Exam 2 review MGT 3400

Role

-A set of expected behaviors attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. -Ex. Football team - quarterback, kicker, wide receiver, etc.

Norms

-Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group's members. -"How we do things in this group" -When accepted, norms influence people's behavior. -Ex: My team has a norm that we stay on-task during meetings so we can finish quickly. -Influence Conformity -Influence Behavior

social identity theory

-Considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups -Explains our tendency to personally invest in the accomplishments of a group •Why do we develop social identities? -Because we have an innate need to feel that we belong. -We choose identities that make us feel good about ourselves. -Social identities help up understand who we are; where we fit in. •People have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group -Why? Because their self-esteem gets tied into the group's performance. -When your group does well, you bask in its glory -When your group does poorly, you might feel badly about yourself, or you might reject your identity with that group (e.g., fair-weather fans) •We can develop multiple social identities -As many social identities as we there are groups we belong to. -Outside of work = gender, culture, soccer mom, marathoner, etc. -In the workplace = workgroup, organization, profession, etc. •Identifying with a "group" at work has positive consequences for our: -Attitudes: When we identify with our organization/group, we feel more satisfied with it. -Behavior: When we identify with our organization/group, we do things that help it succeed.

Status Inequity

-Groups often form an informal status order based on ranking and access to needed resources. -Group members generally agree on their status/hierarchy rankings. -People need to believe their status in the hierarchy is equitable. -Perceived inequity creates disequilibrium and can lead to resentment and corrective behavior.

Group size affects the group's overall behavior

-How size impacts a group depends on what we the group is doing -Large groups: Good for gaining diverse input (ex. fact-finding, idea-generation). -Smaller groups: Good for doing something with input (e.g. decision-making)

Positive Norms and Group Outcomes

-In general, positive group norms beget positive outcomes Ex. Our team expects the best work of its members, so the team performs well. -But...other factors come into play. Ex. More satisfied people more closely follow group norms. Ex. People with strong social identities more closely follow norms.

how to increase group cohesiveness

-Make the group smaller -Encourage agreement with group goals -Increase the time members spend together -Increase the group's status -Stimulate competition with other groups -Give rewards to the group (not individuals)

Strengths of group decision making

-More complete information and knowledge -Increased diversity of views -Increased acceptance of solutions -Creativity (groups are more creative in generation alternatives, vs. individuals) Accuracy (groups make more accurate decisions

Negative Norms and Group Outcomes

-Negative norms also exist in organizations and work groups. Ex. A team high is psychopathy may be aggressive and encourage deceit. Ex. A boss who is rude and disregards employee concerns may see high turnover.

ingroup favoritism

-Occurs when we see members of our group as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same. -People protect their ingroups; animosity often exists between in/outgroups

Conformity

-Refers to the adjustments of one's behavior to align with the group's norms. -Groups exert strong pressure on their members to conform their behavior to its norms. -Ex. If we have a norm to arrive on time, people will feel pressured to do so, and...arrive on time

nominal group technique

-Restricts discussion communication during the decision making process. -Group members are all physically present, but operate independently using these steps: 1.A problem is presented. 2.Each member writes down his/her ideas on the problem. 3.Each member presents one idea to the group. 4.The ideas are discussed for clarity. 5.Each group member rank-orders the ideas (individually). 6.The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision.

social loafing

-Tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone. -Caused by: (a) a belief others aren't carrying their weight, (b) recognition that group results can't be attributed to any one team member -Prevention: *Set group goals to create a common purpose to work towards *Increase intergroup competition *Use peer evaluations *Select members who have high motivation *Base group rewards (in part) on each members' unique contribution *Set clear roles (so each person has an assigned task) *Hold people accountable for doing their assigned work

Brainstorming

-The group leader states the problem. -Members then "free-wheel" as many alternatives as they can. -No criticism is allowed. -One idea stimulates others, and members encouraged to "think the unusual."

Weaknesses of group decision making

-Time consuming (groups are slower at making decisions, vs. individuals) -Conformity pressures can bias decisions -Possibility of dominance of a few members (e.g., high status members) -Ambiguous responsibility

social identity threat

-When individual believe they will be personally negative evaluated due to their association with a devalued group, and because of that, they lose confidence and perform worse.

Groupthink

-When the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course of action. -Group pressure for conformity deters the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. -Can be very detrimental to group performance.

deviant workplace behavior

-behavior is voluntary behavior that violates organizational norms and threatens the well-being of the organization. Ex: Working slowly, sabotage, stealing, sexual harassment, verbal abuse, etc.

High Status and Group Interaction

-people are often more assertive. -people speak out, criticize, interrupt, and command more. Groups suffer when there are too many of these teammates

High Status and Norms

-people often have more freedom to deviate from norms. -people resist pressure from low status members of other groups.

What determines status within groups?

1.The power a person wields over others: Often for having control over resources. 2.Person's ability to contribute to a group's goals: Crucial contributors = high status. 3.Individual's personal characteristics: Intelligence, good looks, money, friendly.

Role conflict

A situation in which a person faces divergent (i.e., conflicting) role expectations. -happens when complying with one role makes it difficult to comply with another role. §Ex. My customers want service, but my sales manager wants me to sell. Ex.My team leader on Team A wants me to finish a task by Thursday, but so does my lead on Team B

what determines internal/external attributions?

Distinctiveness: is this behavior unusual for this person Ex: sam arrived late to work today; sam is perpetually late in all situations Consensus: did everyone facing a similar situation behave in the same way? Ex: •Jill lives in CT and drives to work in NYC; She is late to arrive at work; All other employees who drive from CT are also late. Consistency: does this person's behavior exhibit blank over time? Ex: Sam has been late to work for at least 3X a week for the past 6 months

Ways self-efficacy can be increased

Enactive mastery: gain experience Vicarious modeling: see someone else do the task Verbal persuasion: someone convinces you that you have the skills Arousal: get energized

Steps to Help Reduce Biases and Errors

Focus on goals: •Clear goals help you eliminate options that are inconsistent with your interests Look for information that disconfirms your beliefs: •Actively look for information that contradicts your beliefs and assumptions. Don't try to create meaning out of random events: •The educated mind has been trained to look for cause-and-effect relationships. •Ask yourself if patterns can be meaningfully explained or whether they are merely coincidence. •Don't attempt to create meaning out of coincidence. Increase your options: •The more alternatives you can generate, and the more diverse those alternatives, the greater your chance of finding an outstanding one.

Formal vs. Informal Groups

Formal: -Those defined by the organization's structure, with designated work assignments and established tasks, and behaviors directed toward organizational goals. Ex: Software development team, process improvement task force Informal: -Alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Ex: Lunchtime running coworker group

two common attribution biases

Fundamental Attribution Error: •When we make judgments about OTHERS' BEHAVIOR, we often: •Underestimate the influence of external factors, and •Overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors Self serving bias:•When we make judgments about OUR OWN BEHAVIOR, we tend to: •Attribute our own successes to internal factors. •Attribute our own failures to external factors.

Attribution theory Observation-> interpretation-> Attribution of cause

Individual behavior Distinctiveness- High=external, Low=internal Consensus- High=external, low= internal Consistency- high=internal, low=external

ingroups vs. outgroups

Ingroups: Groups that we see ourselves as part of ("we") Outgroups: -Essentially everyone else ("they") -For every ingroup (we), there is an outgroup (they) Ex. Republicans and _____?

Early Motivation Theories

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, McClelland's Theory of Needs, Herzberg's two factor theory

Role Perception

Our view of how we are supposed to act in a given role.

Common Decision-Making Errors and Biases

Overconfidence Bias: •Tendency to be overconfident in their own and others' abilities •People with the weakest intellectual / interpersonal skills are most likely to overestimate their own abilities Anchoring Bias: •Tendency for people give disproportionate weight to the first info they receive •Early information "anchors" information Confirmation Bias: •Tendency to seek out info that reaffirms past choices, and discount info that contradicts past judgments. Availability Bias: •Tendency for people to base judgments on readily available info. Escalation of Commitment: •Tendency to stay with a decision even with clear evidence that it's wrong Randomness Error: •Tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of random events. •We try to make sense of random events. Risk Aversion: •Tendency to prefer a sure thing instead of a risky outcome. Hindsight Bias: •Tendency to believe falsely that one has accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually known; "I knew it all along"

Faultlines

Perceived divisions that split groups into subgroups based on differences such as sex, race, age, work experience, education -can create subgroups within group -Subgroups advance their own agendas (rather than the group as a whole), which means we end up seeing conflict/competition between subgroups -The focus on the subgroup distracts the group from it's task -The existence of this is detrimental to group functioning and performance

Role of Organizational Constraints in Decision-Making

Performance Evaluation systems: •Employees are influenced by the criteria they are evaluated on •Ex. If a professor's tenure evaluation is based on their publications, they will focus on getting publications (rather than on teaching) Reward Systems: • provide info about choices that have the best personal payoffs •Ex. If I'm a salesperson who is rewarded for selling ($ commission), I may decide to allocate my time to a potential sale, rather an after-sale service. Formal Regulations: •Rules and policies get employees to do what you want/what they should •But, they also limit decision choices System-Imposed time constraints: •Deadlines constrain decision-making •If I'm forced to make a decision within one week, I will use shortcuts to do it Historical Precedents: •Today's choices are influenced by past choices •Today's budget is largely based on last year's budget

Role of Individual Differences in Decision-Making

Personality: •High conscientiousness = tendency to escalate commitment (hoping to forestall failure) •High self-esteem = tend to use self-serving bias (take credit for success; blame others for failure) Gender: •Under no stress = men and women make equally good decisions •Under stress = men become more risky (poor decision quality) •Under stress = women become more empathetic (improved decision quality) Mental Ability: •Smarter people process information more quickly, solve problems more accurately •But, they are just as likely to fall prey to anchoring, overconfidence, and escalation of commitment. •Smarter people more quickly learn to avoid decision-making biases once they learn about them. •Once they learn about decision-making biases, smarter people learn more quickly to avoid them

Examples of Variable Pay Programs

Piece-rate plans: •Provides no base salary; pays the employee only for what s/he produces. •Limitation = Not feasible for many jobs (only jobs where you can count output) •Limitation = Involves lots of risk for the worker (no base salary) Merit-based pay: •Employees' pay is based on their performance (e.g., annual evaluation rating) •Creates perceptions of clear relationship between performance and rewards. •Very common in the US Bonuses: •Pay plan that rewards employees for recent (not historical) performance •An annual bonus is a significant component of total compensation for many jobs. •Used to be mostly for senior managers, but now common for all employee levels Profit sharing: •Organization-wide programs that distribute $ based on a company's profitability. •Employees have a feeling of psychological ownership. Employee stock ownership plans: •A company-established plan in which employees acquire stock (below-market prices). •Increases employee satisfaction and innovation.

Role Expectation

The way others believe you should act in a given role.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

a program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress. •The idea is that goals cascade throughout the organizational levels •Higher level goals keep getting broken down into lower level, supporting goals

McClleland's Theory of Needs

a theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation.

Consequences of attributions in the workplace

employment interviews: •Interviewers often make inaccurate perceptual judgments •Interviewers often draw early impressions that become very quickly entrenched. •Most interviewers' decisions change very little after the first few minutes of the interview •Ex. Study of clothing & hiring decisions: Women in more masculine clothes get more positive hiring recommendations performance expectations: •People try to validate their perceptions of reality •People's perceptions can become self-fulfilling prophecies (expectations become reality) •Ex: Paul believes Millennials are lazy, so, he doesn't give them tasks. Then, he looks over at his Millennial employees and notices them just sitting around and concludes that Millennials are lazy. Performance evaluations: •Employees' job performance is often evaluated subjectively by managers •Manager biases (ex. halo effects, stereotyping, contrast effects) impact how they rate employees •Ex. I rate Xavior highly on all dimensions of his annual evaluation, even though I don't see him engage in all of those behaviors (but I know he's organized).

Perception

is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Why is it important? •Because people's behaviors are based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.

Organizational justice

is an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. Perceptions: ↑ Performance ↑ Helping ↑ Orgz. Commitment ↓ Counterproductive work behaviors

Group

is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.

Factors that influence Perception

perceiver: What you see depends on your(attitudes, personality, cast experience, interests expectations) target: we do not look at it in isolation, tend to group similar things together. (women, muslims) situation: context matters; affects what you perceive,

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

proposed that work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different factors - work satisfaction from so-called motivating factors and work dissatisfaction from so-called hygiene factors

Job Design

refers to the way the elements of a job are organized can influence employee effort.

Common shortcuts in judging others

selective perception: •Characteristics that makes a person, object, or event stand out increase the likelihood that it will be perceived (noticed). •Ex: Joe comes to his Boston law office in sweatpants (everyone else is in suits, so I'm likely to notice it) halo effect: •Occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic. •Ex. I know that Xavior is highly organized, so I assume that he is also skilled at time management contrast effects: •Occurs when we do not evaluate a person in isolation. •Our reaction to one person (i.e., judgment) is influenced by other persons we have recently encountered •Ex. If I am interviewing you, I compare you to the last few people I interviewed. stereotyping: •Judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs. •Ex. All 80 year olds are not comfortable with technology.

Job Characteristics Model

skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

• A theory proposing that people are motivated by five levels of needs: •Needs are a key personal factor that influences employee motivation •When one need is met, the next emerges. • Physiological: hunger, thirst, shelter • Safety: security and protection from harm • Social: Affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship • Esteem: self-respect, autonomy, achievement, status, recognition, attention • Self-actualization: Drive to become what we are capable of; growth; self-fulfillment

self-determination theory

• People prefer to feel that they have control over their actions. • Anything that makes a task feel like an obligation can undermine motivation. • Ex. Son loves reading in the summer, but hates reading during the school year (reading log). • Ex. A computer programmer loves to write code (♥ problem solving) but being told that s/he must write 500 lines of code a day may feel coercive (s/he may resent being controlled). •Choose your job for reasons other than just extrinsic rewards like pay. • Intrinsic factors sustain motivation better than extrinsic factors. • Provide both intrinsic (e.g., interesting work/sense of accomplishment) and extrinsic rewards ($). • Recognize that employees who feel that what they do is within their control and a result of free will are likely to be more motivated.

employee involvement and participation (EIP)

•: A participative process that uses employees' input to increase their commitment to the organization's success. -Central idea is that if workers are engaged in decisions that increase their autonomy and control over their work, they will become more motivated and committed to the company. -Examples of Programs: (1) Participative Management -Program that allows subordinates to share in decision making power with their supervisor. -To be effective, subordinates must trust and have confidence in the supervisor. -To be effective, supervisors must stress the organizational consequences of decisions. (2) Representative Participation -Workers represented by a small group of employees who participate in decision making. - Almost every country in Western Europe requires representative participation.

Variable Pay Programs

•A ______ that bases a % of pay on an individual and/or organizational measure of performance. -These programs base pay on performance, not other factors (e.g., credentials or seniority) •Very popular approach to compensating employees (90% US/80% global) •Why companies like programs? -Turns some fixed labor cost into a variable cost (when performance Ô, pay Ô) -Employees' earnings reflect their contribution (rather than entitlement) -Over time, low performers pay stagnates, high performers see pay increases § Do programs increase motivation and productivity? Generally, yes, but not everyone is equally motivated by them.

operant conditioning

•A component of reinforcement that is relevant to management/OB. •Says people learn to behave to get something they want; avoid something they don't want • This perspective is philosophically at odds with goal-setting theory

rational decision making model

•A decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome. Steps 1.Define the problem. 2.Identify the decision criteria. 3.Allocate weights to the criteria. 4.Develop the alternatives. 5.Evaluate the alternatives. 6.Select the best alternative.

Stages of Group Development: Punctuated Equilibrium Model:

•A model that describes the typical pattern we see in temporary groups with finite deadlines. • Involves two phases of relatively inertia, "punctuated" by a period of major change/action at midpoint. 1.First meeting: Sets direction 2. Phase 1: Slow progress (inertia) 3. Midpoint: Transition; major change (yikes, we need to step it up!) 4. Phase 2: More slow progress (inertia) 5. Near deadline: Accelerated activity.

Bounded Rationality

•A process of making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity. •It's a simpler decision-making process (compared to RDM) with 3 steps: 1.Limited search for criteria & alternatives: Look for familiar criteria/obvious alternatives 2.Limited review of alternatives: Focus on alternatives similar to those already in effect 3.Satisficing: Elect the first alternative that is "good enough"

status

•A socially defined rank given to groups or group members by others. has major behavioral consequences when people perceive a disparity between what they believe their status should be and what others perceive it to be.

Reinforcement Theory

•A theory that says behavior is a function of its consequences •Takes a behavioristic view, which says this strengthens conditions behavior •Says that a behavior that is reinforced is likely to occur again •Ex. A rat pushes a lever (behavior), and, surprise, a tasty treat pops out for them! •Ex. An employee goes above and beyond and is recognized by their manager

Job Redesign Approaches

•Boring, repetitive jobs provide little variety, autonomy, or motivation. •Redesigning jobs (with the JCM in mind) can make jobs more motivating •Job Rotation (aka cross-training) -Periodic shifting from one task to another. -Pros: boredom, motivation, helps employees better understand their work contributions. -Cons: Ô efficiencies, creates disruptions, extra time for supervisors to address ?s/training. •Relational Job Design -Construct jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others -Connect employees with the beneficiaries (e.g., customers, patients, etc.) of their work.

Diversity

•Degree to which group members are similar to or different from each other. -can increase group conflict (a con), especially early in the team's lifecycle -can also increase the knowledge, perspectives available to the team (a pro)

Alternative Work Arrangements

•Flextime -Employees work a specific number of hours per week, but vary their hours (within limits) -60% of companies use some type of flextime -Pros: ¯ absenteeism, overtime expenses, hostility toward management; productivity -But, it's not a motivator for everyone, though! •Job Sharing (on the decline) -Two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job. •Telecommuting -Employees work virtually several days a week -Very popular, but some well-known organizations discourage (or have eliminated) it (Yahoo). -Pros: Larger labor pool, Ó morale, Ô office-space costs -Cons: Less direct supervision, harder to coordinate, hard to evaluate performance

Goal Setting Theory

•Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed. • Goals have powerful effects on employee performance. -Has cognitive approach •Specific goals increase performance (compared to vague "do your best" goals); provides a target • Difficult goals (when accepted) result in higher performance (compared to easy goals) Feedback leads to higher performance (tells you how you're progressing

Using Rewards to motivate employees: What to pay?

•Organizations need to (initially) set pay levels by balancing two factors: •Internal equity: worth of the job to the organization •External equity: competitiveness of a company's pay vs. competitors • Over time, companies develop preferences about how they pay: -Some pay above market (i.e., average) -Some pay below market because they can't afford to pay at/over the market -Some decide to accept the "cost" (i.e., > turnover) of paying below market -Some companies decide to focus on profit (by keeping pay low) • Overall, research about compensation shows that paying more gets you: -Better qualified employees -More motivated employees -Employees who stay with your company longer

Self-Efficacy Theory

•Says that a person's motivation depends upon their beliefs about whether they can effectively perform a task. •An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. • High = more confidence in your ability to succeed (so you try) • Low = you doubt your ability, so you often reduce effort/give up •High = respond to negative feedback with increased effort •Low = respond to negative feedback by reducing effort

Attribution biases

•Systematic errors we make when trying to find reasons for our own/others' behavior.

Using Benefits to Motivate Employees

•Today's companies recognize that each employee values benefits differently. •So, many organizations are developing benefit "packages" •Flexible benefits: individualize benefits for employees. -Allow each employee to choose the compensation package that best satisfies his or her current needs and situation. -Very common in US (but not globally). -Flexible benefits can help motivate people to choose one organization over another. -But, flexible benefits don't impact motivation in day-to-day work.

Using Intrinsic Rewards to Motivate Employees

•Work rewards can be both extrinsic (bonus) and intrinsic (recognition). •For some employees, intrinsic rewards (such as employee recognition) are very motivating. •Employee Recognition Programs -Programs that encourage specific employee behaviors by formally appreciating (recognizing) specific employee contributions. -Must be seen as fair and consistently recognize performance efforts. -Advantages §Recognition (even simple praise) can be very motivating for people. §Improves self-esteem, self-efficacy, job satisfaction §Low-cost (praise is free!)

Motivation

•represents the processes that account for a person's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward obtaining a goal. •The level of ____ varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times. •Consists of 3 components: Intensity: How hard a person tries Direction: channel effort to benefit the organization Persistence: how long a person can maintain effort

attribution theory

•suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Internally caused behaviors: •Behaviors an observer believes to be under the person's behavioral control •Ex. Joe is late to work (as usual); therefore, he must have slept through his alarm Externally caused behaviors: •Behaviors an observer believes were caused by the situation Ex. Sue is late to work but she's always on time; therefore, she must have hit traffic

Cohesiveness

•the degree that members are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group. -positively impacts group productivity.

Job Engagement

•the investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. • This is a deep form of commitment to and motivation in one's job. • Organizations want more engaged employees. Why? •Successful organizations have more engaged employees (compared to average organizations)