioning. Levels of acetylcholine are severely reduced in people with Alzheimer's disease.

Define biological psychology and neuroscience, and explain why psychologists study the biological basis of behavior.

Biological psychology (also called biopsychology or psychobiology) is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes. Biological psychology makes important contributions to neuroscience—the scientific study of the nervous system.

Describe the general functions of the endocrine system, and explain the role hormones play.

- The endocrine system is made up of glands located throughout the body that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Communication in the endocrine system takes place much more slowly than in the nervous system. - Hormones are chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream primarily by endocrine glands. They interact with the nervous system and affect internal organs and body tissues. Some of the processes they regulate are metabolism, growth rate, digestion, blood pressure, and sexual development and reproduction.

Identify the divisions and subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system, and describe their functions.

- The somatic nervous system communicates sensory information received by sensory receptors along sensory nerves to the central nervous system and carries messages from the central nervous system along motor nerves to perform voluntary muscle movements. - The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, breathing, and digestion; its two branches are the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.

Explain how information is communicated between neurons.

1. Electrical: Ion channels bridge the narrow gap between neurons; communication is virtually instantaneous. 2. Chemical: The presynaptic neuron creates a chemical substance (a neurotransmitter) that diffuses across the synaptic gap and is detected by the postsynaptic neuron (over 99 percent of the synapses in the brain use chemical transmission).

Identify six important neurotransmitters, and explain their effects on behavior. 6. Endorphins

Endorphins Regulating the Perception of Pain Endorphins are chemicals released by the brain in response to stress or trauma.

Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory messages.

Excitatory message—increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate. Inhibitory message—decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate.

Identify six important neurotransmitters, and explain their effects on behavior. 5. GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)

GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) usually communicates an inhibitory message to other neurons, reducing brain activity. Antianxiety medications work by increasing GABA activity.

Describe the research findings from studies on enriched versus impoverished environments using both nonhumans and humans, and list some of the practical implications of this research.

Idea that in order to enhance the brain's capacity for learning, the environment you live in needs to be stimulating (children should be exposed to rich/diverse stimuli when they're most receptive to learning, ages 0-3). research comes from baby monkeys and rats with empty cages. yes, childhood is a good time to learn, not a bad idea, just not critical, - Lack the stimulation and responsiveness required to promote children's intellectual and social skills can be remedied by adoption

State what cortical localization is.

Idea that particular areas of human brain are associated with particular functions

State what cortical localization is, and explain how the findings of Broca and Wernicke provided early clinical evidence for lateralization of function.

Idea that particular areas of human brain are associated with particular functions: Pierre Paul Broca - Treated patients who couldn't speak but understood language. Revealed damage to be on lower left frontal lobe. Karl Wernicke - Couldn't understand spoken or written language, but could speak easily. Found damage on left temporal lobe.

Identify the functions of the major endocrine glands, and explain the relationship between the hypothalamus and the endocrine glands.

Pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, and reproductive glands. - hypothalamus governs the pituitary gland having a regulatory effect on the autonomic system and endocrine glands

Identify six important neurotransmitters, and explain their effects on behavior. 3. Serotonin

Serotonin is involved in sleep, moods, and emotional states, including depression. Antidepressant drugs such as Prozac increase the availability of serotonin in certain brain regions.

Distinguish between functional and structural plasticity.

The brain's ability to shift functions from one part of the brain to another (from a damaged to an undamaged area) The brain's ability to change its physical structure in response to learning, active practice, or environmental influences.

Identify the basic components of the neuron.

The cell body (also called the soma) contains the nucleus, which provides energy for the neuron to carry out its functions. Dendrites are short, branching fibers extending out from the cell body that receive information from other neurons or specialized cells. The axon is a single, elongated tube that extends from the cell body and carries information from the neuron to other neurons, glands, and muscles. Axons vary in length from a few thousandths of an inch to about four feet.

Describe the functions of the two major parts of the central nervous system, and explain how spinal reflexes work.

The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord, which are suspended in cerebrospinal fluid for protection. Spinal reflexes are simple, automatic behaviors that are processed in the spinal cord. One of the simplest spinal reflexes involves a three-neuron loop of rapid communication—a sensory neuron that communicates sensation to the spinal cord, an interneuron that relays information within the spinal cord, and a motor neuron leading from the spinal cord that signals muscles to react.

Describe the forebrain's cerebral cortex, and explain the functions of its four lobes and association areas.

The cerebral cortex is the grayish, quarter-inch-thick, wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain that is sometimes described as being composed of gray matter. Extending inward from the cerebral cortex are white myelinated axons, sometimes referred to as white matter, that connect the cerebral cortex to other brain regions.

Lateralization of function.

The concept that each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for certain activities.

Describe the action potential, and explain the processes that take place within the neuron when it is activated.

When sufficiently stimulated by other neurons or sensory receptors—that is, when the neuron reaches its stimulus threshold—the axon depolarizes, beginning the action potential.

Describe how neurotransmitters affect synaptic transmission.

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Describe the functions of neurons.

excitable cells that transmit nerve impulse... father sensory info, process info, afferent and efferent neurons.

Describe the functions of glial cells

non-excitable cells that support and protect neurons (Two types of cells in nervous tissue)

Describe the work of Roger Sperry, discuss the split-brain operation, and explain how it provided evidence for the differing abilities of left and right hemispheres.

received the Nobel Prize in Physiology in 1981 for his split-brain research; confirmed Broca & Wernicke's lateralization of functions: left hemisphere deals with language, speech, reading, and writing; right hemisphere deals with nonverbal, emotional, and visual-spatial tasks (map reading, face recognition, and drawing) and music responsiveness

Discuss how the pseudoscience called phrenology evolved, and how it ultimately helped advance the idea of cortical localization.

variations in the size and shape of specific areas of the human skull corresponded to the size of each underlying brain organ, and that individual differences in abilities, character, and personality could be determined by carefully measuring the skull

Distinguish among the three types of neurons.

•Sensory neurons convey information from specialized receptor cells in the sense organs, the skin, and the internal organs to the brain. •Motor neurons communicate information to the muscles and glands of the body. •Interneurons communicate information between neurons; they are the most common type of neuron found in the human nervous system.

Identify the structures of the brainstem, and describe their functions.

1. The hindbrain connects the spinal cord with the rest of the brain. In the hindbrain, incoming sensory messages cross over to the other side of the brain, and outgoing motor messages cross over to the other side of the body. This is referred to as contralateral organization. 2. The midbrain is an important relay station and contains centers important to the processing of auditory and visual sensory information before sending them to higher brain centers.

Describe the limbic system and the functions of the brain structures that comprise it.

A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Identify six important neurotransmitters, and explain their effects on behavior. 2. Dopamine

Dopamine is involved in movement, attention, learning, and pleasurable or rewarding sensations. Degeneration of neurons that produce dopamine in one brain area causes Parkinson's disease. Symptoms of Parkinson's disease can be alleviated by a drug called L-dopa, which converts to dopamine in the brain. Excessive brain levels of dopamine are sometimes involved in the hallucinations and perceptual distortions that characterize schizophrenia. Some antipsychotic drugs work by blocking dopamine receptors and reducing dopamine activity in the brain.

Identify and explain several ways in which drugs can affect brain activity by interfering with synaptic transmission.

Many drugs, especially those that affect moods or behavior, work by interfering with the normal functioning of neurotransmitters in the synapse. - Drugs may increase or decrease the amount of neurotransmitter released by neurons. - Drugs may affect the length of time the neurotransmitter remains in the synaptic gap, either increasing or decreasing the amount available to the postsynaptic receptor. - Drugs may prolong the effects of the neurotransmitter by blocking its reuptake by the sending neuron. - Drugs can mimic or block the effect of a neurotransmitter by fitting into receptor sites and preventing the neurotransmitter from acting.

Identify six important neurotransmitters, and explain their effects on behavior. 4. Norepinephrine

Norepinephrine activates neurons throughout the brain, assists in the body's response to danger or threat, and is involved in learning and memory retrieval. Norepinephrine dysfunction is also involved in some mental disorders, especially depression.