Exam 2

neuroplasticity is key - growth and integration in psychotherapy are enhanced

- establishment of a safe and trusting relationship (silent witness) - mild to moderate levels of stress (MMS) - activation of both emotion and cognition - co-construction of new and more adaptive personal narratives (language is involved) activation of multiple cognitive and emotional networks, allow for previously dissociated functions to be integrated and gradually brought under the control of cortical executive functions narrative co-constructed with therapists provide a new template for thoughts, behaviors, and ongoing integration

psychotherapists: metaphoric language of mind neurologist: detailed database of brain-behavior relationships human experience is mediated via two interacting processes

1. expression of our evolutionary past via the organization, development, and functioning of the nervous system (billions of cells organizing in neural networks, each with its own timetable and requirements for growth) 2. the shaping of our neural architecture within the context of relationships human brain: social organ of adaptation stimulated to grow through positive and negative interactions with other the human brain ONLY develops in the presence of relationships

repeated firing of two adjacent neurons results in metabolic changes in both cells (increased efficiency in their joint activation)

LTP: excitation is prolonged, allowing neurons to become synchronized in their firing patterns and joint effectiveness fundamental principle of neuroplastic learning underlaying LTP is the constant reaching out of small portions of dendrites in an attempt to connect with adjacent neurons when these connections are made, neurons synthesize new protein to build more bridges between them through LTP, cell assembles into functional neuronal network that are stimulated through trial and error learning

OMPFC helps interpreting complex social events and linking them with their emotional value via connections to the amygdala

OMPFC will add relevant environmental info based on past experiences can inhibit fight or flight response to tend to a crying baby damage to the amygdala or OMPFC can result in inability to organize info, resulting in deficits in communication, attunement, and social status

the triune brain

REPTILIAN BRAIN = INSTINCTIVE relatively unchanged through evolutionary history responsible for activation, arousal, homeostasis, and reproductive drives MAMMALIAN BRAIN = EMOTIONAL paleomammalian brain/limbic system, central to learning, memory, and emotion (wraps around reptilian brain) NEW BRAIN = ANALYTICAL neomammalian brain/cerebral cortex highest and outermost layer that organizes conscious thought, problem solving, and self-awareness the three brains don't necessarily communicate or work well together (different, and only the neomammalian brain is capable of consciousness and verbal communication)

parietal lobes contribute to the organization of self-awareness damage to the parietal lobes disrupts the experience of: - location - self organization - identity

WHERE, WHAT, AND WHO WE ARE parietal regions weave together sensory info with motor actions to organize goal-directed action plans if we act, we act to meet a goal goal directed action reflects our movement through the 4D of space and time

types of memory according to scientists: - working memory - sensory memory - short term memory - long term memory

according to psychotherapists: somatosensory experience - explicit memory: long term memory, conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences and concepts (remembering what you learned in this class) - implicit memory: unconscious memory or automatic memory; uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them (typing on your computer, riding a bike, swimming)

learning can be reflected in neural changes in many ways: - changes in the connectivity between existing neurons - expansion of existing neurons - growth of new neurons

all of these changes are expressions of plasticity, or the ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience the birth of neurons (neurogenesis) was only discovered in regions involved with ongoing learning, such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the frontal and temporal lobes

monoamines: dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine play a major role in the regulation of cognitive and emotional processing

all three are produced in different areas of the brain stem dopamine (produced in substancia negra) - involved in motor activity (parkinson's - substancia negra is destroyed) - behavioral reinforcement - too much dopamine can cause increased motor behavior, mood changes, depression norepinephrine: produced in the locus coreuleus - key component of the emergency system in the brain (key to trauma) serotonin: generated in the raphe nucleus - key role in arousal, sleep-wake cycle, and mediation of mood and emotion

relationship between amygdala and the hippocampus contributes to top-down and left-right integration

amygdala involved with generalization (tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli) hippocampus is involved with discrimination (ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli) amygdala makes us jump at sight of spider, hippocampus helps us remember that that particular spider is not dangerous so we shouldn't worry impairment of the hippocampus should lead to an increase influence of the amygdala in directing memory, emotion, behavior increased levels of serotonin lead to enhanced neurogenesis in the hippocampus SSRIs may be effective in treating depression because they increase hippocampal volume and its ability to moderate the amygdala

emotional memories rely on subcortical structures such as the amygdala and hippocampus, central to the treatment of trauma

amygdala: fully developed by the eighth month of gestation, so that even before birth we are capable of experiencing intense physiological states of fear - functions as an organ of appraisal for danger, safety, and familiarity in approach-avoid situations (survival) - central neural player in associating conscious and unconscious indications of danger - has circuits of sensory input to the hypothalamus and to the hippocampus (enhances hippocampal processing of emotional memory)

damage to OMPFC or anterior cingulate results in deficit of maternal behavior, emotional functioning, and empathy

anterior cingulate and anterior insula serve as a prominence network to direct our attention to novel and survival relevant stimuli

gradual attenuation of neonatal reflexes and spontaneous behavior corresponds with rising levels of cortical activity and intentional behavior

as the cortex develops vast numbers of top-down neural networks connect it with subcortical areas top-down networks (pathways for inciting reflexes and bringing body and emotions under increasing cortical control) as we learn, a vital aspect of the development of the cortex is inhibitory, first of reflexes, later of spontaneous movements, and even later or emotions and inappropriate behavior only through repeated trial and error learning are early clumsy movements slowly shaped into function skills (from walking to playing the piano)

cortex primary role: hard drive & inhibition prefrontal cortex is shaped by experience to inhibit and control subcortical activation (regulate emotions, impulses, and behaviors)

assisting with experiencing increasing levels of positive and negative affect is a vital component of parenting and psychotherapy the gradually increasing tolerance for stress builds our brains, expands neural networks of descending control to help inhibit and regulate affect emerging from childhood with an ability to experience a range of emotions and tolerate stress serves as a means of both brain growth and ongoing positive adaptation

existing neurons grow through the expansion and branching of the dendrites that they project to other neurons, in reaction to new experiences and learning neurons interconnect to form neural networks, which in turn integrate with one another to perform complex tasks

association within the cortex serve - bridging - coordinating and directing the multiple neural circuits to which they are connected growth and organization of the brain: complex but subtle blending of genetic and environmental influences expression of many genes (DNA) depends on experiences (nurture) that trigger their transcription majority of our cortex is shaped after birth in an experience-dependent fashion through the transcriptional process (nurture) experience results in the expression of certain genes that trigger the synthesis of proteins that build neural structures

human nervous system

basic unit: neuron receives, processes, and transmits signals 100 billion cells in our brain with limitless networking possibilities - connections called synapses

mental health condition exhibited by difficulty maintaining attention

can lead to unstable relationships, poor work performance, low self esteem emotional dysregulation many brain regions contribute to our abilities to focus, organize our thoughts, regulate our emotions and create our experience of "self"

cortical inhibition and descending control are also central to emotional regulation rapid change and overwhelming emotions in babies reflect this lack of control

children gradually gain increased capacity to regulate their emotions, and find ways to self-soother when these systems are damaged or developmentally delayed, we see symptoms related to deficits in: attention, emotional regulation, impulse control

when medications work, they rebalance the hierarchical circuitry decreasing motor agitation while enhancing attention

children with ADHD have difficulties organizing their behavior when confronted with situations that require them to inhibit motor responses and sustain attention to continuous or complex tasks require more motivation to maintain attention (norepinephrine) excel at video games, which capture their attention using a manic defense mechanism to cope with overwhelming anxiety assessment of the psychological state of the household can help with diagnosis chronic stress and depression can negatively impact memory, impulse control, and deficits of attention

frontal lobe and amygdala activation: when biased toward the RIGHT hemisphere, correlated with anxiety and depression activation of many structures of the right hemisphere is also evident in PTSD

cognitive therapies for both anxiety and depression utilize rational thinking: activating left-hemisphere processes to regain lateral balance early right hemisphere emotional learning may be an evolutionary way in which we consciously experience shame to make us more easily controlled by others for the purpose of group organization

neuropeptides include: endorphins, enkephalins, oxytocin, vasopressin, neuropeptide-Y

compounds work together with neuromodulators to regulate pain, pleasure, and behavioral reward systems endorphins: modulate the activity of monoamines (psychiatric illnesses) endogenous endorphins: endorphins produced by the body; serve as an analgesic in states of physical pain also involved with dissociation and self-abusive behavior relationship of monoamines and neuropeptides is vitally important to the growth and organization of the brain

EGO

conscious - rational, driven by the reality principle; balances conflicting demands of the ID and SUPEREGO

recovering from trauma: totally dependent on memory psychotherapists have traditionally divided memory into the three categories of conscious, preconscious, and unconscious

conscious memory: recollections of the past, and reports of day to day life preconscious: contains memories that are not focus of current attention that can easily be brought into conscious awareness with minimum of difficulty unconscious: memory unavailable to conscious consideration can manifest in behaviors, attitudes, and feelings as well as in more complex forms such as defenses, self-esteem, and transference (when a person redirects some of their feelings or desires for another person to an entirely different person) psychodynamic therapists try to identify and decipher the unconscious memory into an accessible conscious form

ADHD: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; a disorder of descending inhibition and executive control lack of attention or emotional dysregulation

constant movement suffer from garbage blindness very low self esteem stimulant meds may work on the frontal lobes, the cerebellum and striatum (regulates motor behavior and responses to all stimuli) or more systemically by boosting general levels of dopamine and norepinephrine

primitive reflexes controlled by brain stem amygdala controls limbic system rely on expectation of others to help guide our thought and behaviors (social brain)

control of our bodily and mental functions is on autopilot we pay no attention to breathing, walking, talking, etc

outer layer of brain - cerebral cortex - first organized by genetics, then comes to organize our experiences and how we interact with the world

cortex allows us to form ideas and mental representations of ourselves, other people, and the environment (as we grow) cortex is experience dependent: shaped through countless interactions with our social and physical world we grow in response

explicit memory:

declarative memory - long term - conscious memory of a particular fact or event - date of your mom's birthday episodic memory: - long term - conscious recollection of facts and events within their context of time, place, and associated emotions - first time you traveled by plane - where you were when your grandpa died

depression: negative bias in the recollection and interpretation of past, present, and future events leads to selectively scanning the environment, reinforcing negative perceptions

depression demonstrates the influence of emotional states in the organization of conscious memory (state dependent memory) unconscious networks of emotion shape our understanding of the world before we become aware of our perceptions past experiences, if created in dysfunctional situations, lead us to recreate unsuccessful patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behavior our perception of the world is a creation based on past experience (genetics and environment)

cortex is immature at birth, but continues to develop through adulthood

developmental timing: brain stem reflexes organize much of the infant's early behavior the behavior of a newborn is dominated by subcortical activity: - neonates orienting to mother's smell - seeking the nipple - gazing into the mother's eyes - grasping the mother's hair - moro reflex baby's first smiles are controlled by the brain stem reflexes to attract caretakers reflexes enhance physical survival and jump-start the attachment process

prefrontal cortex generally divided into two functionally related ares 1. orbital and medial regions (OMPFC) 2. dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)

differ in connectivity, neural architecture, biochemistry, and functional responsibilities both play a role in action and inhibition, however OMPFC specializes in social-emotional tasks DLPFC specialized in attentional tasks our prefrontal cortex has two areas of function: 1, regulation of affect and attachment 2. coordination of cognitive and motor processes each is dependent upon the other

DLPFC integrates info from the senses, the body, and memory to organize behavior

directs attention, coordinates working memory, learns motor sequences, and organizes temporal experiences gradual maturation of neural networks is vital to attention and judgement component of integration of top-down, cortical, and limbic processing occurs in the communication between the OMPFC and DLPFC the dorsal and lateral areas of the frontal cortex network with the hippocampus, while the medial regions become densely interwoven with the amygdala

mild to moderate stress (MMS) - neural growth hormones - new learning humans demonstrate arousal in the form of curiosity, enthusiasm, and pleasure

dissociation: disconnection among thoughts, behaviors, sensations, and emotions (common result of high levels of stress associated with traumatic experiences) integration of those neural networks is a central component of mental health healthy mental functioning requires proper development and functioning of neural networks organizing conscious awareness, behavior, emotion, and sensation MMS is what therapy is about

all three triune brain layers continue to evolve along with the emerge of ever more complex vertical and horizontal neural networks that connect them

earlier structure are not conserved from past generations undergo a process of exaptation exaptation: modification of earlier-evolving brain structures for new applications in networks dedicated to alternative or more complex functions

the brain continues to grow as long as we continue to learn

early brain development is highlighted by periods of exuberant neural growth and connectivity: sensitive periods sensitive periods are triggered by the interaction of genes and experience periods of rapid learning and their timing varies across individuals (different abilities appear at different ages) (language around 24 months) sensitive periods are characterized by requirement of large amounts of energy (higher level metabolism) (babies heads are warm) the right hemisphere develops first (attachment, emotional regulation) at around 18 months, this pattern shifts to the left hemisphere

epigenetic changes are reversible and do not change your DNA sequence, but they can change how it is expressed impact of early stress in the human brain

early environmental programming of neural systems has a profound and long-lasting effect on the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis - which regulates an individual's response to stress early maternal deprivation downregulates the degree of neurogenesis and the response to stress during adulthood these processes are reversible later in life the treatment of trauma consists on leveraging epigenetics to change the brain in many ways that enhance the patients well-being

LTP is a small piece of complex set of interactions involving the connection, timing, and organization of firing within and between billions of interconnected neurons in the CNS

early in development there is an overproduction of neurons that gradually decreases through apoptosis synapses: subsequently eliminated if they become inactivated or inefficient elimination of synaptic connections in the cortex continues to shape neural circuitry throughout life (if you don't use it you lose it)

mammal brain

emotion, seek pleasure, avoid pain

implicit memory:

emotional memory: - long terms - memory for events that evoke an emotional response - effect of emotion on episodic memory - you may like someone instantly because they use a perfume that reminds you of your best friend - fear, anger, surprise, happiness procedural memory: - long term - body memory - responsible for knowing "how to do" things: walking, grasping, pushing, riding a bike, swimming - some times are preverbal, how to push an obstacle

inhibitory processes allow children to develop emotional control

empathy requires conceptual understanding, emotional attunement, and the ability to regulate one's own affect damage to prefrontal cortex often results in an impairment of empathetic abilities empathetic thinking requires both affect regulation and cognitive flexibility in order to pull back from the environment

slow development of the cerebral cortex maximizes the influence of experience on the structure and functioning of the brain

epigenetic processes will take place --- culture, language, climate, nutrition, parental care all will shape our brains in a unique way when factors aren't favorable (war, parental psychopathology) the brain is then sculpted in ways that assist the child in surviving childhood, but that can be maladaptive later in life "rebuilding the brain" becomes then the chore of the psychotherapist

genetic info coded in four amino acid bases that flow from DNA to mRNA to protein this only counts for 2% of genetic expression, the other 98% is "junk" junk material plays a role in determining whether specific elements of genetic code gets expressed or lie dormant

epigenetics describes the transformation of cells from their original undifferentiated state during embryonic development into a specific type of cell study of how our genotype is orchestrated into our phenotype, that is why identical twins can show that one gets schizophrenia while the other doesn't

increasing appreciation of the contribution of emotion and intuition in decision making

executive brain contains the control mechanisms that enable us to attend to a particular activity, filter our distraction, make decisions and act in an organized and intentional way if these function are carried out successfully we feel safe enough to turn our attention inward for other aspects of executive functioning such as contemplation, imagination, and self-awareness

what we inherit and what we learn from experience is an interaction inherit template of genetic material (genotype), but which genes get expressed (phenotype) is guided by experience

experience: from toxic exposure to good education, high levels of sustained stress to a warm and loving environment, feats to famine (poverty) many more genes are involved with the regulation of what is expressed than with the direct synthesis of protein while template genetics may guide the earliest formation of the brain during gestation, the regulation of gene expression by experience directs long term development in an ongoing adaptation to the physical and social worlds

two broadest categories of memory are explicit and implicit

explicit: conscious learning and memory, including semantic, sensory, and motor forms - some of these memories remain just beneath the conscious levels until we turn our attention to them implicit: reflected in unconscious patterns of learning stored in hidden layers of neural processing, largely inaccessible to conscious awareness (repressed trauma)

hysteria

glove anesthesia hands take on symbolic significance a conflict within the mind was converted into a bodily symptom hypnosis - illustrates mind-body interactions hysterical symptoms were the power of the unconscious mind encoded within neural structures of the brain

brain is not a static organ neural architecture of the brain comes to embody the environment it shapes research with humans has yielded similar results for individuals with higher education and more intellectually challenging occupations

higher levels of education, practicing skills, and continued engagement in mental activities correlate with more neurons and neural connections higher levels of education and reading ability have also been shown to correlate with diminish impact of dementia later in life the human brain grows in response to challenge and new learnings

parietal lobes: evolved from the hippocampus which organizes a 3D map of the external environment in lower mammals

hippocampus of mother rats increase in size when they have babies in prep for having more mouths to feed human hippocampus continues to serve this function (larger in cab drivers)

tracing genesis of hysterical symptoms to childhood experiences

hysterical patients suffered from the unconscious emotional aftereffects of repressed childhood memories connected development of the individual to the evolution of the species

the quality and nature of our interpersonal relationships become encoded within the neural infrastructure of our brains

if underdeveloped, underregulated, or under integrated with others the person becomes a patient

explicit most conscious - declarative most conscious - episodic second

implicit least conscious - emotional more conscious - procedural (body memory) least conscious

experiences of regulation to dysregulation to regulation shape secure attachment and expectation of positive outcomes

in the absence of adequate assistance, coping mechanisms cortex provides us with rationalizations and beliefs about our behavior that help keep our coping mechanisms and defenses in place, possibly for a lifetime all these neural structures can lead to either psychological and physical health, or illness and disability

region of the brain that controls executive action is FRONTAL executive functioning consists of many interwoven skills and abilities involving: - somatic - cognitive - emotional - social functions

intelligence: having problem solving skills and memory abilities expanded to include emotional abilities (mind reading, attunement, harmony, consonance, empathy, and affect regulation) requires contributions of many neural networks while the frontal lobes are central, it turns out that executive functioning is a group effort

health and happiness may be associated with general lateral balance the ability to be aggressive and express anger (assertiveness) biased to the LEFT grief and shame toward the RIGHT

language: the left hemisphere is an interpreter and puts a positive spin on what is experienced and how it is presented to others if the interpreter is not doing its job properly (ie when left damaged or decreased activation of the left frontal cortex) we can become too realistic, pessimistic, and depressed

corpus callosum: long neural fibers that connect the left and right cortices

largest and most efficient form of communication between hemispheres

SUPEREGO

last part of personality to develop, develops through socialization concerned with morality, right and wrong

early interpersonal environments - shaping the child's neural networks and establishing the biochemical set points in circuitry dedicated to - memory - emotion - safety - survival

later those structures and processes come to serve as the infrastructure for social and intellectual skills, affect regulation and the sense of self prolonged dependence in childhood: neocortex to evolve to be so complex that can be the house of spoken and written language, self-consciousness and the construction of both private and social selves

multiple memory systems (learning, neural architecture, and developmental timetable)

learning within all systems of memory is dependent on the process of long term potentiation, as well as dendritic remodeling and changes in the relationship between neurons

neurons are the basic building blocks, neural networks are the structures that are being rebuilt

learning within neural networks is trial and error neural networks may be established by activation or inhibition depending on the task the same happens with behavior the tendency to repeat patterns of thought and behavior is what led psychoanalyst W. Reich to say that people tend to remain sick, because they continue to find the same wrong solutions to the problems they hope to change (firing)

left hemisphere conscious awareness, coping, and problem solving a function of its language skills and prosocial orientation

left hemisphere is biased toward positive emotions, anger (aggression) expressed toward others, and approach behaviors high levels of right activation are related to anxiety and feelings of terror; this activation appears to inhibit the left hemisphere and language right hemisphere processes information in a liner, sequential manner it has less connections with the body

left-right / right-left adequate language production requires an integration of the left (grammar) and right (emotion)

left-right integration allows us to put feelings into words - alexythimia, somatization, depression, and mania correlate with dysregulation of the balance between left and right prefrontal cortices right hemisphere is more highly connected with the body and the more primitive and emotional aspects of functioning the left hemisphere more closely identified with cortical functioning, the right is more densely connected with limbic and brain stem functions don't forget metabolic differences

cingulate and insula cortices: important areas of the cortical-subcortical interface involved with the integration of inner and outer experience and linking the rest of the cortex with somatic and emotional experience

limbic system: involved with learning, motivation, memory, and emotion two major limbic structures that play a role in trauma: 1. amygdala: involved in attachment as well as the expression of emotion throughout life 2. hippocampus: organizes explicit memory and the contextual modulation of emotion in collaboration with the cerebral cortex

rational brain

logic and thinking

role of the complex frontal lobes inhibition of human reflexes

major neurobiological component of secure attachment is the building of descending fibers from the prefrontal cortex down to the amygdala and other regulatory structures

parietal lobes expand functions by adding a map of internal space and maps of our bodies, and our bodies in external space

medial parietal regions on both sides of the brain contribute to spatial navigation we measure sensory motor experience development through the unfolding of precise behaviors brains evolved to adapt within a 4D environment (3D space plus time) executive functioning emerged as a system of spatial navigation within 4D context sensory, motor, and spatial components of our attachment systems are formed

conscious memory is vulnerable to suggestion, distortion, and fabrication, both from patient and therapist

memory can be implanted in experimental situations, and the subject soon become certain that the false memory have actually occurred given that memory is encoded among neurons and within neural networks, the malleability of memory is an observable manifestation of the plasticity of those neural systems memory is an evolving process that is subject to positive influence (compassion)

OMPFC along with amygdala calculates the magnitude of reward or punishment value of our behavior

much of this analysis occurs out of conscious awareness and is normally called intuition basal forebrain and somatosensory areas work together to appraise huge amounts of information that provide us with this feeling (sensation) about what to do even if it is contrary to reasoning

OMPFC densely connected to the anterior cingulate, the amygdala, and other structures in the basal forebrain

networks are important in recovery of trauma because they regulate emotion, and attachment, and preference your cingulate gyrus will help you express your emotional state through gesture, posture, and movement

brains exist because of the distribution of resources necessary for survival and the hazards that threaten survival vary in space and time

neurons communicate via neurotransmitters different neural networks tend to utilize different sets of neurotransmitters chemical that serve as neurotransmitters include: monoamines, neuropeptides, amino acids neuromodulators (hormones ie testosterones, estrogen, cortisol, and other steroids) regulate the effects of neurotransmitters on receptor neurons

synapse is a junction, minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter

neurons do not actually touch one another thin gap between neurons, synaptic cleft

neurogenesis: birth of a neuron via cell division occurs in the lower region of the ventricles

neurons do not appear to have a life span but they die off as a function of neural pruning during development (apoptosis) or because their biochemical environment becomes inhospitable high levels of cortisol, a lack of blood flow, or the buildup of harmful free radicals can all lead to neuronal death

hippocampus: essential for the encoding and storage of explicit memory and learning plays central role in the organization of spatial and temporal information

noted for its late maturation, with the myelination of cortical-hippocampal circuits continuing into early adulthood particularly vulnerable to hipoxia (reduction in oxygen supply) and this will correspond to a decrease in explicit memory abilities sustain exposure to cortisol (PTSD, prolonged depression) causes cell loss chronic stress decreases hippocampal volume (poverty, abuse)

we pass from the reptilian and paleomammalian stages before we develop into fully human beings

ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny at birth, the reptilian brain is fully functional paleomammalian brain is primed and ready to be organized by early experiences cortex: continues to to slowly grow into the third decade (25s) and matures throughout life most of our emotional and interpersonal learning occurs during our early years (our primitive brains are in control) all this learning takes place before we have the necessary cortical systems for explicit memory or emotional regulation socioemotional learning experiences are organized by behaviors, reflexes, and emotions outside our awareness

relationship between laterality and emotionality first observed in cases of damage to the prefrontal cortex

patients with damage to the left hemisphere appeared to be more likely to have a depressive reaction than those with damage to the right right brain damaged patients found to describe experiences with less emotional intensity than left-brain damaged patients (depression and art) left hemisphere is meant to be in charge of the successful navigation of the rules of the social world right hemisphere - biased neural processing correlates with low self esteem

role of parents in successful brain development is of paramount importance (safety, trust)

primary goals of parenting should include: - capacity for self-soothing - the ability to form positive relationships allows the child to face the challenges of life and benefit from healing life experiences when internal or external factors prevent an individual from approaching challenging or stressful situations, the neural systems will tend to remain underdeveloped and un-integrated (inhibiting neuroplasticity)

psychotherapist: providing and modeling the regulatory functions of the social brain (silent witness)

primary therapist goal is to shift an experience of anxiety from an unconscious trigger for avoidance to a conscious cue for curiosity and exploration early deprivation or chronic stress increase the chances of damage to the brain, deficits in memory, and reality testing, prolonged utilization of primitive defenses (aggression) with increased nurturance and support, stress hormones decrease any healthcare provider has to be fully conscious of the role of the social brain

our prefrontal cortex also appears necessary for thinking about thinking (metacognition) which includes - observing our thoughts - revisiting memories - changing our minds

problem solving: emotional regulation, sustained attention, and cognitive flexibility, is a central executive function that can become impaired with prefrontal damage

experience sculpts the brain through selective excitation of neurons (neural networks) the number of neurons decreases with age, while the size of the brain increases

process of growth and connectivity is referred to as arborization in order for a neuron to survive and grow, it must wire with other neurons in increasingly complex interconnections, through what appears to be a competitive process referred to as neural darwinism (cells struggle for connectivity with other cells in the creation of neural networks) cells connect and learning occurs through changes of synaptic strength between neurons in response to stimulation

alexythimia: inability to consciously experience and describe feelings deficits in the awareness and integration of right-hemisphere functions

prone to depression or mania poverty of emotional expression and experience patients are able to recognize that others have feelings, but unable to locate any within themselves trapped in a secondary thinking process, disconnected from their inner physical and emotional worlds bidirectional inter hemispheric transfer deficit

patterns of dysregulation of brain activation (depression, OCD) support the theory of a brain based explanation for the symptoms of psychopathology difficulties in caretaking, genetic and biological vulnerabilities or trauma at any time during life can result in the lack of integration among networks

psychological integration: the conscious and cognitive functions of the executive brain have access to information across networks of sensation, behavior, and emotion dissociation: between networks of affect and cognition occurs when high levels of stress inhibit the brain's integrative abilities among the left and right cerebral hemispheres, as well as between the cortex and limbic regions evolution has selected for the shutdown of language and a decrease in cognition processing when confronted with a threat (maybe not an evolutionary accident) - survival

in the treatment of trauma the learning of skills necessary for recovery occurs in the context of emotional and cognitive integration, requiring the participation of both hemispheres - reflective language - feelings - sensations - behavior

psychotherapy means that an integration of dissociated systems of memory and processing takes place construction of a more inclusive self-narrative: blueprint for ongoing neural integration

lateral specialization is an evolutionary choice that does not exist in all mammals many birds and fish have identical hemispheres (one side sleeping other awake)

redundant hemispheres are a backup for injury hemispheric specialization: greater neural space and complexity for different tasks through human evolution: left and right cerebral hemispheres increasingly different areas of the left and right cortices have become specialized in the organization of the conscious linguistic self in the left, and the physical emotional self in the right different growth spurts

movement starts well before birth; baby is practicing moving arms/legs

reflexive movements jump-start the organization of motor networks to build the skills the child will need later on through months of trial and error learning, these best guesses become shaped into intentional behaviors that are reflected in the organization of underlying neural networks sensory systems develop and positive and negative values are connected with certain perceptions and movements - sequential activation of reflexive and spontaneous processes prime neural development (shaped by ongoing experience)

hemispheric laterality

right and left cerebral cortex controls opposite sites of the body laterality refers to the specialization of certain tasks to one side of the brain or to the other reflected in how the hemispheres differ from one another in their organization, processing strategies, and neural connectivity varies among individuals, left/right handed people, males and females, young and old most neural processing requires the contribution of both hemispheres, but there are situations in which the hemispheres not only think differently but also compete with one another

when we speak of functions of the right or left brain, functions that are either represented more fully or performed more efficiently in one hemisphere than the other

right artistic brain vs left logical brain = too simple knowledge about brain function is still evolving

when is comes to choosing and maintaining our focus of attention, the prefrontal cortex is assisted by a combined effort of the anterior portions of the cingulate and insular cortex (salience network)

salience network serves to direct the focus of our attention to either the inner or the outer world, and toward the experience of other or to ourselves salience network works together in: 1. integration of somatic and cognitive processing 2. conscious experience of subjective feelings 3. selection of appropriate behavioral reactions to the external world 4. simulation of the internal states of other

reptile brain

survival, fear

most important glucocorticoid is cortisol, the stress hormone produced in the adrenal glands glucocorticoid receptors are found in almost every tissue of the body

sustained levels of cortisol disrupt protein synthesis, halts neural growth, and disturbs the sodium potassium balance to the point of neural death high levels of glucocorticoids for long periods of time in early life can negatively impact brain development the production and availability of neurochemicals shape all of our experience, from bonding to cognitive processing to our sense of well-being regulation of these neurochemicals to control psychiatric symptomatology is the focus of the field of psychopharmacology

consciousness emerges from the coordination and cooperation of many neural networks throughout the brain, the frontal lobes are major contributors

the cingulate and insula cortices also contribute to focused attention parietal lobes are another major contributor to executive functioning

executive systems change through the life, expand as the challenges of adulthood, parenting, and grandparenting call us to new roles and more complex challenges

the function and organization of the brain continue to develop throughout life, allowing for increasing perspective, compassion, and wisdom

as skills are shaped, so are brain systems dedicated to balance, motor control, visual-spatial coordination, learning, and motivation that control them

the growth, development and integration of neural networks continue to be sculpted by environmental demands

coevolution and interdependence of spoken language and fine motor control

the more you control your grasp on reality prefrontal cortex participates in constructing ideas about beliefs, intentions, and perspective of other (Theory of Mind) TOM TOM: an assessment of individual human's degree of capacity for empathy and understanding of others damage to the prefrontal cortex in early childhood results in deficits in TOM, learning social roles, talking, and empathetic abilities

frontal and prefrontal cortices are central to cognitive, behavioral, and emotional executive functioning in both primates and humans

their organization and connectivity provide for the integration of input from the entire brain dedicated to the association of sensory information already processed in other regions of the brain projections from the parietal regions contain integrated visual, motor, and vestibular information, while those from the temporal lobes transmit sensory info that has already synthesized with socioemotional appraisal because evolutionary links between motor behavior and cognition, some theorists consider cognition to be a derivative of motor behavior grasping an idea, understanding a concept

intuition: ability to understand something immediately, without the need for conscious reasoning

thing that one knows or considers likely from an instinctive feeling rather than conscious reasoning ability to acquire/access knowledge without recourse to conscious reasoning

each neuron is limited to either firing or not firing; the different capabilities of the nervous system come from the complex interaction of individual neuronal signals

to accomplish the complexity required for behavior, neurons organize into neural networks each connection is either excitatory or inhibitory effect on other neurons the mosaic of firing patterns will determine which set of output neurons fire consistency of the firing patterns result in organized patterns of behavior and experience once these neural patterns are established, new learning modifies the relationship of neurons within these networks (firing)

triune brain: evolution, the contemporary nervous system, and some of the inherent difficulties in the organization of human experience

to resolve trauma, the therapists have to confront the unique challenge of treating a human, a horse, and a crocodile reptilian: crisis, survival brain limbic: why? emotional brain neo-cortex: what? thinking brain how? logos

optimal neural integration: maximizing the flow and flexibility of energy through the entire nervous system primary directions of information flow relevant to treatment of trauma are: top down and bottom up

top down: cortical to subcortical and back again - left-right (across two halves of the cortex - circuits form loops that go from the top of our head down into the depths of the brain and back again - ability of the cortex to process, inhibit, and organize the reflexes, impulses, and emotions generated by the brain stem and limbic system top-down or bottom-up integration: linkup of the triune brain / unification of body, emotion, and conscious awareness bottom-up approach accepts that feelings or even body sensations happen first

ID

unconscious - pleasure oriented and selfish, driven by pleasure principle, insatiable instincts, present from birth importance of instinctual drives such as sexuality, rage, and envy beneath our civilized exteriors exist more primitive beings we need to accept the primal unconscious elements of experience - SELFISH the ID is the primitive, most uncivilized life energy that we share with our reptilian and mammalian ancestors (animal behavior)

brainstem and cerebellum forms the basic matrix

upon which is built all that we will feel and know about ourselves and about our world

neurobiological model of the mind

what we witness of conscious and unconscious behavior is organized and stored by the brain's neural architecture model of the brain tht provides a bridge between the fields of neuroscience, evolution, and the origins of the unconscious

amino acids: required by CNS to function properly tryptophan, tyrosine, histidine, and arginine are used by the brain for the synthesis of various neurotransmitters and neuromodulators

y-aminobutyric acid (GABA) known as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain glutamate: fish, meat, cheese