EXSS181 Exam 1

3 stages of children's competence motivation

1. Autonomous competence- (before age 4) children focus on mastering their environment through self-testing their abilities, at this stage children rarely compare themselves with others 2. Social comparison- (begins around age 5) children focus on comparing their performance with that of others 3. Integrated stage- involves both social comparison and autonomous achievement strategies, an understanding exists for when its okay to compete and when more self-referenced standards are approriate

3 psychological needs met by a motivating environment

1. Autonomy- the need to perceive that one has choice and are in control of one's own behavior 2. Competence- the need to feel effective at achieving desired outcomes 3. Relatedness- the need to authentically connect with others and feel involved in the social context

Ways of knowing

1. Common sense- intuition, speculation 2. Practical experience- observations, case studies 3. Science- systematic, controlled, empirical investigations of relationships among phenomena

2 aspects of rewards

1. Controlling aspect- more controlling= undermines self-determination, affects autonomy perceptions 2. Informational aspect- more informational= enhances self-determination, affects competence perceptions

2 points to remember for giving effective demonstrations

1. Demonstrations can do as much harm as good 2. Effective demonstrations require thought and planning

4 steps of scientific method

1. Develop the problem 2. Formulate hypotheses 3. Gather data 4. Analyze and interpret results

6 periods of sports psychology

1. Early years (1895-1920) 2. Griffith era (1921-1938) 3. Preparation for the future (1939-1965) 4. Establishment of academic branch (1966-1977) 5. Multidisciplinary research (1978-2000) 6. Contemporary (2000-present)

2 main ways to define success/failure

1. Ego/Outcome- relative to other people, a limited number of people can be successful thus success is less in participant's control 2. Task/mastery- relative to your own past performance, possible for all participants to be successful thus success is more in participant's control

3 predictors of goal involvement

1. Goal orientation 2. Concept of ability 3. Motivational climate

Hollander's model of personality

1. Internal psychological core- basic level, values, interests, motives, constant/internal 2. Typical responses- ways we learn to adjust to the environment, how we usually respond to world around us 3. Role-related behavior- most changeable aspect of personality, different situations elicit different behaviors, external/dynamic

The sport competition process

1. Objective Competitive Situation 2. Subjective Competitive Situation 3. Response 4. Consequences

Big 5 theory (trait approach)

1. Openness to experience 2. Conscientiousness 3. Extraversion/introversion 4. Agreeableness 5. Neuroticism

Key issue in production of observe behaviors

1. Outcome vs process 2. Recall vs recognition 3. Learning vs performance

2 underlying assumptions of achievement goal theory

1. People are motivated to demonstrate competence 2. Motivation is influenced by the personal meaning one assigns to perceived success and failure

3 assumptions of competence motivation theory

1. Perceptions of control (over whether one can learn and perform skills) work along with self-worth and competence evaluations to influence motivation 2. Perceptions of control, competence, self-esteem do not influence motivation directly 3. Rather, these perceptions influence affective or emotional states (ie enjoyment, anxiety, pride, shame) that in turn influence motivation

Approaches to influencing behavior

1. Positive approach- strengthens desired behavior by motivating participants to perform or exhibit them and by reinforcing the behaviors when they occur, focuses on correct performance, praise, encouragement, and instruction are key examples 2. Negative/aversive approach- attempts to eliminate undesirable behaviors through punishment and criticism, focuses on performance errors or negative behaviors, fear of failure is a key problem

5 components cooperative learning must contain

1. Positive interdependence 2. Face-to-face interaction 3. Individual accountability 4. Social skills training 5. Opportunities for group evaluation

Arousal -> performance theories

Drive theory, Inverted-U theory, Individualized zones of optimal functioning, Multidimensional theory , Catastrophe theory, Reversal theory

As outlined in the textbook, which of the following are strategies for increasing intrinsic motivation? A. Give rewards contingent on performance B. Use both verbal and non-verbal praise C. Involve participants in decision making D. A and C E. B and C F. All of the above

F

Negative effect of anxiety on performance

Increased muscle tension and coordination difficulties, attention and concentration changes (narrowing of attention, attending to inappropriate cues, performance worries and situation-irrelevant thoughts)

Normal Triplett

Key figure in social and sport/exercise psychology, studied social facilitation of bikers

Social learning theory

People learn behaviors for certain situations via observational learning/modeling

Behaviorism

People learn behaviors for specific situations via rewards and punishments

Stress model

Person-environment transaction -> cognitive appraisal (primary, secondary) <-> coping (problem-focused, emotion-focused) -> stress/emotional outcome ---->>> Stress affects all other factors, can be either positive (eustress) or negative (distress)

Interactionist approach

Personal factors and situation factors interact to determine behavior, B=f(P,E), combination of trait and situation theories, state vs trade characteristics

Enhancing self-determined motivation

1. Provide contingent positive reinforcement 2. Define success in process-oriented terms 3. Use small rewards as symbols of achievement, not to coerce or control 4. Have realistic expectations 5. Phase out rewards as intrinsic motivation developed 6. Provide participants some choice 7. Use a democratic leadership style 8. Help individuals set their own realistic, challenging goals 9. Help all participants feel included in all the group by coach/leader showing respect to all participants and activities to encourage group members to get to know each other

Feedback strategies

1. Reinforcement- increases the likelihood of a behavior that precedes it 2. Punishment- decreases the likelihood of a behavior that precedes it

3 roles of sport psychologists

1. Researching 2. Teaching 3. Consulting

Types of modeling effects

1. Skill/behavior acquisition- acquire motor coordination information, develop strategies to solve movement problem 2. Psychological responses- inhibition or disinhibition 3. Response facilitation- behaviors already learned

3 characteristics of attributions

1. Stability- stable= greater expectation of the same outcome happening again, unstable= lower expectation of the same outcome happening again 2. Locus of causality- internal= greater pride (for success) or greater shame (for failure), external= lower pride or lower shame 3. Locus of control- in one's control= greater motivation, out of one's control= lower motivation

Motivated/behavioral outcomes

1. Task goal involvement- choose learning opportunities at risk of displaying mistakes, high effort, persist in face of failure, continue to problem solve when encountering failure 2. Ego goal involvement- avoid learning opportunities that have risk of displaying error, put in just enough effort to socially compare well or to disguise poor ability, give up in face of failure, fewer problem-solving efforts in failure situations

Horn (1985)

Purpose- examined relationship between coach behaviors (IV) and player perceptions of competence and player expectancy of success (DV) Participants- 13-15 year old female softball players and 5 coaches Results- players improvement over season predicted perceived physical competence, coaches' behaviors influenced perceptions of competence and performance expectations above and beyond seasonal skill improvement, more frequent positive reinforcement associated with lower perceptions of competence and success expectations, more frequent criticism associated with higher competence perceptions and expectations

TARGET for enhancing motivational climate (promote mastery)

1. Task- what athletes are asked to learn and what tasks they are given to complete 2. Authority- type and frequency of participation in the decision-making process 3. Recognition/reward- procedures and practices used to motivate athlete and recognize their progress and achievement 4. Grouping- how athletes are brought together or kept apart in training and competition 5. Evaluation- standards set for athletes' learning and performance and procedures for monitoring and judging attainment of these standards 6. Timing- appropriateness of time demands placed on learning and performance

2 concepts of ability

1. Undifferentiated- an inability or a choice not to differentiate between ability and effort, i.e. working hard=ability 2. Differentiated- a person is able to and chooses to differentiate between ability and effort

Measuring degree of learning

1. Verbal reproduction 2. Recognition 3. Comprehension test 4. Actual performance

A youth soccer coach wants to improve cooperation among his team as he feels some kids possess great athletic skills while some need to learn the basics of the game. Which is not a way to implement cooperation among his team to address this concern? A. Allow the kids to play the same position each game B. Maximize participation C. Do not keep score in games D. Give positive feedback

A

In considering the research findings on scholarships by Amorose, Horn, and Miller (1994, 2000), what combination of coaching behaviors would most likely decrease a scholarship athlete's intrinsic motivation? A. Coach emphasizes controlling aspect of scholarship, displays autocratic behavior B. Coach emphasizes informational aspect of scholarship, displays democratic behaviors C. Coach emphasizes controlling aspect of scholarship, displays democratic behavior D. Coach emphasizes informational aspect of scholarship, displays autocratic behavior

A

The final stage of the sport competition process according to Martens, the Consequences stage, involves three longer-term effects/outcomes. These include: A. Performance, attitudes, health B. Attitudes, attributions, health C. Performance, attributions, emotions D. Consequences, outcomes, performance

A

You are a U-15 soccer coach who wants to help a few of your players increase their motivation for soccer. Which of the following is NOT one of the five guidelines for professional practice on motivation which could guide your efforts? A. Always keep the environment the same to enhance motivation. B. Consider both situations and traits in motivating people. C. Use behavior modification to change undesirable participant motives. D. Understand people's motives for involvement.

A

Mageau and Vallerand (2003)

Autonomy supportive coaching behaviors 1. Provide choice within specific limits and rules 2. Provide rationale for tasks and limits 3. Acknowledge the other person's feelings and perspectives (athletes and coaches) 4. Provide athletes with opportunities for initiative taking and independent work 5. Provide noncontrolling competence feedback 6. Avoid controlling behaviors (overt control, criticism and controlling statements, tangible rewards for interesting tasks) 7. Prevent ego-involvement in athletes

Competition is best described as: A. A performance being evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievements of a group working together to reach a goal B. Rewards being given to people on the basis of how their performance compares with other performances C. Opponents seeing each other as rivals, striving against each other to win D. Focusing on interpersonal comparison and winning

B

Johnny is a quarterback on his high school football team. His coach has been helping him to improve his passing form by rewarding small daily improvements as he approaches the correct behavior. This is best exemplified by _____. A. Punishment B. Shaping C. General Reinforcement D. Feedback

B

____________ feedback provides information about specific behaviors, levels of proficiency that should be achieved, and the current level of proficiency. A. General B. Instructional C. Motivational D. Specific

B

According to Achievement Goal Theory, individuals can adopt certain outcome goal orientations. The orientation towards skill development or improvement is labeled as ______. A. ego/outcome B. task/ego C. task/mastery D. mastery/outcome

C

Attribution theory focuses on A. how individuals explain their personal attributes B. how groups explain their personality attributes C. how individuals explain their success and failure D. how individuals explain their personal biases

C

In general psychological sense, motivation can be defined as A. the intensity of one's effort B. the direction of one's effort C. the direction and intensity of one's effort D. the direction and emotion associated with one's effort

C

You recently began coaching an elementary-school basketball team, whose members are learning the game for the first time. You seek to promote your player's enjoyment of their overall sport experience. What would NOT be an appropriate guideline to follow when giving positive reinforcement to your novice young players? A. Give them continuous and immediate reinforcement B. Reward their successful approximations through shaping C. Reward only the outcomes of players' attempts D. Provide specific feedback about players' performances

C

Ethical standards for sport and exercise psychology

Competence, integrity, professional and scientific responsibility, respect for people's rights and dignity, concern for welfare of others, social responsibility

Coleman Griffith

"Father of Modern Sport Psychology", 1st research lab, 25 research articles, studied at Red Grange in Illinois, worked with Notre Dame and Chicago Cubs

Social learning theory

(Bandura 1977) ater called the social cognitive theory in 1986, observer processes modeled information and uses it to guide behavior attempts Four processes fundamental to success: 1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Motor reproduction 4. Motivation Demonstration -> perception -> motor skill response + psychological response

Attribution theory

(Weiner 1979, 1985) motivation influenced by attributions such as personal ability, personal effort, opponent's ability, opponent's effort, luck, ref, conditions, weather

Self-determination/motivational continuum

(least self-determined) 1. Amotivation- see no link between actions and outcomes 2. External regulation- performing an activity to receive a reward or avoid a punishment 3. Introjected regulation- performing a behavior to avoid guilt and anxiety 4. Identified regulation- performing the behavior to achieve some valued, extrinsic outcome 5. Integrated regulation- performing a behavior because it is part of your sense of self 6. Intrinsic motivation- performing an activity for its own sake

In terms of motivational approaches, the "trait-centered view" focused on ___________ whereas the "situation-centered view" takes primary focus on __________. The most widely accepted approach, though, is the __________ view, which incorporates the previous two approaches. A. the environment/situation, individual characteristics, mixed B. individual characteristics, the environment/situation, mixed C. biological characteristics, life changes, interactional D. individual characteristics, the environment/situation, interactional

D

Which game structure category does the sport of basketball most likely fit into? A. Competitive means-competitive ends B. Individual means-individual ends C. Cooperative means-individual ends D. Cooperative means-competitive ends

D

Which of the following components is NOT required for cooperation? A. Positive interdependce B. Individual accountability C. Social skills training D. Self-referenced goals

D

Weiss, McCullah, Smith, and Berlant study (1998)

Purpose- to examine the effect of peer coping and mastery models on children's motor performance and psychological responses in swimming Method- 24 children with minimal swimming experience, fear of water, or low confidence (M=6.2 year olds), 3 groups= control, peer mastery, peer coping DV=skill, fear, and self-efficacy Pre-test, post-test, follow-up test Results- moderate to large differences between control and modeling groups on skill, fear, and self-efficacy following the intervention, no differences between modeling groups Conclusion- using peer models can enhance motor skills and psychological outcomes when teaching new, anxiety-producing activities

Coach training for interventions

Trained group (experimental)- attended clinic where taught coaching guidelines using lecture, demonstrations, role playing Untrained group (control)- did not receive special training but informed of phase 2 results Results- trained group of coaches resulted in players with increased enjoyment, intention to return, better evaluation of coach, increased liking of teammates, increased self esteem, 5% plater drop-out for trained (other interests), 26% drop-out player for untrained (don't like coach, pressure)

2 major objectives of sports and exercise psychology

Understand the effects of 1. Psychological factors on sport/physical activity behavior and performance 2. Participating in sport/physical activity on psychological development, health, and well-being

Arousal

a general state of activation from deep sleep to extreme excitement, neither positive or negative, includes physiological, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions

Anxiety

a negative emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension, and increased physiological activation, cognitive and somatic

Learned helplessness

a psychological state where people have learned that failure is inevitable and out of their control, tend to attribute failure to uncontrollable and stable causes

Stress

a relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person and endangers his/her well-being, a product of the dynamic and transactional relationship between the person and the environment

Competition

a social process that occurs when rewards are given to people on the basis of how their performances compare with the performances of others doing the same task or participating on the same event

Cooperation

a social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievements of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal

Cognitive appraisal

an evaluation of whether the encounter has significance for the person's well-being, subjective vs objective reality 1. Primary appraisal- what is at stake? is it relevant to my values, goals, beliefs, and self? 2. Secondary appraisal- what can be done? can i manage, prevent, or adapt to the encounter?

Inverted-U hypothesis

argued that performance is optimal at a moderate level of arousal and falls off if athletes are not aroused enough or too aroused

Reversal theory

arousal effects performance based on interpretation, your interpretation of physiological/psychological feeling could affect your performance as opposed to the actual amount of arousal

Motivational climate

athlete's perceptions of achievement goals promoted by significant others, mastery and performance/competitive climates

Intrinsic motivation

behaviors demonstrated voluntarily, performing an activity for its own sake

Extrinsic motivation

behaviors displayed for the purpose of achieving some end and not for its own sake

Learning structures

competitive, individualistic, cooperative

Coping

constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts used to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person 1. Problem-focused coping- efforts directed at changing the transaction, try to solve the problem 2. Emotion-focused coping- efforts directed at changing the emotional response without changing the transaction, manage your feelings about the problem

Cognitive evaluation theory and rewards

critical factor is not the reward, but the person's interpretation of the rewards

Performance/competitive climate

emphasis on competition, winning, and social comparison tend to evoke ego involvement

Mastery climate

emphasis on learning, effort, individual improvement, and cooperation tend to evoke task involvement

Catastrophe theory

explains the interaction of cognitive and somatic anxiety and the combined relationship on athletic performance, as arousal increases performance increases to a point but if it goes beyond an optimal level performance drops off sharply, returning to optimal level after a catastrophe requires dramatically reducing anxiety below the normal optimal level and then working back up to optimal levels

B=

f(P,E) Behavior is a function of both the person and his/her environment

Dispositional goal orientations

how the individual typically defines success/failure

Subjective competitive situation

individual's perceptions, interpretations, and appraisals of the competitive situation and its situational factors and individual differences

Feedback

information that is obtained about a behavior, intrinsic= visual, kinesthetic, tactile, augmented= external source

Functions of feedback

informational, motivational, reinforcement

Attributions

interpretations or explanations individuals give for success or failure

Self-serving bias

making attributions that help you increase or maintain your self-esteem and confidence, success= internal and stable, failure= external and unstable

Vicarious modeling

maximize model/observer similarity (age, gender, competence, coping vs mastery), model verbalizations (problem-solving, self-confidence, positive vs negative affect, task difficulty)

Situational approach

personality is shaped by interactions with the environment, behaviorism and social learning theory

Williams and Hodges Review (2005)

practice, instruction, skill acquisition in soccer, 5 myths 1. Demonstrations are always effective in conveying information to the learner 2. Specific, blocked practice of a single skill is essential for skill learning 3. Augmented feedback from a coach should be frequent, detailed and provided as soon as possible after the skill has been performed 4. Prescriptive coaching is always better for skill acquisition than instructional approaches based on learning by guided discovery 5. Game intelligence skills are not amenable to practice and instruction

Individualized zones of optimal functioning (IZOF)

similar to interned U, the optimal level of arousal does not always occur at the midpoint, one's optimal level of state anxiety rests not at a single point but a bandwidth

Objective competitive situation

standards are set by an individual's past performance, an idealized performance, another individual's performance, MUST be a criteria for comparison that is known by at least 1 other person who is in a position to evaluate the performance

Multidimensional theory

states that somatic and cognitive anxiety influence performance differently, cognitive anxiety= negative linear relationship, somatic anxiety= inverted-U relationship

Ryan Scholarship studies

study on the effects of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards on motivation study 1- scholarship < non scholarship for intrinsic motivation study 2- scholarship < non scholarship for football, however scholarship > non scholarship for wrestling and female athletes

Personality

that pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguishes one person from another and that persists over time and situations

State anxiety

the actual apprehension and tension felt in a given time (in the moment), a changing mood state

Modeling/observational learning

the cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes that result from observing others

Motivation

the direction and intensity of effort

Drive theory

the idea that the relationship between anxiety and performance is direct and linear

Consequences

the longer-term effects/outcomes of the competitive process 1. Performance- successful or unsuccessful 2. Attitudes- self-perceptions, feelings of enjoyment, motivation 3. Health- sleeping patterns, eating patters, susceptibility to injury, substance abuse

Sports and exercise psychology

the scientific study of human behaviour in sport and exercise, and the practical application of that knowledge

Trait anxiety

the tendency to become anxious in stressful situations (dispositional), an acquired behavioral tendency that is part of one's personality

Trait approach

trait theories imply that traits (relatively stable attributes of a person) are consistent and generalizable

Competence motivation theory

used to explain differences in achievement behavior, especially in children, feeling of competence drives one's motivation to behave a certain way feedback and reinforcement + motivational orientations -> perceived competence (perceived control, perceived value)-> affect (pride, anxiety, shame, joy) -> competence motivation (state)

Response

whether an individual approaches a competitive situation and how he or she does it 1. Behavioral- choice of an easy, optimal, or difficult standards (or to avoid competition) 2. Physiological- arousal level 3. Psychological- state anxiety, self-talk, concentration, self-confidence