EXAM 3

Review Question #12 Describe the formation of sun pillars. Does refraction play a role in their formation?

Platelike crystals between a low Sun and an observer can also *reflect* (as opposed to refracting light that creates sundogs) sunlight off their tops and bottoms to produce sun pillars. No.

How does continentality affect climate?

Because land heats and cools faster and more intensely than water, continental locations have a larger seasonal temperature range than maritime locations. Maritime locations often have more precipitation because of their proximity to a large moisture source.

What are the 6 controls on climate?

1. Latitude 2. Land/Water (Continentality) 3. Geographic Position 4. Mountains 5. Oceans 6. Pressure/Winds

Polar Climates (E)

All months have mean temperature below 50 degrees F

Review Question #22 What is an El Niño and how is it related to the Walker circulation?

At 2-7 year intervals, the surface waters of the eastern Pacific become unusually warm. This causes the trade winds to weaken or even reverse and flow eastward, which in turn reverses the Walker circulation. The change in sea-surface conditions linked with the change in the atmospheric pressure distribution is called *Southern Oscillation*.

Review Question #15 How do changes in eccentricity and obliquity and precession interact to influence Earth's climate? What time scales apply to each?

Changes in *obliquity* would cause the inclination of hemispheres towards the sun during the equinoxes to be greater or less. Obliquity changes on a 41,000 year cycle. Changes in *eccentricity* would cause the Earth's distance from the sun during the aphelion and perihelion would change so that the planet receives a greater difference in incoming radiation available at the top of the atmosphere during the course of a year. Changes on a 100,000 year cycle. Changes in *precession* would cause changes in the intensity and timing of seasons during the year. Occurs on a 27,000 year cycle.

Review Question #1 Describe what is meant by *climate*.

Climate is formally defined as the statistical properties of the atmosphere. Climatic normals are the average climatic conditions in an area within the most recent 30 year period.

How do mountains/elevation affect climate?

High elevations tend to have lower temperatures, and high elevation has larger effect on the minimum daily temperatures than the maximum daily temperatures. Mountains also affect seasonal precipitation patters, where areas on the windward side of a mountain receive ample precipitation and areas on the leeward side are in a rain shadow and receive no precipitation.

Critical Thinking Question #1 Why don't hurricanes cross the equator?

Hurricanes do not cross the equator because between the latitudes of 0 and 5 degrees there is no Coriolis force.

Dry Climates (B)

Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation.

Review Question #4 How are tree cores used as indicators of past climates?

The width of tree rings is dependent on on how favorable temperature and/or moisture conditions were during a given year for that tree species. Under climatic stress conditions, the growth of rings will be retarded and when conditions are favorable, the rings will be thick.

Review Question #11 Is there a "typical" path that hurricanes take after forming? Explain.

Yes & No. Hurricane paths can be wildly erratic, but there is a greater likelihood that they will take particular paths during diff. months. August- path goes over the West Indies, and from there they are likely to track toward Texas coast or along Atlantic coast September- 1. From Yucatan Peninsula and western Cuba, goes northward toward the central Gulf of Mexico coast 2. Northward from Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico into western Atlantic October- tendency to track from Gulf of Mexico and Carribbean Sea northward to Florida & Southeastern U.S.

Review Question #5 When are hurricanes most likely to form?

in late summer & early fall when waters are warmest "Atlantic Season": June-November Early in the Atlantic season, dissipating midlatitude cyclones in the western ocean extend southward over warm tropical water, which can provide the rotation favorable for hurricane development.

Review Question #11 Describe the characteristics of the 850 mb, 700 mb, 500 mb, 300 mb, and 200 mb maps that make each of them useful to forecasting.

*850 mb* -Around 1.5 km height above sea level Gradient or geostrophic flow can exist at this level over terrain with elevations near sea level. -Shows advection. -At high elevations, this map can represent near-surface conditions. -During the morning, 850 mb distribution of temperatures often provides a way to forecast the daily maximum for nonmountainous areas. -Air is far enough from the surface so that it does not undergo daily heating and cooling, so 850 mb temperature is usually 15 degrees C less than the surface temp in the summer and 12 degrees in the winter. *700 mb* -Similar application as 850 mb map. -Best for observing the short waves that are important in the formation and maintenance of midlatitude cyclones. -Also valuable in predicting the movement of air mass thunderstorms, which move with the same velocity as 700 mb winds. *500 mb* -Can indicate vorticity & spin, and can show steering winds for MLC's -shows troughs and ridges that indicate surface pressure *300 mb & 200 mb* -These levels have the strongest jet streams & are located near the tropopause -In colder months, 300 mb works best for identifying the jet stream -In warmer months, 200 mb works best for identifying the jet stream -Rossby waves show up best on 200/300mb maps, so they are useful for determining the rate at which the waves are likely to migrate downwind -Used to plot isotachs (lines of equal wind speed) which is important because air flow into or out of areas of high wind speed generate local regions of upper-level convergence and divergence

Review Question #2 Describe the basic characteristics of climatological forecasts, persistence forecasts, the analog approach, and numerical forecasting.

*Climatological Forecasts* -Forecast based on long-term historical weather data. -More accurate in areas with consistent weather. *Persistence Forecasts* -Relies completely on current conditions with no reference to climatology. -Extrapolation of current conditions to persist throughout the day. *Analog Approach* -Similarities between current conditions and similar well-studied patterns from the past. *Numerical Weather Forecasting* -Based on computer programs that attempt to mimic the actual behavior of the atmosphere. -Explicitly compute the evolution of wind, pressure, temperature, and other elements over time.

Review Question #7 Describe the various ways in which hurricanes differ from midlatitude cyclones.

*Mid-Latitude Cyclones* -forms over land -low pressure at surface & at tropopause -cold core system -fronts -high wind shear *Hurricanes* -forms over water -low pressure at surface & high pressure at tropopause -warm core system -no fronts -low wind shear

Review Question #17 Describe positive and negative feedbacks and provide examples of each.

*Positive* feedbacks occur when A causes B, B has an effect that is C, and C reinforces A, so that the original event B is further exacerbated. Example: A- The Earth's temperature is rising. B- Warming temperatures cause ice to melt. C- Because ice is melting, the Earth's albedo (reflection of solar radiation) decreases. A- This causes the Earth's temperature to rise. *Negative* feedback occurs when A causes B, B has an effect that is C, and C contradicts A, so that the original event B is essentially reversed. Example: A- Temperature rises. B- Higher temp means higher evaporation rates & higher condensation rates. C- The higher condensation creates cloud cover. A- This causes the temperature to decrease.

Review Question #3 Describe two types of remnant landforms that can provide information on past climates in a region.

*Streams & Rivers* Depositional features can help determine past climate info because the size of material that can be transported depends on the speed of the water. This means layers made up of large sediment must have been deposited by large stream flows, so examining layering (stratigraphy) of stream banks can give and idea of the sequencing of high and low precipitation episodes. *Coral Reefs* Coral reefs exist along shallow waters, so relic coral reefs can provide information on the location of past sea levels. Chemical composition of coral is affected by the water temperature, so studying the chemistry of coral can provide info on past conditions and El Ninos.

Review Question #12 List the factors that can lead to climatic change. At what time scales do each of these occur?

*Variations in Solar Output* -The abundance of sunspots rises and falls on an 11-year cycle -Solar radiation increases as sunspots increase -when more of the sun is covered by cold regions, more radiation is emitted *Changes in Earth's Orbit* -Milankovich cycles: eccentricity of the orbit, tilt of Earth's axis off the perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, and the timing of aphelion and perihelion relative to the timing of the equinoxes are all changing cyclically over time -Causes variation in solar intensity in different areas -Steady decrease in eccentricity -Obliquity varies cyclically which produces substantial differences in summer and winter insolation; specifically in high latitude regions they can experience high changes in solar radiation -Changes in precession alter the timing and intensity of seasons *Changes in Land Configuration and Surface Characteristics* -Climate changes occurring over long time spans are at least partly in response to changes in the size and location of Earth's continents -Because all the factors like latitude and continentality that affect temperature and other climate variables were greatly affected by the movement of continents, the climate variables were also affected -Formation of continental mountain ranges would amplify Rossby waves during the winter season and promote enhanced monsoon circulations in the summer *Alteration of Earth's Surface by Human Activity* -Deforestation reduces evapotranspiration which leads to higher surface temperatures, and as the amount of energy channeled into the latent heat of evaporation is reduced and also decreases precipitation -Increase in atmospheric CO2 from deferostation -Regional climate change in arid and semiarid land surfaces used for cattle *Changes in Atmospheric Turbidity* -Large-scale volcanic eruptions or emissions from human activity add aerosols to atmosphere -Aerosols affect the transmission and absorption of solar and infared radiation; absorbing incoming sunlight can cause heating of atmosphere around aerosols but can also increase backscattering and reduce radiation that reaches the surface -Aerosols can also increase the absorption of outgoing longwave radiation that would otherwise escape to space; increasing night time temps -Function as cloud condensation nuclei; can give rise to more extensive, longer-lived, brighter clouds -Short lifetime of aerosols means that changes in release rates have an almost immediate impact *Changes in Radiation-Absorbing Gases*

Review Question #16 Describe the three types of satellite images discussed in this chapter. What characteristics make them useful?

*Visible Images* -View the atmosphere by registering the intensity of reflected shortwave radiation -Can only be obtained during daytime *Infared Images* -based on measurements of longwave radiation emitted (not reflected) from below -Useful in observing heat emissions (longwave output) *Water Vapor Images* -Sensors translate high values of radiation from water vapor into bright regions on imagery -Useful for tracking flow of moisture across wide regions and helping identify the location of frontal boundaries.

Subtropical Steppe (BSh) Climates

-All conditions that distinguish a subtropical desert also apply to subtropical steppe climates, though to a lesser degree -Aridity, high year-to-year precipitation, extreme summer temperatures, and large annual and daily temperature ranges -Examples: southwestern US, northern Mexico, & Conclurrry, Australia

Weather impacts of El Niño and La Niña

-Central coast of California, appears to have a greater likelihood of unusually high amounts of precipitation when El Niño is present, while the northwestern US and Canadian Pacific coast regions tend to be unusually dry. -Large-scale patterns of the atmosphere are largely influenced by the position of Rossby waves; when high or low pressure systems exist in some locations, they affect not only local weather conditions but also the overall size, shape, and position of the entire Rossby wave pattern. -Establishment of an upper level trough over the Pacific Coast will promote the development of a ridge farther to the east, so certain weather conditions in the eastern US have relationships in climate and weather patterns at two widely separated locations.

Humid Continental (Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, Dwb) Climates

-Huge portion of US, Canada, eastern Europe, and Asia including New York, Chicago, Toronto, Montreal, Moscow, Warsaw, and Stockholm -Normally found between 40 and 55 degrees north in the eastern part of continents

Review Question #10 What factor other than annual precipitation is involved in a climate being defined as dry?

-Large scale evaporation -Soil type (sandy soils that cause runoff, don't hold moisture) -Sun's variable output

Tropical Wet (Af) Climate

-Located within about 10 degrees of the equator on either side -No dry period because their position near the equator puts them under the constant influence of the ITCZ -Convective precipitation, strong solar heating of the surface triggering brief thunderstorms -Climographs show uniformly distributed rainfall and temperature throughout the year for most locations -Vegetation: Tropical rainforest -Examples: Singapore & Belem, Brazil

Review Question #7 What are model output statistics?

-Model Output Statistics (MOS) are used in numerical modeling in conjunction with observed surface conditions from the past to create forecasts. -Are designed to capture the effect of topography and other factors that influence local weather conditions. -Create forecast chart that has max and min temp, dew point, wind conditions, and probability of precipitation.

Subtropical Desert (BWh) Climates

-Most extensive areas of desert exist in the subtropical regions, particularly within the western portions of the continents. -Most important factor in formation of subtropical deserts is the subsidence associated with the Hadley -Some occur in subtropical regions as narrow strips along the west coast of continents adjacent to cold ocean currents (Atacama Desert) -Precipitation that does occur often comes in the form of localized showers from summertime convectional activity in some areas -Examples: Cairo, Egypt & Yuma, Arizona & Baghdad, Iraq

Tundra (ET) Climate

-Named for the associated vegetation type that consists of low-growing mosses, lichens, and flowering plants with woody shrubs and trees -In the vicinity of 60 degrees North -Not common in Southern Hemisphere where there is minimal land coverage at this latitude -Permafrost -Examples: Upernivik, Greenland & Barrow, Alaska

Marine West Coast (Cfb, Cfc)

-Normally occur poleward of Mediterranean climates and along the west coasts of contnents -Some areas in New Zealand and southeast Australia and southeast Africa are Marine West Coast climates that aren't on the west coast -Summers and winters are typically mild -Low annual temperature ranges -Example: Greenwich, England & Sitka, Alaska

Subarctic (Dfc, Dfd, Dwc, Dwd) Climates

-Occupy the northernmost extent of severe midlatitude regions, with more than half of Alaska and Canada having this type of climate -Precipitation is greater in the summer than winter because of the more poleward displacement of midlatitude cyclone traks in the summer -Vegetation: coniferous forests, boreal forest, taiga

Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw) Climate

-Occur along the poleward margins of the tropics and border dry climates on one side and tropical wet climates on the other -Bc they are farther from the equator, they undergo much greater seasonality in precipitation than the tropical wet and monsoonal climates, and they have greater seasonality in temperatures as well -The periods of dryness here are more pronounced and last longer than those of the monsoonal climate because their distance farther from the equator puts them closer to the mean position of the subtropical high. -ITCZ brings precipitation here. -Precipitation is also caused by tropical depressions. -Vegetation: savanna -Examples: South and Central America and southern Africa

Humid Subtropical (Cfa, Cwa) Climates

-Occur within the lower middle latitudes of North America, South America, and Asia. -Distinct tropical feel during their long summers because they are located to the west of semipermanent anticyclones and warm ocean currents, so the prevailing winds circulate hot, humid air into these climatic zones. -Winter temperatures are usually lower than those of Mediterranean climates farther to the west because of their greater continentality. -Precipitation during summer is largely convectional and tends to be scattered and brief, winter precipitation is associated with MLCs -Examples: Dallas, Texas (AYYE) & Guangzhou, China

Mediterranean (Csa, Csb)

-Only extensive climates with a distinct summer dry season and a concentration of precipitation in the winter. -Summer aridity is attributable to the presence of the semi-permanent subtropical high-pressure systems offshore -Subsidence along subtropical high & the deflection of storms deprives southern California of the uplift mechanisms necessary for precipitation (answer to question about why grapes are grown in mediterranean climates) -Winter temperatures are usually mild, especially right along the coast. -Examples: LA, California & Athens, Greece

Ice Cap (EF) Climate

-Polar ice cap areas where ice is present throughout the entire year -little to no precipitation -Examples: Little America, Antarctica & Eismitte, Greenland

Midlatitude Desert (BWk) Climates

-Result from extreme continentality -Occur deep within continental interiors or downwind of orographic barriers that cut off the supply of moisture from the ocean -Greatest expanse of midlatitude deserts is in Asia (East of Caspian Sea and north of Himalayas) -Second greatest expanse of midlatitude desert occurs in western US -Midlatitude desert in the Southern Hemisphere is confined to a narrow strip in South America, east of the Andes -Midlatitude deserts have rapid nighttime and winter cooling

Monsoonal (Am) Climate

-Transitional climate between tropical wet and tropical wet & dry climates -Usually occur along tropical, coastal areas subjected to predominant onshore winds that supply warm, moist air to the area throughout the year -Rainfall in these climates is also affected by orographic uplift, thus localized convergence from surface heating is much less a factor in causing precipitation here than in the tropical wet climates -Some months can be completely dry and some have exceedingly heavy rainfall -Vegetation: Dense forests (can be sustained even though there is a dry period because of the intense rainfall) -Examples: Northeastern South America, southwest India, eastern Bay of Bengal, and Philippines

Severe Midlatitude Climates (D)

-Winters have at least occasional snow cover, with the coldest month having a mean temperature below 27 degrees Fahrenheit -Summers are typically mild

Review Question #2 Describe the general criteria by which the Koeppen system delineates climates.

-World distribution of natural vegetation types -The boundaries that separate these vegetation types -What combinations of monthly mean temperature and precipitation are associated with these boundaries

Midlatitude Steppe (BSk) Climates

-same temperature characteristics as midlatitude deserts; difference is the greater amount of precipitation in steppes -Examples: Great Plains (east of Rocky Mountains), northeast Mexico, western Canada

Storm Surge Causes

1. Piling up of water as heavy winds drag surface waters forward. Strong winds blowing toward a coast force surface waters landward and thereby elevate sea level 2. The low atmospheric pressure in a hurricane causes water level to rise.

Review Question #9 What is ensemble forecasting?

A number of different computer-generated forecasts (runs) are performed for the same period in order to reduce error. Compounding error over period of time.

What is the Walker Cell/Walker Circulation?

An atmospheric circulation cell in the tropical Pacific that is oriented east-west rather than north-south like the meridional Hadley cells. The Walker cell normally moves trade winds from warm surface waters near the equator westward, causing higher temperatures and a difference in sea level. Warmer water in the western Pacific leads to higher air temperatures, lower surface air pressure, and more convective precipitation. The water in the eastern Pacific is replaced with colder water from below, which favors high air pressure at the surface and sinking motions. The Walker cell is a thermally direct cell with rising air in the warm branch and sinking air in the cold branch.

Temperature Gradients within a Hurricane

As air flows inward toward lower pressure, the warm ocean surface supplies large amounts of latent and sensible heat to the overlying air. Because pressure within the moving air decreases as it flows toward the low, adiabatic expansion keeps the temperature from increasing dramatically, with the result that there is little temperature difference across the base of the storm. Much thermal energy is added, resulting in a "warm" central core. Aloft after condensation and the release of latent heat, the warmth is reflected in temperature so that temperatures near the center are much higher than those of the surrounding air.

Tropical Climates (A)

Climates in which the average temperature for all months is greater than 64 degrees F. Almost entirely confined to the region between the equator and the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.

Review Question #10 What ocean surface characteristics are required for the intensification of storms into hurricanes and the maintenance of hurricanes?

Conditions necessary for formation: -Warm surface layer temperatures (27 degrees C several tens of meters below the surface) -Humidity (provides water vapor for cumulus clouds) -Coriolis Force (strong enough to prevent filling of central low pressure) -Unstable Conditions (trade wind inversion, low vertical wind shear)

Review Question #13 Explain how coronas are formed around the Sun or Moon. What factor or factors determine their size?

Coronas result from the bending of light as it passes around water droplets (*diffraction*). Coronas are a circular illumination of the sky immediately surrounding the Moon or in rare instances the Sun. Clouds having uniform droplet sizes cause highly circular coronas that concentrate shorter wavelength (blue) colors on their innermost portions and longer wavelength (reddish) colors on their outer margins. Clouds with wide assortment of droplet sizes cause the illumination to appear white and irregularly shaped. Size of the corona is related to droplet size- large droplets produce smaller coronas.

Critical Thinking Question #4 El Nino conditions are believed to suppress hurricane development in the Atlantic. How might the phenomenon affect hurricane formation and movement in the Pacific?

El Nino conditions create unusually warm conditions in the eastern Pacific, so this would likely cause hurricane formation to increase in the Pacific, rather than in the Atlantic. In addition to warmer waters, the Atlantic experiences higher wind shear than normal because of the stronger subtropical jet stream associated with El Niño.

Critical Thinking Question #4 Explain how climate scientists used multiple simulations based on several different GCMs to determine the relative contributions of natural and human forcings to climate change.

Figure 16-28 Agreement between the curves implies that observed changes have resulted from both natural and anthropogenic factors. Natural factors included in the models are changes in volcanic activity and solar output. Human agents included GHGs, aerosols, and some runs also considered changes in land use. The average fit line follows the trend for both human and natural causes but once the industrial period begins, the natural temperature trend differs from the average because of the human agents. Sorry if this explanation doesn't make sense it made sense to me lol.

Critical Thinking Question #1 There is little doubt most of the warming of recent decades is due to the activities of humans, but some are not convinced that the effect of this warming will be problematic for society. How would you argue for and against this viewpoint?

For the viewpoint that warming is not due to human activity: Natural factors can influence warming climate (Review Question #12) Against: Review Question #12

Review Question #19 What reasons are there to think projections from GCMs can be trusted?

GCM's have advanced to the point that they do a good job of reproducing many aspects of todays large scale climate. They successfully simulate observed seasonal patterns of air temperature, major rainfall & desert regions, ocean currents, the seasonal migration of storm tracks and tropical monsoon circulation and the extent of sea ice. Exhibit various forms of year-to year variablitlity that are typical of the observed Earth system GCM success at simulating past climates formed under different boundary conditions Success at reproducing the observed global temperature curve Realizing that they rest on physical theory. their development has been a story of increasing progression of realism in processes represented, and that has resulted in a steady progression in the quality of their output. GCMs provide the strongest evidence for the role of humans in the warming of the last century.

How does latitude affect climate?

Higher latitudes cause a higher variability in temperature because of the variability of solar radiation. Lower latitudes have constant pressure because of the consistent solar radiation.

Review Question #1 Describe the geographic distribution of hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones. What environmental conditions at these locations favor the development of such storms?

Hurricanes- form over the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Typhoons- form over the extreme western Pacific Cyclones- form over the Indian Ocean and Australia These locations are all generally along the western portion of ocean basins, where there is warmer surface waters that cause greater trade wind inversion and therefor more convection and deep cumulus clouds are able to form.

Review Question #10 In addition to refraction, what process must occur within raindrops to produce a rainbow?

In a water droplet, the light has to bend as it enters (refracts) and then it bounces off the backside of the droplet (*reflects*) and then it is refracted again as it leaves the droplet.

Review Question #6 Describe the cloud and precipitation patterns associated with hurricanes, including those associated with the eye and eye wall.

In the upper reaches of the storm, the low temperatures cause water droplets to freeze into ice crystals. As the crystals spiral out of the storm center, they create a blanket of cirrostratus clouds that overly the storm. This is why hurricanes appear to have uniform thickness on satellite imagery, rather than looking banded. Cloud bands tend to be deeper towards the center of the hurricane until they meet the eye wall, which separates the intense part of the storm with strong winds and heavy showers from the relatively calm eye. Rainfall becomes more intense under each cloud band. The eyewall contains the thickest cloud cover and most intense precipitation. The eye is relatively calm and has very little cloud cover and no precipitation.

Review Question #4 Which type of vertical temperature gradient promotes the appearance of superior and inferior images?

Intense heating near the surface causes the heated air in the shallow layer just above the surface has a steep temperature profile. This steep temperature gradient of the lower layer causes it to refract air more strongly than the air above it, so an *inferior mirage* occurs, in which the viewer perceives the true object and a reflected object below. A *superior mirage* forms when images are displaced upward because light rays are bent concave downward as a result of decreasing density with light. The density gradient must be enhanced by a temperature profile in which warm (less dense) air lies above cold air.

Review Question #18 What is a general circulation model?

Mathematical representations of the Earth atmosphere-ocean-land system that run on supercomputers to calculate three-dimensional motion of the atmosphere and ocean for the entire globe. Estimate the response of Earth's climate to a set of given external conditions known as boundary conditions. Boundary conditions include include Earth topography, tilt of Earth's axis, solar output, volcanic aerosol loading, and greenhouse gas emissions. Programs compute the state of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface conditions at discrete points in time.

Which side of a hurricane is susceptible to stronger winds and storm surges?

Most intense on the right-hand side of the storm relative to the direction that its moving because of the direction of rotation (counter-clockwise) of the storm.

Review Question #8 Where are the various dry climates located, and what geographical characteristics cause them to occur where they do?

Occur between the latitudes of 10 degrees - 30 degrees in either hemisphere, and they result from large-scale sinking air motions during most of the year.

Review Question #6 Explain how it is possible that the global climate can be both cooling and warming at the same time.

On a small scale, over a period of several decades, it may appear that there is a decreasing temperature trend, but if viewed from a larger scale, over 100 years for example, there can be an increasing temperature trend. Different mechanisms can also create cooling and warming effects in terms of the Earth's energy budget. For example, aerosols can cause outgoing longwave radiation to be trapped in the atmosphere, causing warming. Aerosols can also cause an increase in backscattering of incoming radiation, which can cause cooling.

Review Question #11 How are sundogs formed? Describe the color patterns associated with them.

Platelike ice crystals larger than 30 micrometers across tend to align themselves horizontally. If the sun is slightly above the horizon and behind these crystals, bright spots appear 22 degrees to the right and left of the sun, which are called *sundogs*. They appear as whitish spots in the sky but sometimes they exhibit color differentiation, with redder colors located on the side of the sundog nearest the sun and blues and violets located on the outside.

Review Question #5 Describe how pollen samples obtained from old soils provide information on past climates.

Pollen & spores can be deposited into lake beds and bogs and are preserved indefinitely in layers. Radiocarbon dating can provide an estimate of the age of the material, and pollen data can provide an estimate of the distribution of vegetation species that existed at various times during the past. Many types of vegetation are identified with particular climate types, so this can provide information on what the past climate was in that area.

How does geographic position affect climate?

Prevailing winds influence how a body of water can affect an area. West coast cities tend to have maritime climates moderated by the ocean, whereas east coast cities tend to have more continental climate tendencies with consistent precipitation

Review Question #1 What is refraction and why is it related to variations in atmospheric density?

Refraction is defined as the bending of rays as they pass through a medium. Refraction occurs because radiation speed varies with density- the denser the medium, the slower the radiation.

Review Question #5 How do some mirages create the appearance of standing on water on hot days?

Same shit^

How do oceans affect climate?

Sea-surface temperature influences air temperature as the ocean exchanges heat with the overlying atmosphere. It also influences evaporation rates which are generally higher where sea-surface temperature is higher. Locations near warm ocean currents therefor are much more warm and moist than those near colder ocean currents.

How does pressure/wind affect climate?

The Earth's average pressure patterns and resulting winds influence climate patterns by: -advecting temperature and moisture -causing areas of surface convergence and divergence -influencing midlatitude storm tracks

Critical Thinking Question #5 What are two ways in which positive feedback mechanisms involving the cryosphere could enhance temperature increases in the Arctic in coming decades?

The amount of sea ice, snow cover, and permafrost are all sensitive to changing temperatures, as warmer conditions make it more difficult for the maintenance of water in its solid phase. 1. As snow cover melts in the Arctic, there is less albedo, and therefor less reflection of solar radiation, which causes an increase in temperature. 2. Exposure of soil in areas where permafrost is melting allows for more surface heating and latent heat, which causes an increase in temperature.

Mild Midlatitude Climates (C)

The coldest month of the year has an average temperature higher than 27 degrees F but lower than 64 degrees F. Summers can be hot.

Review Question #2 Explain how cores taken from ocean deposits and ice sheets can be used to infer past climate conditions.

The oxygen isotopes present in ocean deposits and ice cores can be used to determine past climates. Both O(16) and O(18) exist in ocean water. Since O16 is lighter, it evaporates faster than O18. When there are high O18-O16 ratios indicated, this is likely because glaciers were expanding and the O16 was evaporating quickly and being deposited onto glaciers in the form of snow, leaving the ocean with high O18 content. Ocean deposits contain material that has been deposited over time. The material contains the bones and shells of plankton and other animals, which is made largely of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). If the calcium carbonate contains higher O18 contents, then its assumed that these animals were alive in a time when glaciers were expanding, so the global climate was cold. In ice cores, the ratio of oxygen isotopes can also be used to predict previous climates. Usually, snow that fell in warmer weather has a higher concentration of O18. Ice cores can also be used to determine when volcanic eruptions occurred or what the general chemistry of the atmosphere was in the past because air bubbles get trapped in the ice sheets.

Review Question #6 Explain why the Sun must be behind you when you see a rainbow.

The sun must be behind you so that you can see a rainbow because the light needs to be able to reach the rain droplets in order to reflect the light to create a rainbow; if the sun is on the opposite side of the rain, the rainbow is not visible because the light cannot reach the rain droplets.

Review Question #14 Why are severe midlatitude climates missing from the Southern Hemisphere?

These climates require large continental areas to avoid the moderating effects of an ocean, so they do not occur in the Southern Hemisphere because there is not enough land.

La Niña

When an El Niño dissipates, it can be followed by either a return to normal sea-surface conditions or by further cooling of the tropical eastern Pacific. If the waters cool to below normal temperatures, there is a revers of El Niño called La Niña. La Niñas strengthen amount to the strengthening the Walker Cell.

Review Question #2 Describe the way refraction alters the apparent position of the setting or rising Sun.

When the Sun is low over the horizon (during sunrise or sunset), refraction of incoming solar radiation is the greatest because the low solar angle causes the rays to pass through a greater amount of atmosphere. Refraction causes a "looming" effect where the sun appears higher than it actually is.