Exam One Cognition Ch. 1-6

How many other parts of cortex play a role in visual perception

At least 30

Location method

Establish a series of familiar locations next create a image of the items that you want to be remembered then place that in the location

Scores on working memory task are correlated with what two factors

Overall intelligence and grade in school

Pronunction time

The longer it takes to pronounce the items, the lower our capacity

How fast can visual info travel from your retina to your primary visual cortex

About 50 to 80 milliseconds

What is the effect of the pronunciation time

Acoustic properties of the stimuli - the sound of the stimuli

Cognition

Acquisition,storage, transformation, and use of knowledge

What regions of the brain is activated by the visuospatial sketch pad

Activate several region in the right hemisphere of the cortex Strong visual component typically activates the occipital region. The part of brain that is responsible for visual perception The specific location of the brain activity depends on the difficulty and other characteristics of the task Various regions of the frontal cortex are active when people work on visual and spatial tasks Research on spatial memory suggests that people mentally rehearse the material by shifting their selective attention from one location to another which activates the frontal and parietal lobe

What is the explanation for the stroop effect

Adults have much more practice in reading words then colors. The automatic process of reading the word interferes with less automatic process. As a result, we automatically and involuntarily read words that are printed in Part A color

distributed attention

Allows you to register features automatically; you use parallel processing across the field, and you register all the features simultaneously. This is a low level kind of processing. In fact, this kind of processing is so effortless that you are not aware that you are doing it

What is an example of dissociation with explicit and implicit memory

An adult cannot remember the stimuli when they ate tested on an explicit memory task. However, they remember it on an implicit memory task

Nelson Cowan (2005) magical numbers

Argue that people can only remember four items, when we consider the pure capacity without chucking

Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing.

- Bottom-up processing emphasizes the importance of information from the stimuli registered on your sensory receptors. Bottom-up processing uses only a low- level sensory analysis of the stimulus. -top-down processing requires higher-level cognition, for example, the kind of processes. It also emphasizes how our concepts, expectations, and memory influence our cognitive processes.

Levels of processing approach

- Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart in 1972 wrote an article about this topic - deep meaningful processing of info leads to accurate recall than shallow, sensory kinds of processing - this is also known as the depth of processing approach

Theme One: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive

- The behaviorists viewed humans as passive organisms. They wait for a stimulus to arrive from the envi- ronment before they respond. - cognitive approach proposes that people seek out information. Attentional and perceptual systems work together to facilitate your ability to strategically seek out and process information that is most relevant for your current goals. In addition, memory is a lively process that requires you to continually synthesize and transform information.

Working memory

- These limits would be relevant when professors speak too quickly or display their detailed PowerPoint slides too briefly. This results, in the systems - research indicates that when stu- dents can use the information from the slides-incorporating additional notes from the lecture-they tend to perform better on examinations

Theme 3: Cop;nitive processes handle positive information better than negative information.

- We also tend to perform better on a variety of different tasks if the information is emotionally positive (that is, pleasant), rather than emotionally negative (unpleasant). In short, our cognitive processes are designed to handle what is, rather than what is not

Theme 4: Cogrlitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation.

- decision making typically requires perception, memory, general knowledge, and language. In fact, all higher mental processes require careful integration of our more basic cognitive processes.

recognition by components theory

- developed by Irving Biderman and his colleagues - explains how humans recognize three-dimensional shoes - the basic assumption is that in a specific view an object can be represented as an arrangement of simple 3-D shapes called geons. - geons can be combined to form meaningful objects - in general, the arrangement of three geon give people enough info to classify an object

Why does deep level of processing encourage recall

- distinctiveness: stimulus is different from other memory traces - elaboration: processing in terms of meaning and interconnected concepts

What did Lauro confirm about the phonological loop using transcranial magnetic stimulation

- left frontal lobe: the part of the brain that might be activated when you rehearse verbal material - left parietal lobe: the part of the brain that might be activated when you store auditory info. - neither the left frontal or parietal lobe is normally responsible for processing short simple sentences - the left parietal lobe is responsible for processing long but simple sentences - the left frontal of parietal lobe are normally responsible for rehearsing and storing complex and lengthy sentences

What are the characteristics of the central executive

- plans and coordinates, but it does not store info - it decides which topics deserve attention and which one should be ignored - set strategies and decides how to tackle a problem - limited ability to perform simultaneous tasks. Cannot make numerous choices at the same time and cannot work effects on two challenging projects at the same time

What are the factors responsible for self refernce effect?

- self produces rich set of clues. You can easily link these cues with new info then you are trying to learn. These cues are also distinctive. - encourage people to consider how their personal traits are connected with one another. The research shows this kind of elaboration leads to more accurate retrieval - you rehearse material more frequently if it is related to yourself. You're also more likely to use rich complex reversal when you associate the material with yourself

Whaf has resulted from pronunciation time

- shorts versus long names - numbers in different languages

Kristin Mitte (2008) anxiety and memory patterns

- some studies how shown that people with anxiety remember threatening words very accurately. However, other have seen no difference - she then located 165 different research studies. No matter how she analyze the data for implicit memory task high and low anxious people performed similarly. - analysis the data for recognition memory task. They both performed similarly on this as well. However, high anxious participants were more likely to recall negative and anxiety inducing words. High anxious were less likely to recall both neutral and pleasant word.

How does top down processors work in vision?

- specific structures along the route between the retina and visual cortes may play a role - these structures may store info about the relative likelihood of seeing various visual stimuli in a specific context.

Foley et al., 1999 visualizing an object

- students were instructed to listen to a list of familiar words - before hearing each word, they were told about the kind of mental image they should form. This was either to visualize the object or to imagine yourself using the object - the first analysis Foley and her colleagues classified the results according to the instruction supplied - the recall was the same for both of the task - they had also ask the students to describe their visual image. Even in the visualize the object people often inserted themselves in therefore they used self reference processing - the second analysis the researchers sorted the word according to the processing method that the student had actually used. - using the self reference processing people recall the word 3 more times

Theme 2: Cop;nitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate

- the amount ofmaterial in your memoryis astonishing - Speech unfolds at an extremely fast rate that a speaker controls, and yet most of the time, your interpretation ofthe speech signal is highly accurate. - cognitive systems are designed in such a way that they can limit the amount of information to which you have access at some point in time.

What were the results when Biederman conducted fMRI with humans and monkeys based on the recognition by components

- the areas of the cortex beyond the primary visual cortex respond to geons

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) working memory

- they presented a string of random numbers to participants, who rehearsed the number in order. - the string of number varies in length from 0 to 8 items - at the same time, the participants also performed a spatial reasonings test. This requires to judge whether certain statements about letter order were correct or incorrect - people perform well on both of the task. Participants bedded less than second longer on the reasoning task when instructed to rehearse all 8 number in contrast to task that requires no rehearsal. - the error rate was 5 percent no matter how many numeral the participants rehearsed

How does attention rely on both bottom up and top down processing

- we might focus on something because it is interesting which would use our bottom up processing - other times we concentrate because we want to pay attention to some specific stimulus

Divided attention and prospective memory

- you must.m be focusing on your ongoing activity as well as the one that you want to do in the future - absentminded behavior happens when the memory requires to perform a customary activity

When is encoding specificity is more likely to happen? (3)

1) Assesses recall. 2) Use real life incidents. 3) Examine events that happened a long time ago.

Why do we perceive the figure-ground relationship even when it is not there

1. One tend to see visual illusions known as illusory contours which are also known as subjective contours. Which causes our to see edges even though they are there. In our everyday life we typically perceive scenes more accurately if we fill in the blanks but this leads to errors in illusory contours

Two meanings for cognitive psychology

1. Synonym for the word cognition - variety of mental activities such acquisition, storage, and use of knowledge. 2. Other times it refers to particular theoretical approaches in psychology

Why does the ambiguous figure-ground relationship happen

1. The neurons in the visual cortex adapt to one figure 2. People try solving the visual paradox by alternating between the two reasonable solutions

What are memory strategies that experts tend to have?

1. They have a well organized carefully learned knowledge structures which assists them during both encoding and retrieval. 2. They are more likely to reorganize the new material they must recall, forming meaningful chunks in which related material is grouped together 3. Have more vivid visual images for the item they must recall 4. Work hard to emphasize the distinctiveness of each stimulus during the encoding 5. Rehearse in a more strategic fashion 6. Better reconstructing missing portions of material that they partially remember 7. More skilled and predicting the difficulty of a task and monitoring heir progress in this task

According to levels of processing theory, they you be better at recalling when you consider its a word A. Meaning B. Physical Appearance C. Sound

A

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A neuroscience technique whereby a brief magnetic pulse is applied to the head that temporarily induces a weak electrical current that interferes with ongoing activity.

level processing

A person will be able to retain info better if it is learned at a deeper level. deep levels of processing facilitate learning because they require elaboration and distinctiveness.

Visual search

A procedure in which a person's task is to find a particular element in a display that contains a number of elements.

Dissociation

A variable had large effects on Test A but has little to no effect on Test B.

self-reference effect

to enhance long-term memory by relating the material to your own experiences. For example, one of the reasons that I include demonstrations in this textbook is to provide you with personal experiences that focus on some of the important principles of cognitive psychology. If you read your textbook in a reflective fashion, you'll try to think about how to apply major concepts to your own life.

Giles Einstein and Mark McDaniel (2004)

to learn and remember complex material more easily if you create and answer "why questions." To answer these questions, you must use deep processing to think about the meaning of the material and connect this new material with the information you already know. When material seems difficult to remember, asking "why" questions-or identifying even more generally why it is difficult to remember- promotes deep processing, and thus promotes better memory.

keyword method

using a word that reminds you of the word you are trying to remember then a image where both interact

first letter technique

you take the first letter of each word you want to remember, and then you compose a word or a sentence from those letters This one is often used but is not always effective

distributed practice effect

you will remember more material if you spread your learning trials over time

Bower and Winzenz

Asked one group to repeat pair of words silently Others tried to construct a mental image between the two words in vivid interaction with each other The second recalled the word pair twice the time that one who just repeated the word

Bower (1969) Hierarchial organisation

Asked people to learn words that belong to four hierarchies Some them in organized fashion in the upside tree Other saw the same words randomly organized The one who memorized the tree one remember the info three more times

What is the most common source of amnesia

Brain damage ( trauma to the head, stroke, neurological disease)

working memory

Brief, immediate memory for the limited amount of material that are you are currently processing. Part of working memory also actively coordinates your ongoing mental activities.

How are memories coded into episodic and semantic memory

By meaning

Chucking

Combine several small units into to a larger unit that have meaning Basic organization principle that eases the demand of the working memory

attention

Concentration of mental activity that allows you to take in a limited portions of vast stream of info available from both your sensory world and your memory.

Retina

Covers the inside back portion of your eye. It contains millions of neurons that register and transmits visual info from the outside world

What is the current status of the feature integration theory

Distributed attention can occasionally resemble focused attention. Even though that it is known that distributed theory can help us get the gist of a scene therefore you can get an overall impression. Many question still remain how visual attention helps us gather relevant info from a real world scene.

What is the long term memory structure?

Divided into two different branches 1. Explicit (declarative) - hippocampus - conscious recall 2. Implicit ( procedural) - cerebellum in part - without conscious recall What two branches can explicit memory can be broken into 1. Fact and general knowledge and personally experience events What two branches can implicit memory be broken into 1. Skills motor and cognitive 2. Classics and operant conditioning effects

Why has there been less research on visuospatial sketch pad?

Don't have a standardized test of visual stimuli that would be comparable to the word that we process using phonological loop At least in Western culture people tend to provide names for a stimuli presenter in visual form. Starting at 8 years old this, which for encoding you will use phonological loop for further processing

What did Hubel and Wiesel results show about perception and neurons

Each neuron responded especially vigorously when the bar was presented to specific retinal region when the bar had a certain orientation.

What are the subtypes of the sensory memory

Echoic, iconic, and haptic

Bottom up processing and what happens after

Emphasizes that the stimulus characteristics are important when you recognize an object. The physical stimuli from the enviroment are registered on the sensory receptors. Which then leads to more advance regions of the brain and systems beyond the primary visual cortex

People with amnesia have severe deficits in their ____________ memory

Episodic

What are the three subtypes of long term memory

Episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory

Stroop Effect

Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors. In a typical study people need 100 seconds to name ink color of 100 words that are different from word but only need 60 when they are the same

episodic memory

Focuses on your memories for the events that happened to you personally; it allows you to travel backward in subjective time to think about earlier periods in your life. Long duration

Wood and Cowan (Cocktail Party Effect)

Found that one third of the participants reported hearing their own name in messages they were suppose to ignore. The reason why 2/3 of the people ignored their own name is that the study was spent in a laboratory so the research may lack ecological validity. In an unstructured social setting your attention might eodmsef to other interesting conversations

Bahrick et al (1975) Duration of LTM

Found that people were 90 percent correct at recognizing high school classmates pictures and names taken from high school yearbooks even 15 years after graduation

Treisman and Souther (1985) feature-present/features-absent effect

Found that people were performed Rosie searches for a feature that was present whether the display contained zero irrelevant items or numerous irrelevant items. When they are searching for an item that is present it usually catches their attention automatically However, when they are looking for something that is absent it takes them longer especially if they are more irrelevant info. People have to examine each item individually

What parts of the brain does the phonological loop activate

Frontal and part of the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere of the brain.

Central executive takes place in what parts of the brain

Frontal region of the cortex is the most active portion of the brain when people work on a wide variety of central executive task

Symons and Jonson (1997) self reference effect

Gather 129 studies that had tested the self reference effect in the research prior to their own article. Showed that people recall significantly more items when they use self reference effect rather then semantic processing or any other processing methods

What is example of a person that has anterograde amnesia

H.M had serious epilepsy they neurosurgeon operated on his brain in 1953. Specifically they removed a portion of his temporal lobe region as well as his hippocampus. It cured his epilepsy but left his with a severe kind of memory loss. He had normal semantic memory and could recall events before god surgery. However, he could not recall events that happen after

Bahrick & Phelps (1987)

Had participants learn Spanish and English pairs The total time studying was constant for everyone Some participants studied one dad later while others while others had one 39day later After even 8 years participants in 30 day knew more

What counts as a item according to Miller

He used chunk to describe the basic unit in the memory. A chunk is a memory unit that consists of several components that are strongly associated with another. You could remember seven numbers or else a random sequence of about seven letters. These can also be rearranged with several adjacent numbers or letters so that they form a single chunk.

Gestalt Psychology and perception

Humans have the basic tendencies to organize what they see without any effort and we see patterns then random arrangements

object recognition (pattern recognition)

Identity a complex arrangement of sensory stimuli, you perceive this pattern is separate from your background. When you recognize an object your sensory processes transform and organize raw info provided by your sensory receptors. You also compare the sensory stimuli with the info that you in your stored in your memory.

George Miller (1956)

In 1956, he wrote the famous article that the short term memory can hold 7 to 9 items in it. Article was called magical number seven Plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing info

Strayer (2003) divided attention

In heavy traffic conditions, groups using hand free group took longer to apply the brakes compared to the control group People also showed inattentional blindness, their attention was reduce that appeared in the center of their visual field. Even when using hand free your attention might wander away from a dangerous situation in front of you.

How is procedural memory often conceptualized

In terms of sequences of motor based info that are necessary in order to complete the actions components of a task

proximal stimulus

Info registered on your sensory receptors. For example the image that the laptop creates on the table.

central executive

Integrates informal from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketch pad, and episodic buffer, and long term memory. Plays an major role in focusing attention, selecting strategies, transforming info, and coordinating behavior. Baddeley argues that the central executive has a wide variety of different functions such as focusing attention and switching task. It is important and complex but is the least understood component of working memory

Ground

Is the region that is left over forming the background

How are physical energies read by the brain?

It involves the transduction of them and they are transform into neutral impulses which is the only thing that the brain can read

Where the occipital lobe located

It makes up about 1/4 of the back back of the brain.

Rensink et al (1997) change blindness

It took people much longer to notice the difference in photo when the change was less important. This small changes does not change the meaning of photo.

What is now thought of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model pertaining to memory

It was once the dominate memory research for many years. The influence has now diminished because now most cognitive psychologist think sensory memory is part of perception rather then memory They also question the clear cut distinction made between short and long term memory

hierarchy

Items age arranged in a series of classes from most general classes to the specific

Metacognition

Knowledge and control of your cognitive processes

How much space does the visuospatial sketch pad have in our memory

Limited When you process too many items, you cannot represent them accurately enough to recover them A person will not be able to do two visuospatial task at the same time

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain damage. This deficit is especially severe for events that occurred during the years just before the damage

anterograde amnesia

Loss of the ability to form memories

autobigraphical memory

Memory for events and issue related to yourself. Verbal narrative Imagery about the events Emotional reactions Procedural information

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model and short term memory

Memory involves a sequence of separate steps. In each step info is transferred from one storage to another. According to the model, external stimuli from the environment enter as sensory memory. The model proposes that sensory memory is stored for two seconds. It says that info in short term memory can be lost within 30 seconds unless it is somehow repeated Only fraction of memory is passed onto long term memory loss.

short-term memory

Memory thsg is responsible for holding onto a small amount of info that has been recently taken in from the environment. It has limited capacity both in terms of how much it can hold and how long a person can remember.

Mood

More general, long lasting experience

What happens after the proximal stimulus is registered by the retina

Must make it way through the visual pathway, a set of neurons between the retina and the primary visual cortex The primary visual context is located in the occipital lobe of the brain; it is portion of your cerebral cortex is concerned with basic processing of visual stimuli. This is also the place where info from your two eyes are combined

Do people who are experts in one area have an outstanding general memory skill?

No, it usually is an deliberate and intensive practice on a daily basis to get where they are.

Do people really remember flashbulb memories better then others

No, studies have revealed that people make numerous mistake in recalling details of national events even if they claimed they could remember it clearly.

Physical versus mental content in encoding specificity principle

Often times, the physical context is manipulated in experiments. However, mental may be more important than physical. This Is because the characteristics of the room are trivial and the feel of the room might be better.

How many message can a person process at one time and what are the exceptions

One People focus on the unattended message if both messages are presented slowly, the main task is not challenging, and the meaning of the unattended message is immediately relevant

From the 1950s to the late 1970s, what were the two methods commonly used to test short term memory

One measure was the Brown/Peterson technique. The other one was based on serial position effect

Semantic memory

Organized knowledge about the world, including your knowledge about words and other factual info

T.B. Rogers and coworkers (1977) processing different words different ways

Participants were asked to process each English word according to the specified instructions - visual characteristics - their sound - meaning - self reference instruction; they were told to decide if they could apply the word to themselves The recall was poor for the first two task because they were shallow processing. The recall was much better for the third task. However, self reference produced the best results

Simon and Chabris (1999) inattentional blindness

Participants were asked to watch videotape of people playing basketball and were instructed to mentally tally the number of times the a bound pass of an aerial pass occurred. A person in gorilla suit wandered in the scene and stayed there for 5 second but 46 percent of the participants failed to notice this

Wolfe (2005) visual search

People are much more accurate in identifying a target if it appears frequently.

divided attention (multitasking) and retaining info

People often believe they can do two things at once and be fine but that is often not the case. This because

Craik and Tulving (1975) recall

People were about three times as likely to recall a word if they had originally answered questions about its meaning

Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970) Anterograde amnesia

People with anterograde amnesia were presented with a list of English words. The the researchers did several recall and recognition task. Compared to the control group, the individual with amnesia performed much poorly on both kinds of explicit memory task They also administered implicit memory task. The task were presented as word guessing grades. Although they were really assessing people memory of the word that were pervious presented. Words were mutilated and the participants had to guess what words Both the participants with amnesia and control group were correct 45 percent

Walker et al (2003) positivity effect and depression

People with depressive tendencies see their unpleasant events as still unpleasant.

Conway (2001) attention and high and low working memory

People with high working memory heard their name only 20 percent of the time as oppose to people with a high working memory notice it 65 percent of the time. People with low capacity have a hard time blocking out irrelevant info

What does implicit memory show the effect of

Pervious experience that creep our automatically during normal behavior and not making any conscious effect to remember the past

In real life event, do we tend to remember positive or negative events more accurately

Pleasant

Pollyanna Principle

Pleasant items are usually processed more accurately than less pleasant items.

phonological loop

Process a limited number of sounds in a short period of time. This loop processes language and other sounds that you hear, as well as sound that a person might make. It also active in subvocalization which is when a person silently pronounces a word that they are reading.

visuospatial sketchpad

Processes both visual and spatial info. This working memory allows you to look at complex scenes and gather visual info about objects and landmarks. It also allows you to navigate from one place to another. Allows a peons to store a coherent picture of both the visual and apprehended of the objects and their relative position in a scene Stores visual info that you encoded from verbal description

Features Analysis Theory

Proposed a relatively flexible approach in which a visual stimulus is composed of a small numbers of characteristics. Each of these characteristics is called an distinctive feature

Scores on the test of working memory especially the phonological loop are usually correlated with what

Reading ability

Encoding specificity principle

Recall is better if the content during retrieval is similar to the context during encoding

Repetition priming task

Recent exposure to a word increases the likelihood that you'll think of this particular word when you are presented with a cue that would evoke many different words

How is the partial lobe involved with visual perception

Recognizing a roll

Sensation

Refers to the initial detection of energy from the physical world

serial position effect

Refers to the u shape relationship between a word position in a list and its probability of recall. The u shape curve is common and is used in more recent research

Focuses attention

Requires slower serial processing, you identify one object at a time. This is more depending kind of processing that is necessary when the object are more complex such as when they are compared.

Explicit memory task

Researcher directly ask you to remember some info; you realize your memory is being tested and the test requires you to intentionally retrieve some info

Christopher and MacDonald (2005) workitn memory and depression

Researchers tested 35 hospitalized impatients who met the criteria for major depression- as well as 29 hospital assistant but did not jack depression. They tested three major components of Baddeley Model of working memory. They did two test for the phonological loop for one task they asked people to look at similar sounding letters while repeating the word the. Then they were instituted to remember the letter in the correct order. The people who were depressed correctly repeated 3.4 letters in role in contrast to 5.3 letters for individual without depression which was statically significant Visuospatial sketchpad - saw a pattern with black and white squares in 3 x 3. Each pattern was presented for one second beginning with two of these pattern and working up to a longer series. Then the participants reported if whether one specific pattern matched one of the one they had already seen. The people work depression had an average span of 6.7 and the one without had an average span of 7.8. This was significant Central executive - large difference, one task required participants to listen to a series of letters then report them in reverse order. The people with depression had an average of 2.8 as oppose to 4.8. A final task require people to recall the last four letters of string letters that varies in lengths from four to eight letters. The people with depression had an average span of 3.2 in contrast to 7.4

Implicit memory memory illustrates that people often do what in actual recall

Reveal less then they actually know

How does Eleanor Gibson research support the Feature-analysis theory

She did a study that showed it took people a relatively long time to decide whether one letter is different from another when those have a large among of critical features.

Expertise

Show impressive memory abilities as well as consistently exceptional performance on representative task in particular area.

How do process someone talking?

Sound waves travel to the ear The portions of your auditory systems are responsible for analyzing the physical properties such as amplitude and frequency. This analysis is the bottom up processing at work After early sensory processing, additional higher level processing of the input occurs. The input becomes processes well enough that the info can be matched to your stored knowledge about linguistic sounds. When the processes sound marches with your stored memory you then recognized the sound which is top down processing

sensory memory

Storage system that records info from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy

Walker et al (1997) unpleasant memories vs pleasant memories

Students were ask to record one personal event each day for 14 weeks. They were ask to rate the pleasantness and intensity of the event. After 3 month they were called back. A researcher read each event from the pervious list and the student was instructed to rate the pleasantness of it The rating did not change for those that were neutral however, the one that were thought as pleasant were deemed slightly less pleasant. The unpleasant event were now seen as much less unpleasant.

What is an important function of metacognition

Supervise the way you select and use your memory strategies. Your knowledge of your cognitive processes can guide you on selecting strategies to improve frites cognitive performance

weapon focus effect

Tendency of victims to focus on weapon instead of the person holding it Decreases the accuracy of info an eyewitness can provide When a person is not stress this can still happen The threat does not matter because if it noticeable, we will focus on The less experience we are with a gun or if the item is usual in the surrounding

Marian and Fausey (2006) encoring specificity principle

Tested people living in Chile who were fluent in both English and Spanish The participants listened to four stories about topics such as chemistry and history. They heard two stories in English and two in Spanish Some of the language of the story and the questions did not match. The participants were instructed to answer in the same language that was used for the questions The ones who had it all in one language that match did better on retrieval

What did Simons and Levin emphasizes

That we could not possibly notice every single detail in an busy environment our visual system would be overwhelmed by the trivial changes. As a result, our brain creates the gist of a scene in which you only focus on what is important

total time hypothesis

The amount of info that you learn depends on the amount of time you spend learning it

Talarico and Rubin (2003) 9/11 and flashbulb memories

The day after 9/11 happens, students were asked have their learned about the event and provided info about an ordinary event that happen at similar time. They were assigned to come back either in one week, six week, or 32 week. They were asked a variety of question including the details of their memory for the the attack and the everyday event. As time went by, the accuracy went down for both even through people were certain that they were correct for the attack

What problems does the feature-analysis have?

The feature-analysis theories were constructed to explain relatively simple recognition of letters. In contrast the shapes that occur in nature are much more complex with their distinct feature. That it would make it harder to recognize especially when it started to move.

ambiguous figure-ground relationship

The figure and the ground reverse from time to time so that figure becomes the ground

long-term memory

The high capacity storage system that contains your memories for experiences and info that you accumulated throughout your lifetime

semantic similarity

The number of amount of similar meaning of items being remembers can cause new info being learned to not be remembered

dichotic listening

The procedure of presenting one message to the left ear and a different message to the right ear.

When happen we use divided attention

The speed and accuracy suffer especially if the task are challenging It strains the limits of our attention as well as the limits to our working and long term memory.

How is Baddeley's model of working memory different from earlier models?

There is multiple components for our working memory

feature dectors

These are in the visual system when we are born. These help us recognize certain feature of letters and simple patterns

Baddeley and Hitch and short term memory

They answer one very important question which was what does the short term memory accomplish for our cognitive process? They agreed that it is a major function is to jo several interrelated bits of info in our mind all at the same time. Therefore, a person can work with this info and then used it appropriately. This change the way memory was thought about.

Brandimonte and colleagues (1992) visuospatial

They instructed participants to repeat an irrelevant syllable while looking at a complex visual stimulus. When the phonological loop is occupied, the participants did not provide name for stimuli.

Viewers-centered approach

This is a modification of the recognition of components theory to take in account that people recognize objects quicker are seen from a standard viewpoint Proposed that we store a small number of views of three-dimensional objects rather than just one. If we see an object on position that we had not before then it is rotated until it matches viewed stored in the memory. This requires an additional second or two and we not even recognize the object

episodic buffer

This is the fourth component that Baddeley added. It serves an temporary sotrhosue that can hold and combine info from your phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long term memory. Manipulates info also that you can interpret an earlier experience, solve new problems, and plan future activities Bind together some concepts that had not been perviously connected. Binds words into meaningful chunks of phrases so that you can remember much more accurately then in random order. Limited capacity and is temporary

top-down processing

This is the second process in objection recognition. This is how a person's concepts, expectations, and memory influence object recognition. These expectation help you recognize objects more rapidly because they work their way and guide early processes of visual stimulus

selective attention

To pay attention to certain kind of info while ignoring other info

haptic memory

Touch High About one second

Bushman (1998) remembering violence

Two 15 minute segments of two video were recorded. One was with violent fighting and destruction of property. The other did not. However, they were seen as equal exciting. He then inserted 30 second commercials to neutral items. Some watched the violent one and other did not. Then they were ask to recall the brands that were featured. They remember the brands in the nonviolent better

Hippocampus

Underneath the cortex that is important in many learning and memory task

Perception

Uses pervious knowledge to gather and interpret the stimuli registered by the senses.

scores on central executive tasks are correlated with

Verbal fluency, reading comprehension, reading ability, and note-taking skills.

iconic memory

Visual Capacity: high Less half a second

What makes us notice change blindness

We did not thinking an certain event will using top down processing, therefore it becomes less noticeable We notice change if it's unlikely or important or if it is important to us

How does our brain process faces compared to other object

We recognize houses and most other objects by identifying the individual features that combine together to create these objects. In contrast, face have a special privileged status because we see them on a holisticholistic basis meanings the overall shape and structure trumps individual elements.

feature integration theory

We take some time looking at a scene using distributed attention and we process all the parts of the scene at the same time Other time we use focus attention, we process the items in a room one at a time The distributed and focus attention forms a continuum rather then two district categories

Simons and Levin (1997, 1998) and change blindness

When a student that was asking for directions and a person holding a door blocked their view. The person was switched with one holding the door. Only half of the bystanders reported that the person had been replaced. This happens because when perceiving a scene our top down processing encourages us to assume the basic meaning of the will remain stable. Since we did not see the person leave it makes us assume they are not same personZ

Figure

When two areas share a common boundary, it has a distinct shape with clearly defined edges.

Why does self reference effect work so well?

When we think of a word in connection to ourselves, we develop memorable coding for that word. Requires organization and elaboration which increase a person chances at recalling it This supports that our cognitive processes handle positive instances more effectively than negative ones.

What are ways that phonological loop palsy a central role in other processes?

Working memory is the gateway to long term memory. When you are reading all the info has to pass through the phonological loop. A person could not recall every word but can recall specific facts and details You use the phonological loop during self- instruction when you silently remind yourself about something that you need to do in the future. Use the loop when you learn new words in your first language. You also use it while reading It plays an important role when you produce language and learning language Mathematical calculations and problem solving task require this loop so that you can keep track of the numbers and other info

Can the encoding specificity principle override the deep level of processing

Yes, because the sometimes shallow processing will help you retrieve the info later because you are memorizing superficial material

What does the computer model research suggest about the recognition by component

Young children may initially represent each object as undifferentiated complete objects, in contrast older adults can represent an object as a collections of geons

What is one of the first theories for object recognition

Your visual system compares a stimulus with set of templates or specific pattern that you have stored in your memory. Then if notes which template matches the stimulus.

desirable difficulties

a learning situation that is somewhat challenging, but not too difficult

Recognition task

a method of measuring memory retention that assesses the ability to select the correct answer from among a range of alternative answers

Emotion

a reaction to a specific stimulus

Attentional bias

a situation in which people pay extra attention to some stimuli or some features

cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one voice among many

Distal stimuli

actual object or event out there in the world

Implicit memory task

assesses your memory indirectly. You see the material; later during the test phase you are instructed to complete an cognitive task that does not directly ask you to recall or recognize. The researcher should avoid using words such as remember or recall.

echoic memory

auditory memory Capacity: high Duration: 3-4 seconds

Elaboration and retaining info

concentrate on the specific meaning of a particular concept; you'll also try to relate this concept to your prior knowledge and to interconnected concepts that you have already mastered. You should emphasize rich, elaborate encoding, for instance, by explaining a concept to yourself.

Divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

Gestalt Psychology

emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information Can have benefits up to 9 months

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment because of the overuse of top down processing

inattentional blindness

failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere.

binding problem

how features are linked together so that we see unified objects in our visual world rather than free-floating or miscombined features

isolated-feature/combined-feature effect

in visual search studies, the finding that people can typically locate an isolated feature more quickly than a combined feature

illusory conjunction

is an inappropriate combination of features perhaps combining one object's shape with a nearby object's color. This typically happen when you become overwhelm with your surrounding

procedural memory

knowledge about how to do things, such as riding a bike or swinging a golf club

Retrieval

locating stored information and returning it to conscious thought

Mnemonics

mental strategies designed to improve your memory

distinctiveness

one memory trace should be different from all other memory traces. People tend to forget information ifit is not distinctly different from the other memory traces in their long-term memory.

Gestalt

overall quality that transcends the individual elements

Recall task

participants must reproduce the items they learned earlier

emotional stroop task

people are instructed to name the ink color of words that could have strong emotional significance to them. Require more time to name the color of the stimuli because they have a hard time ignoring emotional reactions to word themselves

Acoustic confusion

people are likely to confuse similar-sounding stimuli

feature-present/feature-absent effect

people can typically locate a feature that is present more quickly than a feature that is absent

Proactive interference (PI)

people have trouble learning new material because previously learned material keeps interfering with their new learning

Memory Strageries

perform mental activities that can help to improve your encoding and retrieval.

Brown/Peterson and Peterson technique

presented some items that students were instructed to remember; then the students performed a distracting task; and finally they were asked to recall the original items

iconic memory (visual sensory memory)

preserves an image of a visual stimulus for a brief period after the stimulus has disappeared

Working memory approach

proposed by Baddeley; our immediate memory is a multipart system that temporarily holds and manipulates information while we perform cognitive tasks

encoding-specificity principle

recall is often better if the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time when your retrieval will be tested.

release from proactive interference

reducing proactive interference by having information be dissimilar from earlier material

rehersal and retaining info

repeating the information you want to learn, you aren't likely to benefit much in terms of accurate recall at some later point in time.

Random number generation task

requires the research participants to supply one digit every second, creating the random sequence described in this demonstration participants had been able to successfully generate a random sequence of numbers when the participants reported daydreaming, their number sequences were far from random. Daydreaming occupies such a large portion of the resources of the central executive.?

Positively effect

tendency for people to remember more positive than negative information with age

primary effect

tendency to recall the first terms of list

Primary effect

tendency to recall the first terms of list. These early items are easy to remember for two reasons they don't need to complete with earlier items. People rehearse early items more frequently.

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Cognitive Approach

theoretical orientation that emphasizes people's thought processes and their knowledge