Exam 2 Questions

What barriers may exist?

Receiver not paying attention to the sender Receiver's tendency to evaluate and judge the communication Lack of trust between the individuals attempting to communicate Differences in socialization and heredity, causing misinterpretations between the sender and receiver Differences in the mind-set or perception between people Embarrassment (creates interference) Tendency to tell people what they want to hear Difficulties in expression or reluctance to communicate Belief that silence is safer Inconsistency between actions and words Message screening by assistants for efficiency

Define reinforcement theory

Reinforcement is the use of rewards and punishment, which increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future.

Obsessive passion (OP)

Rigid and uncontrolled urges to engage and avoid guilt An uncontrollable desire to participate in an activity that does not become part of one's identity.

Implications of Steiner's model

Role of the coach Increase relevant resources (through training, instruction, and recruiting). Reduce process losses (through enhancing cohesion and emphasizing individual contributions to the team).

When giving someone feedback the sandwich approach is often adopted. What does this mean and give an example

Say something positive, say a future-oriented instruction, say a compliment Positive statement: "Sally, you are really working hard out there." Future-oriented statement: "Next time try to slow down and not get ahead of the music." Compliment: "You're getting there; keep up the good work."

What are the attributes that relate to both competition and cooperation?

Sense of mission Strong work ethic Use of resources Strong preparation ethic A love of challenge and change Great teamwork

group norms

Shared guidelines or rules for behavior that most group members follow A norm is a level of performance, pattern of behavior, or belief. Leaders need to establish positive group norms or standards (especially standards or norms of productivity). Positive norms are important to establish.

pendular perspective

Shifts occur in interpersonal relationships during the growth and development of groups. Groups do not progress through stages in a linear fashion. Five stages of group development: 1. Orientation 2. Differentiation and conflict 3. Resolution and cohesion 4. Differentiation and conflict 5. Termination

What might affect someone's motivation?

Social factors: Success and failure Focus of competition Coaches' behavior Psychological factors: Need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness Passion is a strong inclination and desire toward an activity one likes, finds important, and invests time and energy in.

Does sport competition transfer to life skills and achievement?

Sport participation is related to academic achievement, but only for school-sponsored sports. Sport participation is not related to social or occupational mobility. Sport participation has helped reduce delinquency, but research has not consistently indicated that competitive sport participation reduces delinquency. Sport participation enhances self-esteem when individuals display high levels of perceived competence resulting from instructional feedback and practice.

If a player receives MVP, her perceived competence will increase and therefore her intrinsic motivation will increase. T?F

T

If a reward or event emphasizes negative information about competence, perceived competence will decrease and intrinsic motivation will also decrease. T/F

T

Those who receive feedback are more likely to have higher intrinsic motivation. T/F

T

Explain how to create an effective team climate

Team climate develops from how players perceive the interrelationship among the group members. Player perceptions and evaluations set the team climate. -Social support: mutual respect and support enhance team climate (ex. "good job, ___!") -Proximity: people are more likely to bond when they are close together (ex. team sleepovers) -distinctiveness: unity increases (ex. uniforms) -fairness -similarity

Transformative leadership

Team influences coach, Coach influences team

stability and cohesion

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption; teams staying together longer tend to be more cohesive.

consultative/group style

The coach consults the players as a group and then makes a decision. The decision may or may not reflect the players' input.

consultative/individual style

The coach consults the players individually and then makes a decision. The decision may or may not reflect the players' input.

autocratic/consultative style

The coach obtains the necessary information from relevant players and then comes to a decision.

task cohesion

The degree to which group members work together to achieve common goals and objectives

backward chaining

The establishment of the final link in a behavioral chain, with the addition of preceding links, until the first link is acquired.

social cohesion

The interpersonal attractions among group members

social support and cohesion

There is a positive relationship between the social support an individual receives and that person's evaluation of group cohesion.

What are the guidelines for improving athletes' communication skills?

Use multiple sensory modes (drawing on whiteboard, showing a video, providing a written handbook). Use redundancy. Use an enduring representation (supplement verbal instructions with handouts, recordings, videos). Explain why. Enhance team members' listening skills Encourage use of the HEAR principles -Head up -Eyes front -Attend fully -Remain silent Encourage questions. Check that plans are received.

Do team building exercises help with cohesion?

Yes

Can cooperation and competition work together? Give an example.

Yes For example: certain sports teams may practice together but compete individually, such as track & field, skiing, wrestling, etc.

Is there a positive relationship between cohesion and performance?

Yes Research has shown the cohesion-performance relationship depends on several factors: 1. Types of measures 2. Task demands

What is flow?

a holistic, intrinsically motivating sensation that people feel when they are totally involved in an activity or are on automatic pilot not something an athlete can control

How can we receive messages effectively?

Active listening Supportive listening Aware listening Empathy and caring

Steiner's model

Actual productivity = potential productivity − losses due to faulty group processes. Losses result from motivation and coordination

communication

All communication contains content (what is said) as well as relational (how we felt about the person's message) information.

Components of the Interpersonal Conflict in Sport Model

Antecedents/determinants of conflict: intrapersonal, interpersonal, and external factors Nature of the conflict: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral; duration, frequency, intensity Consequences: intrapersonal, interpersonal, and performance

linear perspective

Assumes that groups progressively move through stages: 1. Forming: Familiarization, formation of interpersonal relationships, development of team structure 2. Storming: Rebellion, resistance to the leader and to control by the group, interpersonal conflict 3. Norming: Development of solidarity and cooperation; group conflicts resolved 4. Performing: Channeling of energies for team success

Leadership & Intrinsic Motivation

Autocratic (controlling) coaching styles are associated with lower levels of intrinsic motivation and perceived competence. Coaching style affects intrinsic motivation and competence and influences athletes' motivation and persistence.

How can we make punishment effective?

Be consistent by giving everyone the same type of punishment for breaking similar rules. Punish the behavior, not the person—convey to the person that it's his or her behavior that needs to change. Allow the athlete's input in making up punishments for breaking rules. Do not use physical activity or conditioning as a punishment. Make sure the punishment is not perceived as a reward or simply as attention. Impose punishment impersonally—do not berate the person or yell. Simply inform the person of the punishment. Do not punish athletes for making errors while playing. Do not embarrass individuals in front of teammates or classmates. Use punishment sparingly, but enforce it when you use it. Do not punish other teammates for an individual's mistake. Make sure punishment is age-appropriate. Make certain athletes understand the reason for the punishment.

Name 4 ways to effectively reinforce behavior.

Choose effective reinforcers (e.g., social, material, activity, special outings, intrinsic, and extrinsic). Choose the timing or schedule of reinforcement. ---Early learning: continuous and immediate reinforcement desirable ---Learned skill: intermittent and immediate reinforcement desirable Reward appropriate behaviors—choose the proper behaviors to reward. With difficult skills, shape the behavior of the learner by reinforcing close approximations of the desired behavior. Reward performance as well as outcome. Reward effort. Reward emotional and social skill.

Key Factors in the Coach-Athlete Relationship

Closeness is the emotional tone that coaches and athletes experience. Terms such as liking, trust, and respect indicate the level of closeness. Co-orientation is a common frame of reference: shared goals, values, and expectation. Open communication facilitates the development of co-orientation. Complementarity refers to the type of interactions in which the coach and athlete are engaged. This reflects coaches' and athletes' acts of cooperation.

leadership and team satisfaction

Coach-athlete compatibility in decision style, generous social support of the coach, rewarding, and democratic decisions are generally associated with higher satisfaction of athletes. Team sport athletes find positive coaching behaviors even more important than individual sport athletes do.

Leadership and cohesion

Coaches high in training and instruction, democratic behavior, social support, and positive feedback and low in autocratic behaviors have teams with greater cohesion. Exercise leaders exhibiting more task-related behaviors and providing task-specific reinforcement were associated with more cohesive exercise groups.

team

Collective sense of identity: "we-ness" rather than "I-ness" Distinctive roles: all members know their job Structured modes of communication: lines of communication Norms: social rules that guide members on what to do and not do

What did Sherif and Sherif find?

Competition can be reduced through cooperative efforts to achieve better goals.

Is competition good or bad?

Competition is neither inherently good nor bad. It is neither productive nor destructive. It is a neutral process; the environment determines its effects to a great degree.

Deutsch's puzzles study

Competition-group students were self-centered, directed efforts at beating others, had closed communication, and exhibited group conflict and distrust; cooperation-group students communicated openly, shared information, developed friendships, and solved more puzzles.

What are the five different component structures of games?

Competitive means—competitive ends: For example, king of the mountain, 100-yard dash Cooperative means—competitive ends: For example, soccer, basketball Individual means—individual ends: For example, calisthenics, cross-country skiing Cooperative means—individual ends: For example, helping each other individually improve Cooperative means—cooperative ends: For example, keeping a volleyball from hitting ground

What did Kelly and Stahelski's study find? - Prisoner's dilemma game?

Competitors draw cooperators into competition.

COMPASS Method Guidelines for Maintaining Coach-Athlete Relationships

Conflict management (proactive strategies) Openness Motivation to make interaction enjoyable Positivity Advice Support Social networks

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Controlling aspects: Rewards perceived to control a person decrease intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards that contribute to an internal locus of causality increase intrinsic motivation. Informational aspects: Rewards that provide information and positive feedback about competence increase intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards that suggest the person is not competent decrease intrinsic motivation. Functional significance of the event: How a reward affects intrinsic motivation depends on whether the recipient perceives it to be more controlling or more informational.

What produces better performance cooperation or competition?

Cooperation as opposed to competition produces superior performance, although results may depend on the nature of the task. Competition can serve as a positive source of motivation to improve and refine skills. Sport can lead to cooperative teamwork and behavior.

What are cooperative games?

Cooperative games emphasize both cooperative means and cooperative ends. Cooperation can be taught through cooperative games. Cooperative games can be devised by changing the rules of traditional games.

cyclical perspective

Development of groups is similar to the life cycle—birth, growth, and death. Emphasis is on the terminal phase of the group's existence. As the group develops, it psychologically prepares for its own breakup. This model is especially relevant for groups and teams that last 10 to 15 weeks.

When should you confront a person?

Do confront someone when you are in control, can express your feelings constructively, and have a well-thought-out reason for doing so.

There are 9 behavioral guidelines for coaches, what are they?

Do provide reinforcement immediately after positive behaviors and reinforce effort as much as results. Do give encouragement and corrective instruction immediately after mistakes. Emphasize what the athlete did well, not what the athlete did poorly. Don't punish when athletes make a mistake. Fear of failure is reduced if you work to reduce fear of punishment. Don't give corrective feedback in a hostile, demeaning, or harsh manner; that is likely to increase frustration and build resentment. Do maintain order by establishing clear expectations. Use positive reinforcement to strengthen the correct behaviors rather than punishment of incorrect behaviors. Don't get into the position of having to constantly nag or threaten athletes to prevent chaos. Do use encouragement selectively so that it is meaningful. Encourage effort but don't demand results. Do provide technical instruction in a clear, concise manner and demonstrate how to perform the skill whenever possible.

When should you avoid confrontation?

Don't confront someone when you are angry.

Athletes' Guidelines for Improving Communication

Don't interrupt. Confront issues right away. Don't make assumptions about what others are thinking. Ask for help from teammates. Voice opinions to those who intimidate you. Make eye contact when communicating.

Harmonious passion (HP)

Engage as part of identity and personal enjoyment A strong desire to engage in an activity freely as it becomes part of one's identity.

receiver failures

Failure to listen carefully (misinterpretation)

What practice might a coach adopt when trying to modify a behavior (target behavior)?

Feedback reinforcement in football Behavioral coaching in golf Recording and shaping in basketball Improving attendance in swimming Addressing inappropriate behaviors in tennis

What is the difference between a group and a team?

For both groups and teams, members may be attracted to each other and have some common goals. A sport team is a special type of group. Teams have four key characteristics beyond mutual interaction and task interdependence.

Interpersonal Conflict in Sport Model: Conflict Prevention Strategies

Have an open door policy. Set common goals. Establish rapport. Foster team cohesion. Establish common expectations. Facilitate stable communication patterns.

How can we improve communication?

Identify your own communication style. Always acknowledge greetings of others. Be empathetic or sensitive to the feelings of others. Explain why you are doing what you are doing. Clearly convey your expectations. Use a positive approach. Be clear and concise when communicating. Help your students, athletes, or clients learn to listen. Encourage questions to check the accuracy of your communications. Focus on listening to others. Whenever possible keep confrontations private. Be open and honest in your communications. Work to be aware of your nonverbal communications.

Principles of reinforcement

If doing something results in a good consequence (such as being rewarded), people tend to repeat the behavior to achieve additional positive reinforcement. If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence (such as being punished), people tend not to repeat the behavior to avoid more negative consequences.

What are the benefits of communication training?

Improved team morale Better cohesion Enhanced performance

What are the three types of communication?

Interpersonal communication Nonverbal communication Intrapersonal communication

What is the definition of leadership?

Leadership is the process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.

leadership and performance

Losing teams need more social support from their leaders to sustain motivation.

What general principles can a practitioner use for cooperative games?

Maximize participation. Maximize opportunities to learn sport and movement skills. Do not keep score. Maximize opportunities for success. Give positive feedback. Provide opportunities for youngsters to play different positions.

adherence and cohesion

More cohesive exercise classes have better attendance, are more likely to arrive on time, are less likely to drop out, are more resistant to disruption, are more likely to experience positive affect related to exercise, and have stronger efficacy for exercise. This positive relationship between cohesion and adherence appears to remain constant regardless of the leader-to-participant ratio.

Should we only reward the outcome?

No, reward performance, effort, and the outcome

Explain competition and decompetition.

Partnership is the essence of competition as one's competitor enables the other to compete. True competitors value fairness and strive with each other to reach new levels of excellence. Decompetition occurs when opponents see each other as rivals, with winning as the ultimate goal.

Why are the principles of reinforcement complex?

People react differently to the same reinforcement. People are unable to repeat desirable behaviors. People receive different reinforcers in different situations.

sender failures

Poorly transmitted messages (ambiguity, inconsistency)

What strategies can be put in place to increase intrinsic motivation?

Provide for successful experiences. Give rewards contingent on performance. Use verbal and nonverbal praise. Vary content and sequence of practice drills. Involve participants in decisions. Set realistic performance goals.

What are the negative side effects of using punishment?

Punishment can be degrading or shame-producing. Punishment can arouse fear of failure. Punishment can act as a reinforcer. Punishment can create an unpleasant learning environment.

What is punishment?

Punishment can control and change behavior, but 80% to 90% of reinforcement should be positive.

Why might someone support the use of punishment?

Punishment can serve an educational purpose (i.e., maintain stability, order, mastery). Punishment can deter future cheating or wrongdoing.

Cognitive-Mediational Model

coach's personal traits contribute to their leadership behaviors -> these are mediated by the environment and the meaning athletes attribute to the behaviors

What can practitioners do to enhance team cohesion?

communicate effectively explain individual roles develop pride within subunits set challenging group goals encourage group identity avoid formation of social cliques avoid excess turnover conduct periodic team meetings know the team climate know something personal about each group member

Athletic scholarships can either decrease or increase athletes' levels of intrinsic motivation, depending on which are more emphasized, the controlling or informational aspect. Explain

controlling: athelete may feel that they are controlled by the scholarship; have to do well or they will lose scholarship - decrease intrinsic informational: athlete may feel lucky or grateful to receive a scholarship; shows competence in the sport - increase intrinsic

What is the difference between cooperation and competition?

cooperation is working together to achieve a goal and competition is working individually against others to achieve a goal

Females prefer...

democratic and participatory coaching that allows them to make decisions

consequences

depends on how the person perceives the results

the competition process

different for everyone person is the focal point for the process and can influence the relationship among the stages personal qualities can affect this stages influence each other

What strategies are there for enhancing cohesion?

distinctiveness individual positions group norms individual sacrifices interaction and communication

When should a coach/ exercise instructor give reinforcement? Would this change depending on the stage of learning?

early stages: continuous and immediate reinforcement later stages: intermittent reinforcement

informal roles

evolve from the group's dynamics or interactions among group members

role conflict

exists when the role occupant does not have sufficient ability, motivation, time, or understanding to achieve the goal

Triplett's study

first experiment that addressed the effects of competition on performance racers showed varying performances when they raced alone, with someone, or in a competition racers were faster when racing against someone rather than against the clock

How might a practitioner reduce social loafing?

for example, they could assess individual performance / give positive feedback to players who put in effort

What can group/team members do in order to enhance cohesion?

get to know members of the group help group members whenever possible give group members positive reinforcement be responsible communicate honestly and openly with coach/leader resolve conflicts immediately give 100% effort at all times

preferred leadership

group members have preference for specific leadership qualities

Who is/ are more likely to be able to modify team norms?

individuals in a group who possess the most persuasive power, are more liked by the group, similar to other group members, more credible

emergent leaders

individuals who emerge from a group and take charge

motivational feedback

influences performance by: enhancing confidence, inspiring greater effort, and creating a positive mood providing valuable reinforcement to the performer establishing goal-setting programs.

Knowledge of result

information concerning the outcome of performance e.g win or lose a race provide this to athletes so they can improve

What is extrinsic motivation?

integrated: valued outcome identified: valued behavior makes it rewarding (ex: play a sport because you think it benefits your growth and development) introjected: motivated by internal pressure (ex: stay in shape to impress someone) external: rewards

What qualities should a successful leader strive for?

integrity, flexibility, loyalty, confidence, accountability, candor, preparedness, resourcefulness, self-discipline, and patience Effective leaders mobilize and focus the physical, mental, and emotional energy resources of themselves and of team members toward the team objectives.

multidimensional model

interactional process dependent on situational factors of the leader and other team members effective leadership can vary

How can cohesion be measured?

interpersonal attraction measure

group roles

involve behaviors required or expected of a person occupying a certain position

objective competitive situation

is a situation in which performance is compared with some standard of excellence in the presence of at least one other person who is aware of the comparison

What relevant situational factors are there when planning for effective leadership?

is the sport team or individual is it interactive or coactive what is the size of the team how much time is available does the group have a particular leadership tradition

as group size increases...

it becomes more difficult to effectively use a democratic leadership style

What is intrinsic motivation?

knowledge: pleasure of learning accomplishment: pleasure of mastering something stimulation: pleasure of sensation

required leadership

leader must behave in certain ways

What are the four components of effective leadership?

leader's qualities situational factors follower's qualities leadership styles

interactional approach

leadership comes from personality and environment

trait approach

look at personality traits for leadership qualities certain people are born leaders

Name two other extrinsic rewards that can have an influence on intrinsic motivation?

money fame

Older, more athletically mature athletes prefer leaders/coaches who are..

more autocratic and socially supportive

Leader effectiveness in sport will vary depending on the characteristics of athletes and constraints of the situation is an example of what theory?

multidimensional model

If there is a breakdown in communication, how might this happen? Why might communication be ineffective?

people blame others for ineffective communication; they do not think they have to improve themselves lack of trust good rapport and trust must be made before effective communication can happen

What barriers may exist that have a negative influence on team cohesion?

personality clash conflict of task or social roles poor communication members struggling for power frequent turnover of group members disagreement on group goals

social loafing

phenomenon whereby individuals become less productive in groups

Females with high trait anxiety prefer...

positive and socially supported environments

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement.

positive reinforcement - applying something to strengthen a behavior negative reinforcement - taking something away to strengthen a behavior

Group goals and cohesion

positively related

instructional feedback

provides information about: specific behaviors to be performed levels of proficiency that should be achieved the performer's current level of proficiency

when little time is available..

a task-oriented leader is more desirable

What does shaping refer to?

rewarding small improvements as the skill is learned it will take time to master a skill, you still need to reinforce effort and improvement over time

amotivation

absence of motivation out of control feeling ex. PE teacher dumps balls on floor for students because he does not care about teaching

role acceptance

accepting one's role - critical for success

behavioral approach

anyone can be a leader if they learn how

prescribed leaders

appointed by someone in authority

formal roles

are dictated by the nature and structure of the organization

Interpersonal communication

at least two people in a meaningful exchange

A basketball team would prefer...

autocratic coaching style

team-sport athletes prefer

autocratic leadership

What are the 5 leadership styles?

autocratic style autocratic/consultative style consultative/individual style consultative/group style group style

If the reward is attributed as internal locus of causality internal to the athlete, intrinsic motivation will increase. Name two examples

basketball player feels good after the game marathon runner desires to run more

controlling strategies used by coaches to control athletes' behavior

scholarships competition

intrapersonal communication

self-talk; the communication we have with ourselves intrapersonal communication or internal dialogue affects motivation and behavior

What are the breakdowns in communication?

sender failures receiver failures

interactive-team athletes prefer

task-oriented leaders

actual leadership

the behaviors that the leader exhibits leader's characteristics affect behaviors directly

group style

the coach shares the problem with the players; then the players jointly make the decision without any influence from the coach

autocratic style

the coach solves the problem herself using the information available at the time

The relationship between cohesion and performance appears to be circular. What does this refer to?

the effect of performance on cohesion appears to be stronger than that of cohesion on performance

Conformity and Cohesion

the more cohesive a group is, the greater its pressure to conform to the attitudes and behaviors of the group

Ringelmann effect

the phenomenon by which individual performance decreases as the number of people in the group increases

Give an example of a team building exercise.

the rope team building exercise

norm for productivity

the standard for effort and performance accepted by the team ex: One teammate puts in exceptional effort and the team does well, now the norm for productivity is higher

What relationship exists between team satisfaction, conformity, adherence, social support, stability, group goals and cohesion?

they are positively related

US citizens prefer...

training and instruction

Males prefer...

training and instructive behaviors and an autocratic coaching style

Four approaches to studying leadership

trait approach behavioral approach interactional approach multidimensional model

role clarity

understanding one's role - critical for success

How can we send messages effectively?

verbal: clear, right time and place, nonverbal: be aware of nonverbal cues you give off 1. be direct 2. own the message using "I" 3. be complete and specific 4. be clear and consistent 5. state needs and feelings clearly 6. separate fact from opinion 7. focus on one thing at a time 8. deliver messages right away 9. avoid hidden agenda 10. be supportive 11. be consistent with nonverbals 12. reinforce with repetition 13. tailor message to the individual receiving it 14. make sure message is accurately interpreted

response

whether a person approaches or avoids an objective competitive situation (at the behavioral, physiological, and psychological levels)

a group that has a tradition with one style of leadership...

will typically have difficulty in changing to another style of leadership

cohesion

A dynamic process reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs

group

A group is two or more people who interact and exert mutual influence on each other and share the following characteristics: -A collective sense of identity -Distinctive roles -Structured modes of communication -Group norms

Competition

A social process that occurs when rewards are given to people for how their performance compares with the performances of others during the same task or when participating in the same event.

Cooperation

A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievement of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal.

subjective competitive situation

how the person perceives, accepts, and appraises the objective competitive situation (influenced by personality factors such as competitiveness).

Success in competition tends to increase or decrease intrinsic competition?

increase

Describe how to maximize individual performance in a team sport.

increase identifiability emphasize individual pride

Team Satisfaction (on cohesion)

increased cohesion is related to increased satisfaction

What conditions cause an increase social loafing?

1. individual performance is anonymous 2. task isn't that meaningful 3. individual involvement is low 4. people are strangers 5. no comparison is possible 6. teammates are high in ability 7. individual thinks contribution would be redundant

Marten's refers to 'The Competitive Process'; what are the four stages and give a brief explanation?

1. objective competitive situation 2. subjective competitive situation 3. response 4. consequences

Nonverbal communication

nonverbal cues including physical appearance, posture, gestures, body position, touching, facial expressions, and voice characteristics Approximately 50% to 70% of the information conveyed in a communication is nonverbal