Exam 2 Sports Psych

Confrontation

- Although confrontation (a face-to-face discussion among people in conflict) is often seen as negative, when properly used it is a part of effective communication. - Communication training can increase one's effectiveness in confrontation.

competition

A social process that occurs when rewards are given to people for how their performance compares with the performances of others during the same task or when participating in the same event. Coakley 1994

cooperation

A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievement of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal. coakley 1994

Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards

Basic question: Do extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation? • Research shows that being paid/rewarded for working on an intrinsically interesting activity can decrease a person's intrinsic motivation for the activity. • See children and the marker story on BB!

Components of Teacher-Coach-Leader Communication

Certain behaviors can facilitate communication... • Confirming behaviors of a coach/leader: - Communication indicates that a coach appreciates player questions/comments - Communication indicates that a player can do well - Frequent check for understanding - Interested in learning is taking place - Feedback is provided • Clarity behaviors of a coach/leader: - Uses clear/relevant examples and relates them back to the concept - Uses concrete language versus abstract - Stays on task - Clearly explains objectives for a drill

Other Determinants of Intrinsic Motivation

Higher levels of intrinsic motivation are related to the following: • Playing for an autonomous (democratic) versus a controlling coach • Participating in a recreational versus competitive league • High versus low perceived competence • High versus low perceived control

cognitive evaluation theory

How rewards are perceived is critical in determining whether intrinsic motivation increases or decreases

intrinsic motivation

People who have intrinsic motivation strive inwardly to be competent and self-determining in their quest to master the task at hand. • They enjoy competition, like the action and excitement, focus on having fun, and want to learn skills to the best of their ability

Approaches to Influencing Behavior

Positive approach focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior, which increases the likelihood of desirable responses occurring in the future. Negative approach focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors, which should lead to future redirection of these inappropriate behaviors.

Punishment: Good or Bad?

Pros • Deter future cheating/wrongdoing • Cheaters should be punished b/c they are not sharing, helping, cooperating • No long term benefit in cheating • Hold all accountable for actions, when one is punished • Sends a message to others on the team • Minimal risk for emotional and behavioral problems when using punishment Cons • Invoke shame in front of others (shame/guilt linked to failure) • Arouses fear of failure; thus decrease motivation; decrease performance; less sport enjoyment • Reinforce undesirable behavior (draw attention to the athlete) • Create unpleasant learning environment, hostility between players/coaches; lose motivation

Stage 1: Objective Competitive Situation

Some comparison standard and at least one other person • Comparison standard? • KEY POINT: the criteria for comparison is known by at least one person who is in a position to evaluate the performance

Reinforcement

is the use of rewards and punishment, which increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future. • Rooted in behavior modification and operant conditioning • Serve as the root of learning (Skinner, 1968) • Both desirable and undesirable behavior

Amotivation

neither intrinsically or extrinsically motivated, doesn't care or not motivated!

Decompetition

the opposite of competition

Process of Communication

• 1. A sender thinks about sending a message • 2. A sender encodes thoughts into a message • 3. Message is sent to a receiver - Verbal/nonverbal channels • 4. Receiver decodes/interprets the message • 5. Receiver responds to the message - Reacts to the interpretation - What are some reactions?

The Sandwich Approach to Constructive Criticism

• A positive statement • A future-oriented instruction • A compliment

Negative Side of Flow

• A potential negative consequence might be that of contributing to dependence on an activity once associated with a flow experience. • Some surfers were found to be addicted to the euphoric feelings they experienced and were willing to continue to surf despite family commitments, injury, or potential death.

Receiving Messages Effectively

• Active listening: - Ask questions, paraphrase, attend to main and supporting ideas, acknowledge and respond, give appropriate feedback, and pay attention to the speaker's total communication (verbal and nonverbal). • Keys to active listening: Mentally prepare to listen, don't mistake hearing for listening, paraphrase what the speaker said. • Supportive listening: Communicate that you are with the speaker and value his or her messages. • Keys to supportive listening: - Use supportive behaviors as you listen. • Open to ideas, ask open-ended questions, focus on immediate thoughts feelings - Use confirming behaviors as you listen. • Rephrasing - Use both verbal and nonverbal listening behaviors • Maintain eye contact, close proximity, etc... • Aware listening: Realize that people react individually or differently to the way you communicate. • Tips for aware listening: - Be flexible - let the speaker run the convo! - Be alert for barriers and breakdowns in communication. • Empathy (important for communication) - ability to perceive, recognize, and understand the feelings, behaviors, intentions, and attitudes of others • Coaches should get to know athletes... - Emotional intelligence? • Communication is improved when athletes think coaches care • What are some ways that coaches can create a "caring" climate?

Stage 3: Response

• After the appraisal of a situation: approach or avoid • If we avoid (not compete), then the response stops here • Factors that can influence/affect the response (one, or all three)

Key Points in Knowing How to Confront

• All parties' needs are legitimate and must be attended to. • There are enough resources to meet all needs. • People in conflict know what they need, coaches/leaders should not impose solutions based on what they think the problem is. • Process is as important as content because it provides direction and focus. • Everyone is right from his or her own perspective. • Solutions and resolutions are temporary states of balance and are not absolute or timeless.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Functional Significance of the Event

• All rewards can have both controlling and informational aspects • Recipient's perception is key, as to whether its more controlling or more informational • Text e.g., giving a reward to players so they do not join another team (if that is what the players perceive the reward to be for) • How a reward affects intrinsic motivation depends on whether the recipient perceives it to be more controlling or more informational

The Flow Model: Essential elements of flow:

• Balance of challenges and skills • Complete absorption in the activity • Clear goals • Merging of action and awareness • Total concentration on the task • Loss of self-consciousness • A sense of control • No goals or rewards external to the activity • Transformation of time • Effortless movement

guidelines for using punishment

• Be consistent by giving everyone the same type of punishment for breaking similar rules. • Punish the behavior, not the person— convey to the person that it's his or her behavior that needs to change. • Allow athlete's input in making up punishments for breaking rules. • Do not use physical activity as a punishment • Make sure the punishment is not perceived as a reward or simply as attention. • Impose punishment impersonally— do not berate the person or yell. Simply inform the person of the punishment. • Do not punish athletes for making errors while playing. • Do not embarrass individuals in front of teammates or classmates. • Use punishment sparingly, but enforce it when you use it.

Sending Messages Effectively

• Be direct (don't beat around the bush or assume others know what you want!) • Own your message (use "I" or "my," not "we" or "the team thinks")...don't be a coward...this is what YOU believe NOT the team! • Be complete and specific • Be clear and consistent (avoid double messages) -- You're a great player, but we don't want you to play this year??? • State your needs and feelings clearly. • Separate fact from fiction. • Focus on one thing at a time - (organize before you speak!) • Deliver messages immediately. • Avoid hidden agendas. • Be supportive • Be consistent with your nonverbal messages. • Reinforce with repetition (not too often!) • Make messages appropriate to the receiver's frame of reference - DON'T USE COMPLEX LANGUAGE FOR THOSE WHO DO NOT UNDERSTAND WHAT THE HECK YOUR TALKING ABOUT! • Look for feedback that your message was accurately interpreted - ASK!!!!!

Flow: How to Achieve It

• Be motivated to perform (maintain a balance between goals and skills) • Achieve optimal arousal before performing • Maintain an appropriate focus (narrow) • (stay in the present, focus on key points) • So focused you can concentrate! • Use precompetitive and competitive plans and preparation • When prepared...just do it and let it happen!

intrinsic

• Behavior is self-determined (reflects the feelings of "want" not "ought") • Knowledge • Accomplishment • Stimulation

Dealing with confrontation

• Can be beneficial - Reach a more clear understanding between parties • When should you use confrontation? - Avoid when angry

Principles of Positive Reinforcement

• Choose effective reinforcers • Social, material, activity, special outings... • Which kind to you prefer? • Extrinsic rewards (received from others) • Intrinsic rewards (come from w/in) • Taking pride, feeling a sense of accomplishment • Coaches/leaders cannot directly offer intrinsic rewards (obviously)...BUT they can structure the athletic climate to promote intrinsic motivation • Focus on effort, process, mastery, learning facilitates intrinsic motivation!

When should I provide reinforcement?

• Choose timing or schedule of reinforcement. • Early learning—continuous and immediate reinforcement desirable • Learned skill—intermittent and immediate reinforcement desirable • When learning a skill what does continuous feedback do? • Motivates and provides information • When should we back off from this "continuous" schedule? • Following skill mastery, reduce to intermittent • Teach athletes to generate their own internal feedback as well as outcome! • The sooner after a response reinforcement is provided the more powerful the effects on behavior • Very true for new skills...why? • Confidence is unstable

summary of the model of competition

• Competition is neither inherently good or bad • It is a process, that is largely influenced by leadership which can steer athletes' perceptions of competition in positive and negative directions

Strategies for Improving Communication

• Convey rationales - Why do you expect/not expect certain behaviors from your athletes? • Express empathy, not sympathy - Convey an understanding of the emotional state of the athlete • Use a communication style that is comfortable for you • Use the positive approach (e.g., praise, encouragement) when communicating. • Always acknowledge the greetings of others. • Have an open-door policy for your students and athletes. • Be consistent in administering discipline

Steps of Constructive Criticism

• Describe your feelings and take responsibility for your emotions. • Describe your thoughts about the action or event that concerned you. • Describe the tangible reason why the behavior affects you. • Describe what you want done.

Ways to Choose and Monitor Target Behaviors

• Direct observation of single behaviors • Behavioral checklists for recording multiple behaviors • Athlete self-monitoring • Videotape of practice, precompetition, and competition • Postperformance videotape reconstruction of verbal behavior

Dos and Don'ts of Confronting

• Do convey that you value your relationship with the person. • Do go slowly and think about what you want to communicate. • Do try to understand the other person's position. • Do listen carefully to what the other person is trying to communicate. • Don't communicate the solution. Rather, focus on the problem. • Don't stop communicating. • Don't use put-downs. • Don't rely on nonverbal hints to communicate your thoughts

Stage 4: Consequences

• Final stage results from comparing an athlete's response with the standard of comparison • Consequences, not necessarily positive (win) or negative (loss) • Athlete's perception of the consequences more important than the outcome (win/loss) • These feelings from the perceptions feed back into the process! • At what points of this model can a coach intercede?

What Not to Do: Inappropriate Approaches to Motivation

• Focus on criticism. • Focus on criticism with sarcasm. • Use physical abuse. • Employ guilt.

What are some ways to improve team/group communication?

• Ideas? - Frequent team meetings • Establish rules prior to these gatherings! • Rules - Consider others opinions - Criticize the behavior not the person! - Confidentiality - Give everyone the opportunity to speak - Each team member should have at least one positive thing to say about everyone

Bottom Line for CET

• In sum, people may see external rewards as achieving some degree of control over them or may see the reward as informational, such as where they reinforce feelings of competence and self-determination. • When people see the reward as mostly for control they will be motivated by gaining the reward but not by enacting the requested behavior.

extrinsic

• Integrated regulation (value the outcome) • E.g., complete the marathon just to say I did it! • Identified regulation • Value the behavior/sport involvement b/c it will help me develop/grow • Introjected regulation • Behavior is not self-determined, (stay in shape to impress others) • External regulation • Behavior controlled by rewards • Do more work to get a raise in pay

Types of Communication

• Interpersonal communication - at least two people in a meaningful exchange - Nonverbal communication is important • Critical to sending and receiving info • Intrapersonal communication - self-talk, internal communication w/ourselves - Influences motivation and behavior

Approaches to Influencing Behavior: How do coaches motivate their athletes?

• Most coaches/leaders combine both positive/negative reinforcement to motivate and inspire desirable behavior • Predominant approach should be positive • 5 to 1 ratio of positive to negative feedback • Some coaches use threats of punishment as their primary motivational tool • Athletes w/positive-oriented coaches enjoy their experience more, like their coaches, and report greater team cohesion (Smith & Smoll, 1997)

Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

• Provide for successful experiences. • Give rewards contingent on performance. • Use verbal and nonverbal praise. • Vary content and sequence of practice drills. • Involve participants in decisions. • Set realistic performance goals.

Providing Performance Feedback

• Provide knowledge of results (feedback regarding the correctness of an action) • Provide sincere and contingent feedback • Feedback needs to be tied to a specific behavior or set of behaviors (i.e., technical feedback) • WRONG: "keep up the good work," when the behavior is incorrect

punishment

• Punishment can control and change behavior, but 80% to 90% of reinforcement should be positive • Support of punishment: • Punishment can serve a useful educational purpose (i.e., maintain stability, order, mastery). • Punishment can deter future cheating or wrongdoing.

Barriers to Effective Communication

• Receiver not paying attention to the sender • Lack of trust • Differences in socialization • Differences in the mental set or perception between people • Embarrassment (creates interference) • Tendency to tell people what they want to hear • Difficulties in expression or reluctance to communicate • Belief that silence is safer • Inconsistency between actions and words

Controllability of Flow States

• Research with athletes indicates that they cannot control flow. • Athletes do report that they can increase the probability of flow occurring.

What Behaviors Should I Reward?

• Reward only the most important and appropriate behaviors • Only for outcome (winning)??? • Successful Approximations • Reward small improvements when learning new complex skill (i.e., shaping) • Increases motivation and provides direction for what is to come during the learning process

Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Informational Aspects of Rewards

• Rewards that provide information and positive feedback about competence increase intrinsic motivation • E.g., MVP award should increase intrinsic motivation

Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Controlling Aspects

• Rewards, and how we perceive them can control our behavior, or not... • Locus of causality (what causes our behavior) • External LOC: Rewards perceived to control a person decrease intrinsic motivation - "I am only playing for money" • Internal LOC: Rewards that contribute to an internal locus of causality increase intrinsic motivation • People who are intrinsically motivated feel that they do things because they WANT TO, not for the external reward (behavior resides within them versus outside themselves) • Internal LOC believe that they are in control of how they behave • External LOC believe that environment/others has a greater influence over what they do • People who feel like they are controlled by outside factors feel like they are controlled by the rewards/potential for rewards

How Extrinsic Rewards Affect Intrinsic Motivation in Sport

• Scholarships • Athletic scholarships can either decrease or increase athletes' levels of intrinsic motivation. • Effects depend on which is more emphasized by the coach—the controlling or information aspects • Competitive success and failure • Success tends to increase intrinsic motivation. • Failure tends to decrease intrinsic motivation. • Feedback: Positive feedback increases intrinsic motivation

Sender and Receiver Failures

• Sender Failure... - Poor transmission of information • E.g., ambiguous messages - How is this important in the coach-athlete relationship? - What about inconsistent messages from coaches? • Team rules...do they apply to everyone? • Receiver Failure... - Only get one part of the message...breakdown in the line of communication - Failure to actively listen...

factors influencing intrinsic motivation

• Social factors • Success and failure (competency) • Focus of competition (improvement vs. opponent) • Coaches' behavior • Psychological factors (what theory is this?!) • Need for competence • Autonomy (own your decisions) • Relatedness (care for others and have them care for you) • Knowing these factors and altering the environment will enhance intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards: Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

• Sub-theory of Self-Determination Theory... • What was that? • Says people are intrinsically motivated when they have three psych needs met (effectance/competence, relatedness, autonomy) • Does not elaborate on "causes" of intrinsic motivation... • CET: helps explain variability in intrinsic motivation • "any events that affects SDT components, will affect their levels of intrinsic motivation" • These events (rewards, quantity/quality of feedback) have two functional components that can increase or decrease intrinsic motivation: • Controlling aspect • Informational aspect

behavior modification

• Systematic application of the principles of reinforcement to change behavior • Contingency management = behavioral coaching = behavior modification

Controlling Strategies Used by Coaches

• Tangible rewards • Controlling feedback • Excessive personal control • Intimidation behaviors • Promote ego-involvement • Conditional regard

principles of behavior training programs

• Target the behaviors you want to change. • Define targeted behaviors. • Record the behaviors. • Provide meaningful feedback. • State outcomes clearly. • Tailor reward systems.

Stage 2: Subjective Competitive Situation

• This stage is basically how we perceive, accept, and appraise the objective competitive situation • Highly competitive people seek out competitive situations, and more motivated to achieve in them than those people w/lower levels of competitiveness • Three types of competitive orientations people can have...

The Importance of Communication

• You can communicate without motivating but it is impossible to motivate without communicating. - John Thompson, former Georgetown University men's basketball coach. • It is not what you tell them—it's what they hear. -Red Auerbach, former Boston Celtics championship coach. • Good communication skills = performance enhancement • also = personal growth of sport and exercise participants