Exam Four Anatomy and Physiology

Peptides: a wide variety of effects

- Endorphins: Have psychological and analgesic functions - ATP: Important for chemical transmission in sensory and autonomic ganglia

Amino acids

- Glutamate: most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. - GABA: most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord - Glycine: most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord

Cerebral cortex:

- Gray matter - Outermost region - Conscious thought

Cerebrum Ventricles

- Interconnected cavities within the cerebral hemispheres. - Continuous with central canal of spinal cord. - Filled with CSF; like a river system. - 2 paired Ventricles, 2 single ventricles. First and Second are lateral, largest and most superior pairs. Third is narrow and single. Fourth is above and within the brain stem. - Cerebral aqueduct: connects third and fourth ventricles.

o Gustatory Pathway:

- Substance dissolves in saliva - Binds and activates receptors specific for that type of substance (each gustatory cell is specific for one receptor type) - Gustatory cell depolarizes and signals (via NTs) to the sensory neuron (Gustatory cells signal to sensory neurons associated with CN VII, IX and X) - Signal sent to medulla, through the thalamus and then to primary gustatory cortex - Integration May occur in frontal lobe and/or limbic system

o Olfactory pathway:

- The nose has specialized epithelium in the superior region of the nasal cavity - These house the olfactory neurons: modified bipolar neurons. - Odorants dissolve (need be in volatile state) in the mucus of olfactory neurons, and then bind to receptors - It triggers a second messenger pathway - Olfactory neurons synapse with the olfactory bulb on the inferior side of the brain - Message received by olfactory cortex, which communicates with the amygdla, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and limbic system

How many spinal nerves are there?

31 pairs 8 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar 5 sacral 1 coccygeal

Explain the relationship between dermatomes and referred pain - be able to explain referred pain. Also, know the relevance of dermatomes to shingles.

A dermatome can explain referred pain. Because a dermatome is a roadmap of nerves it can also explain referred pain. Referred pain is a phenomenon where structures in the body can confuse nerve perception. A dermatome is an area of skin that's supplied by a single spinal nerve. Your spinal nerves help to relay sensory, motor, and autonomic information between the rest of your body and your central nervous system (CNS). Shingles is a reactivation of the varicella zoster (chickenpox) virus that lies dormant in the nerve roots of your body. Symptoms of shingles, such as pain and a rash, occur along dermatomes associated with the affected nerve root.

Remember what a synapse is and how they work.

A synapse is a small gap between the sending neuron and the receiving neuron.

Acetylcholine (Ach)

Acts at neuromuscular junctions, CNS and ANS, involved in learning, memory

o What happens if the cerebellum is injured, damaged or affected by alcohol?

Alcohol abuse can also cause the cerebellum to deteriorate. When the cerebellum sustains damage, the signals it sends to the muscles become weaker or can cease entirely. This disruption is what leads to the various side effects associated with cerebellar damage. Damage to the cerebellum can lead to: 1) loss of coordination of motor movement (asynergia), 2) the inability to judge distance and when to stop (dysmetria), 3) the inability to perform rapid alternating movements (adiadochokinesia), 4) movement tremors (intention tremor), 5) staggering, wide based walking (ataxic gait), 6) tendency toward falling, 7) weak muscles (hypotonia), 8) slurred speech (ataxic dysarthria), and 9) abnormal eye movements (nystagmus).

Mnemonic for Neuroglial Cells

Army- Astrocytes Of - Oligodendrocytes Microcells- Microglial Encircle- Ependymal Cells Support - Schwann Cells Surround- Satellite Cells

Know how the autonomic NS is designed to function differently from the somatic NS.

Autonomic Nervous System: Controls visceral functions by regulating activities of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands. Somatic: Control of skeletal muscle Autonomic: control of visceral functions; we are generally unaware

How is myelination related to neuron repair? Does it matter if the cell body is damaged as compared to the axon? Why/why not? Is neuron repair more likely in the PNS or in the CNS? Why?

Because Schwann cells help neuron repair. Regeneration only occurs if cell body remains intact. Regeneration is nearly nonexistent in CNS and is limited in PNS.

Know what surrounds the CNS/ how the CNS is protected.

Bones, Meninges, and Blood-Brain Barrier

Central Nervous System Contains

Brain and Spinal Cord.

Know what a nerve plexus is and which spinal nerves have them and which do not. What is the purpose of the plexus?

Bundles of nerves that form a plexus communicate information to your brain about pain, temperature, and pressure. These nerve plexuses also send messages from the brain to the muscles, allowing for movement to occur. A plexus serves as an area where spinal nerves come together, are sorted, and then travel to their respective areas of the body.

Ependymal cells

CNS. Ciliated cells that line hollow spaces of the brain and spinal cord. These cells also help form the cerebrospinal fluid (csf) that bathes the brain and spinal cord.

Oligodendrocytes

CNS. Form the myelin sheath around axons of the CNS.

Astrocytes

CNS. Most numerous of the neuroglial cells in the CNS. These star-shaped cells serve to anchor neurons and blood vessels in place and facilitate the formation of the blood-brain-barrier to prevent substances in the blood from entering the brain tissue.

Microglial Cell

CNS. Phagocytic cells that clean up debris surrounding neurons by degrading and ingesting damaged or dead neurons.

What is the cerebrospinal fluid and why is it critical?

CSF is derived from blood plasma by the choroid plexus. It is critical because it supports and protects the brain, it is found in the ventricles, subarachnoid spaces and central canal of spinal cord.

4 major divisions of the brain

Cerebrum, Diencephalon, Brain stem, Cerebellum. · Cerebrum: Perform higher mental functions. Interpret sensory stimuli. Plan and intiates movement. · Diencephalon: Processes, integrates, and relays information. Maintains homeostasis. Regulates biological rhythms. · Cerebellum: Monitors and coordinates movement. · Brainstem: Maintains homeostasis. Controls certain reflexes. Monitors movement. Integrates and relays information.

Neurons "Nerve Cells"

Conduct electrical impulses. The basic function of a neuron is to process and transmit nerve impulses from and to the nervous system. Neurons can simultaneously receive and integrate stimuli (impulses) either from the body or other sources. They can interpret stimuli into a change in membrane potential.

Peripheral Nervous System Contains

Cranial and Spinal Nerves

How about exteroceptors and interceptors?

Exteroceptors: close to the exterior of the body Interreceptor: Close to the interior of the body

Accessory structures of the eye

Eyelids, eyelashes, eyebrows, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles.

Know the different ways in which sensory receptors can be classified.

General or special sensory receptors Respond to pressure, temp, chemicals, light and pain.

Wernicke's area

It is involved in the comprehension of written and spoken language

Be able to explain the general purpose of the limbic system.

It supports a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction.

Postganglionic neurons

Lie outside the CNS. Innervate the visceral effector cells

Biogenic amines

Maintenance of homeostasis and cognition; involved in psychiatric disorders - Norepinephrine/ epinephrine: important to attention, consciousness, mood - Serotonin: involved in thermoregulation, sleeping, emotions and perception - Dopamine: regulates mood, helps coordinate movements.

Are spinal nerves sensory, motor or mixed?

Mixed Nerve A spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body.

Neurotransmitters

Molecules that carry out the transmission between the two neurons. Stored in the terminals.

Why is there a blood-brain barrier?

Most chemicals and disease-causing organisms such as bacteria and viruses are denied access to the cells of the brain by the blood brain barrier, which keeps the CSF and brain extracellular fluid separate from the blood. (Read section in book, it is not long)

Graded Potentials

Occur in dendrites and cell body. Input from neurotransmitters and sensory receptors. Fade after a short distance. Can be positive or negative.

Schwann cells

PNS. Form myelin sheath around axons in certain neurons of the PNS. The sheath protects and insulates the axons and speeds up conduction of action potentials.

Satellite Cells

PNS. Surround cell bodies of neurons in PNS. Their function is not clearly understood, but it is believed the satellite cells enclose and support cell bodies. These cells may function like the astrocytes of the CNS.

Posterior (Dorsal) Horn

Posterior projections of the gray matter. Consists entirely of inter-neurons receiving somatic and visceral input from sensory neurons

How does myelin affect nerve transmission?

Speeds up transition of impulse.

Spinal Cord:

Starts at the "foramen magnum" of the skull and ends at L1 to L2 After L2, the terminal regions are called the "Cauda Equina" Protected by bone, meninges, and CSF Does not grow after 4 years of age 31 pairs of spinal nerves extend between each pair of vertebrae Anatomy of Spinal Cord: Butterfly-shaped gray matter core: Posterior horns: sensory nerve fibers Anterior horns: motor nerve fibers Gray commissure: connects left and right halves; surrounds central canal (CSF) Exterior white matter (columns) What makes white matter "white" 3 white columns/ funiculi: posterior, lateral, and anterior Divided left and right by anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus The dorsal root of the spinal nerve Dorsal root ganglion The ventral root of the spinal nerve

o Using the image below, be able to describe it in detail the steps in a reflex arc, as well as all structures involved. (Hint: there are 5 key steps),

Step One: Activation of a Receptor by arriving at stimulus Step Two: Activation of a sensory neuron Step Three: Information processing in the CNS Step Four Activation of a motor neuron Step Five: Response of a peripheral effector

Neuroglia

Supporting Cell. Form myelin, which wraps around axons to speed up electric impulse conduction, Provide nutrients to your neurons, including oxygen, Destroy pathogens, Provide a general support structure on which neurons can sit.

· Autonomic Nervous System divided into: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

Sympathetic: -Function: Fight or Flight, Heightened mental alertness, increased metabolism, lower digestive/ urinary function, increased respiration, increased heart rate and BP, and sweat glands activated. -Organization: T1 to L2 nerves. Postganglionic Neuron is close to CNS. Short preganglionic neurons. Long postganglionic neurons. -Neurotransmitters: Uses epinephrine and norepinephrine. Adrenergic receptors; Alpha and Beta o Axons of the preganglionic fibers leave spinal cord through ventral roots of spinal nerves from 1st thoracic through 2nd lumbar seqments o Preganglionic fibers secrete ACh o Postganglionic fibers secrete norepinephrine (adrenergic) o Parasympathetic: -Function: Housekeeping. Rest and digest. Lower metabolism. Increased digestive function. Stimulation of urination. Decreased heart rate and BP. Increased salivation. -Organization: Craniosacral nerves ( III, VII, IX, X and S 2-4). Postganglionic neuron is further from CNS. Long preganglionic neurons. Short postganglionic neurons. -Neurotransmitter: ACh. Cholinergic receptors: Nicotinic and muscarinic - Axons of preganglionic fibers arise from brain stem and sacral region of spinal cord - Preganglionic fibers secrete ACh -Postganglionic fibers also secrete ACh (cholinergic fibers)

Why is it important that neurotransmitters do not remain in the cleft for long?

The reason this must happen is that otherwise the neurotransmitter would be left in the cleft where it would continue to evoke a response in the postsynaptic cell for longer than it should.

How are neurotransmitters removed from the cleft?

They may simply diffuse away from the cleft. The may be digested by enzymes localized in the synaptic cleft. Or they may be transported back into the synaptic knob, known as re-uptake.

Meninges

Three connective tissue membranes that wrap around CNS. Dura matter, arachnoid matter and pia matter.

Are unmyelinated neurons associated with Schwann cells? Explain.

Unmyelinated in the PNS are encased by Schwann cell cytoplasm, but there is no wrapped coating of myelin surrounding the axons

Preganglionic neurons

Visceral motor neurons that originate in CNS. Synapse with a neuron that leaves the CNS.

Know the distribution and function of the white and gray matter in the cerebral hemispheres as compared to the spinal cord.

White matter and grey matter are two components of the brain and the spinal cord. Both white matter and grey matter are composed of the components of the nerve cells. Both white matter and grey matter together form the spinal tracts to send signals from the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Novel messengers

Work as transmitters - CO, NO

Nerves

___________________ bundles of neurons and connective layers: o Bundles of axons=fassicles o Groups of fascicles enclosed by epineurium o Each fascicle is enclosed by perineurium o Each neuronal axon is enclosed by the endoneurium. o Nerves tend to form a network of many clusters called a plexus

The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

_________________________________________ is the network of nerves that send information from all parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord, a group called the central nervous system (CNS). There are many functions of the peripheral nervous system, all serving a general purpose of transferring information for processing by the body.

Chambers of the eye

anterior, posterior, vitreous

Spinal Nerves and plexus

carry impulses to and from the spinal cord

The olfactory epithelium is

located inside the back of the nose. As people breathe in through the nose, fine hairs and mucus near the opening of the nose trap particles which could be harmful, and the rest of the air passes over the olfactory epithelium.

Anterior (Ventral) Root

motor output out of spinal cord

Endorphins

neurotransmitters that render the neurons of the posterior horn in the spinal cord less sensitive to pain input, an example of the Cell-Cell Communication Core Principle (Module 1.5.5). The stimulus causing the pain (e.g., a broken bone) is still present at the same intensity, but the CNS neurons perceive it as being less intense or even absent. Painkillers such as morphine work by binding to the same receptors as endorphins.

Remember what threshold is and how you get there.

o An action potential occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body. When the depolarization reaches about -55 mV a neuron will fire an action potential. This is the threshold.

o Why must olfaction receptors be "moist?

o Because odorants must dissolve in the mucus of olfactory neurons, and then bind to receptors.

o Why do certain smells remind us of a time, place or person?

o Because the sense of smell is the only sense to go directly to the brain's area that actively processes smell. The other senses first go to a neural relay area in the brain, such as the thalamus. The sense of smell goes from the many smell receptors in your nose directly to the brain's highly organized olfactory bulb. Smell is a primal, primitive sensory experience. Even more amazing is the fact that near the olfactory bulb are two other important brain structures.One, the hippocampus, has to do with "episodic memory," which is the memory of events at a specific time and place. The second is called the amygdala; it is involved with our emotions, how we feel about something.

o What is the importance of the white matter in the cerebrum?

o Bundles of myelinated fibers that connect the two hemispheres, or connect the cortex to the brain stem or spinal cord.

Brain stem (What is the general description of the brain stem's function?)

o Bundles of nerve fibers and nuclei that connect the cerebrum to the spinal cord.

o Know the parts of the eye that help focus light and where it needs to be focused.

o Ciliary Body allows lens changes for focusing light objects. - For Far vision: Distant objects are nearly parallel so do not need much adjustment. Smooth muscles of ciliary body relax - For near vision: Pupils constrict to limit scattered light. Eyes "converge" to utilize fovea centralis

What is the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?

o Excitatory: Cause depolarization. More positive into the cell, may produce an action potential o Inhibitory: Less positive in. More negative out. May inhibit an action potential

o How is the lens different for near and far vision?

o For far vision: The cornea and a flattened lens can provide enough refraction focus light on the retina. o For near vision: A rounded lens provides the additional refraction needed to focus the rays on your retina.

Know how the hemispheres are lateralized for function.

o Hemispheres look identical, but have different functions. - Each hemisphere receives sensory information from and sends motor information to the opposite side of body. Crossing over occurs in brain stem and spinal cord. o Lateralization refers to the dominance of one hemisphere over the other for a certain task. - Left is usually dominant for language related activities and complex intellectual functions. - Right is more for nonverbal functions, such as visual-spatial skills, intuitive thought and artistic skills.

o Remember the importance of the channels and the importance of the Na/K pumps.

o Membrane polarity must be resets (repolarized) after step five. Sodium and potassium pumps reset the charge and ion difference. Requires energy, against concentration gradient; active transport. 3 sodium out of the cell two potassium into the cells with every cycle. Outside of the cell stays positive with respect to inside.

What is the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata in charge of?

o Midbrain - Reflex centers - Substantia nigra (makes dopamine) - Cerebral aqueduct (CSF travels through here) - Masses of gray matter (corpora quadrigemina). Processes visual/ auditory input o Pons: - Rounded bule on underside of brain stem - Multiple relay stations - Motor control and breathing rhythm o Medulla Oblongata - White matter surrounds a central mass of gray matter - Relay station - Autonomic regulation of heart rate/ force of contractions, blood pressure, respiratory rate, vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing sneezing, etc.

How is myelination different in the CNS as compared to the PNS?

o Neurolemma: the outer surface of a myelinated axon in PNS: composed of Schwann cell nucleus, organelles, and cytoplasm; not present in CNS o Number of axons myelinated: oligodendrocytes have multiple processes that can provide myelination for multiple axons in CNS while a Schwann cell only provides myelination for one axon in PNS. o Timing of myelination: Myelination begins early in fetal development in PNS and much later in the CNS; very little myelin present in brain of newborn

Know what type of cells olfactory receptors are and why we sniff to smell something.

o Olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) are paradigmatic cranial sensory receptor neurons. o Why we sniff: It helps the brain make better sense out of odor responses when it integrates airflow information.

Know the states of membrane polarity and be able to accurately describe the pools of the ions in a polarized, depolarized and repolarized ion.

o Polarized: -70 mV o Threshold: -55 to -50 mV o Depolarized: voltage shoots to positive values o Hyperpolarized: Greater than -70 mV

What does it mean if a nerve is mixed, motor or sensory?

o Sensory Input: afferent neurons o Motor output: efferent neurons o Mixed=both

What is the difference between rapidly and slowly adapting receptors? What are some examples of each?

o Slow adapting receptors respond continuously as long as a stimulus is present. Fast adapting receptors respond at the onset and offset of a stimulus, but not otherwise. o Example of rapidly adapting receptors: perfume on your body o Example of slowly adapting receptors: throbbing pain after spraining your ankle

o Be able to identify the visual pathway: including how the image is captured by the rods and cones; how the visual image is sent to the brain - that both eyes talk to both sides of the brain.

o Step One: The retina of each eye detects visual stimuli from portions of the right and left visual fields. o Step Two: Some visual stimuli cross at the optic chiasma so that all stimuli from the right visual field are processed by the left hemisphere, and stimuli from the left visual field by the right hemisphere. o Visual stimuli travel from the thalamus to the primary visual cortex in the medial portion of the occipital lobe.

Explain how a signal is sent down a neuron. (Hint: there are 5 key steps)

o Step one: A stimulus occurs activating the neuron. o Step two: A threshold potential is met at the axon hillock. o Step three: Sodium channels open, sodium rushes in. - This does not require energy; in favor of its concentration gradient; passive transport. - Movement of charge=action potential - Cell membrane is now "depolarized" at that spot o Step Four: This voltage change causes the potassium channel downstream of it to open, potassium rushes out. o Step Five: These channels close and the next sodium and potassium channels open in a cascade effect down the axon until reaching the axon terminal.

What are the basic taste sensations in humans?

o Sweet o Salty o Sour o Bitter o Umani

o Know where the taste buds are and the different types of taste buds.

o Taste buds are the sensory receptor for taste. Located on the tongue in rounded projections called papillae. o Fungiform Papillae o Circumvallate Papillae

Diencephalon (What are the three paired structures and what are their functions?)

o Thalamus: Relay and processing for sensory information. Filters input. o Hypothalamus: Major role in homeostasis. Controls all autonomic functions. Epithalamus: Pineal body and choroid plexus

o What is the purpose of the fovea centralis? What causes the blind spot?

o The fovea is responsible for sharp central vision, which is necessary in humans for reading, driving, and any activity where visual detail is of primary importance. o Blind spot- where the optic nerve moves through the retina's surface, there are no photoreceptors (cells in the retina that respond to light)

Know the general shape, including the location and function of the gray matter horns. This includes the location of the ganglion, as well as what the ganglion are.

o The gray matter is the area of the spinal cord where many types of neurons synapse. In the dorsal horns (or posterior horns), many incoming sensory neurons synapse with interneurons, which then distribute information to other parts of the spinal cord and brain. o spinal ganglion, for instance, is a cluster of nerve bodies positioned along the spinal cord at the dorsal and ventral roots of a spinal nerve. The dorsal root ganglia contain the cell bodies of afferent nerve fibres (those carrying impulses toward the central nervous system); efferent neurons (carrying motor impulses away from the central nervous system) are present in the ventral root ganglia.

Layers of the eyeball

o The outermost fibrous layer contains the cornea and sclera. - Cornea: anterior clear portion through which light travels and whose curvature aids in focusing. - Sclera: The posterior whitish covering to which the extrinsic muscles attach o The middle vascular layer: Contains the iris, the ciliary body and the choroid. - Iris: the colored part of the eye and it contains smooth muscles for opening (dilating) and closing the pupil. - Pupil: (the space in the center of the eye that allows light to enter). - The lens is a transparent structure located posterior to the iris that serves to bend and focus light onto the retina, it also separates the anterior and posterior cavity. - The ciliary body holds the lens in position via suspensory ligaments and secretes aqueous humor into the anterior cavity. - Choroid: covered by the sclera and is highly vascularized to provide oxygen and nutrients the neural layer. o The innermost neural layer consists of the retina and is found in the posterior cavity. This cavity is filled with vitreous humor, a thick gelatinous tissue. - The retina has two layers: an outer pigmented layer which serves to absorb light rays, and an inner layer composed of photoreceptors known as rods and cones. The only part of the retina that does not contains photoreceptors is the optic disc (blind spot), which is the area the optic nerve passes. Lateral to the optic disc can be found the macula lutea, with the fovea centralis in its center. This area has no blood vessels, and instead has the greatest concentration of cones allowing for the sharpest vision.

o Know the purpose of the retina, as well as rods and cones and the pigments associated with each.

o The purpose of the retina is to receive light that the lens has focused, convert the light into neural signals, and send these signals on to the brain for visual recognition. The retina processes light through a layer of photoreceptor cells. o Photoreceptors are cells in the retina that contain photopigment to capture light. - Two types of photoreceptors: - Cones: color and bright light - Rods: sensitive in low light but not color; also peripheral vision - These cells synapse with bipolar sensory cells which then synapse with retinal ganglion cells (Of the optic nerve)

o Why do "old people" slowly lose their sense of smell and taste?

o loss of nerve endings and reduced mucus production in the nose, which facilitates the detection of smells.

Twelve Cranial Nerves

olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal

Posterior (Dorsal) Root

sensory input to spinal cord

Anterior (Ventral) Horn

somatic motor neurons whose axons exit the cord via ventral roots

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance o What is the distribution of grey and white matter? o Thin cortex of grey matter. Internal white matter (arbor vitae) o What are the main functions of the cerebellum? o Interprets proprioceptive input (position and movement of the body) o Important in language and sequencing.

Reticular system

the central core of the brain stem. Scattered throughout central core of medulla, pons, and midbrain. A complex network of fibers associated with tiny islands of gray matter. Activates the cerebral cortex into a state of wakefulness.

· Chemical senses

use chemoreceptors to respond to chemicals. Taste and smell are our chemical senses. A chemoreceptor, also known as chemosensor, is a specialized sensory receptor cell which transduces a chemical substance (endogenous or induced) to generate a biological signal.

Dopamine

used extensively in the CNS, has a variety of functions. It helps to coordinate movement, and is also involved in emotion and motivation. The receptor for dopamine in the brain is a target for certain illegal drugs, such as cocaine and amphetamine, and is likely responsible for the behavioral changes seen with addiction to these drugs.

Broca's area

which is involved in the production of language

Serotonin

which is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. Most neurons that use serotonin are found in the brainstem, and their axons project to multiple places in the brain. Serotonin is thought to be one of the major neurotransmitters involved in mood regulation (likely along with norepinephrine), and it is a common target in the treatment of depression. Additionally, serotonin acts to affect emotions, attention and other cognitive functions, motor behaviors, feeding behaviors, and daily rhythms.

General functions of the CNS.

· Motor · Sensory · Integration: Interpretation, Planning, Maintenance, Language, learning

Division of PNS

· Sensory division: consists of sensory (afferent) neurons that detect and transmit sensory stimuli to CNS o Somatic Sensory division: general and special senses o Visceral sensory division: organ of abdominopelvic and thoracic cavities · Motor division : consists of motor (efferent) neurons o Somatic motor division: responsible for voluntary motor functions o Visceral motor division (autonomic motor nervous system, ANS): responsible for homeostasis; controls cardiac muscles, smooth muscles and glands

central nervous system (CNS

· The _____________________________ functions as the processing center for the nervous system. It receives information from and sends information to the peripheral nervous system. The brain processes and interprets sensory information sent from the spinal cord.