FAS 370 2

Gender Inequality

Uneven demands on men and women -Women earn less money in the labor force and do more household work than men -Family demands intrude more on women's work roles than men's -Employed wives have two jobs, employed husbands have one Obstacles -Married women seen as liabilities compared to married men -For men, responsible fatherhood includes assumptions about breadwinning -Men who do not adequately support their families are labeled as "bad fathers"

The Structural Approach

argues that class inequalities produce different family patterns

Patriarchy

defined as forms of social organization in which men are dominant over women -Men gain privileges at the expense of women -Private patriarchy is male dominance in the interpersonal relations between women and men -Public patriarchy encompasses dominance in societal institutions

Familism

is an obligation and orientation to the family, and considered a defining feature of Mexican-American families

Ethnicity

social category based on national origin, language, religion and culture

There are two scientific approaches for studying social class

the cultural approach and the structural approach

Stratification

to divide into groups

The Cultural Approach

*-argues that family patterns are responsible for inequality

Marriage is still the norm

- 90% of the population eventually marries - 66% of divorced individuals remarry - People marry later than in earlier eras - Average male age for first marriage was 28.7 in 2011 - Average female age for first marriage was 26.5 in 2011 - Latina women marry earlier than women of other ethnic/racial groups

Peer Marriages

- A peer marriage is based on equity and equality - The type of marriage where couples reconstruct gender roles on an equitable basis - Each person gives in proportion to what he/she receives - Each partner has equal status and is equally responsible for emotional, economic and household duties

Power and Decision Making in Marriage Regarding Race and ethnicity

- African American marriages are more egalitarian than other racial/ethnic groups - African American women have the highest labor force participation - African American men do more housework than their counterparts - Latino families are flexible and adaptive with a tendency toward egalitarian marriages - Gender roles in Latino families have changed in response to the changing job market

Recent Trends In marriage

- Approximately 7% of US households fit the breadwinning father and homemaker mother model (e.g., SNAF) - There are equal numbers of cohabitating and married households - 40% of cohabitating and married households have kids - Approximately 66% of married mothers are in the labor force - Approximately 11% of households are headed by single mothers

The correlates of marital quality

- Dual-income couples - Working wives have better mental health - Wives' marital quality is higher when husbands do a greater share of housework - Spouses are happier before having children and after children leave the nest - Marital quality declines with a special needs child - Marital quality declines as spouses age

Remarriage

- Half of all marriages involved a second or third marriage for one or both partners - The majority of divorced persons remarry - 75% of divorced men and 66% of divorced women remarry - Age and gender matter - Older women are much less likely to remarry than younger women - Race and gender matter - African American women are less likely to remarry than White women

Unmarried Adults

- Heterosexual cohabitation is increasing - Cohabitating couples who marry have a higher divorce rate than those who marry without living together - Approximately 40% of children live with their mother and cohabitating partner before turning 16 - People cohabitate for a variety of reasons - Same-sex relationships - Sharing expenses - Prelude to marriage - Lack of financial stability to marry

Shifts in trends Regarding Peer Marriages

- Husbands reject the traditional male role and accept their partners as equal - Wives shed traditional female role expectations - Younger people espouse nontraditional gender ideologies more than their older counterparts

Interracial or Interethnic Marriages

- In 1967, the US Supreme Court overturned miscegenation laws in 16 states (Loving vs. Virginia) - Reversed the law that stated interracial or interethnic marriages were illegal - In 1980, 3.2% of all marriages were interracial or interethnic - In 2010, 8.4% of all marriages were interracial or interethnic - This trend is especially prevalent among newlyweds - Interracial and interethnic marriages are increasing - Younger and higher-educated Americans are more likely to intermarry than older and less educated Americans - White and Blacks have the lowest intermarriage rates while Latinos, Asians and American Indians have the highest rates - Black men are more likely to intermarry to a White woman - Asian women are more likely to intermarry to a White man

The Benefits of Marriage Reconsidered

- Many women marry for the economic benefits of marriage - Women want economically attractive spouses and are reluctant to marry men who are unemployed or have unstable employment - The supply of available men with decent jobs is far lower than the demand for economically stable partners - Men's circumstances - The likelihood of marriage depends on men's socioeconomic circumstances - Increasingly, men are looking for economically attractive spouses - The economic transformations of the past few decades are linked to the "retreat from marriage" - Economic insecurity discourages marriage and makes existing marriages less stable - Without adequate resources, poor couples experience stress as they try to meet basic family needs - Marriage will not fix unstable employment and depressed wages - Gender is critical when evaluating the benefits of marriage - Husband's marriage - Men receive greater benefits from marriage than women - Husbands receive more social support and caring from their spouses than they give - Wife's marriage - Wives benefit less from marriage than their husbands - Wives' benefits depend on the quality of the union - Women devote more time and energy to their children than husbands

Communication in Marriage

- Marriage partners must continually define and redefine their relationship through communication - How a couple communicates predicts how successfully they will cope with the highs and lows of married life - Positive communication is associated with relationship satisfaction and stability - The demand/withdraw pattern is gendered -* Women are often in the demanding role -* Men are often in the withdrawing role -* This interaction reflects men's and women's unequal power in marriage

Family Size

- Married couples are having fewer children - Some married couples choose not to have any children

The Benefits of Marriage

- Married individuals are healthier, happier and financially better off than their never married, divorced or widowed counterparts - Marriage promotes healthy behaviors among men - Husbands are less likely to engage in risky behaviors such as excessive drinking, substance use, and multiple sexual partners - Divorce is associated with men returning to bad habits such as drug and alcohol use - Married men live five times longer than single men

Mental Health Benefits of Marriage

- Married individuals have better mental health than the unmarried - Married individuals have more satisfying sex lives than the unmarried - Married people have more economic resources than unmarried individuals - More economic resources means - Better nutrition - Better access to dentists, physicians and hospitals - A greater likelihood of living in a safe neighborhood

Marital Success

- Measures of success - Stability refers to whether the marriage is intact - Quality refers to the ways in which the husband and wife evaluate the character of their relationship - The correlates of marital quality - Spouses who are alike in social characteristics (SES, race/ethnicity, religion, age, intelligence) have higher quality marriages - The higher the income, education and occupational status of the couple, the more they evaluate their marriage as high quality

Life Span and Marriage

- People are living longer, which means that couples have the potential to spend 50 years together - Longer life spans increase the possibility of growing apart - People change throughout the life cycle and the type of partner required at 25 may not match the type of partner needed at 60 -Divorce -The divorce rate has increased -Approximately half of all first marriages end in divorce -African American couples are more likely to divorce than White or Latino couples

Power and Decision Making in Marriage

- Power in a marriage involves the ability of a wife or husband to influence each other - Patriarchy - The patriarchal nature of society provides men with "invisible power" - Male dominance is deeply structured into private and public social contexts - The wife is to be obedient and submissive to her husband -* Usually, women have insufficient marital power to effectively challenge the status quo - The amount of resources each spouse brings to the relationship establishes the relative distribution of marital power - Economic resources are linked to income, status and prestige based on occupation - Usually, husbands have greater marital power given their relative economic clout - Wives who earn more than their husbands do not necessarily have greater marital power

Unmarried Adults are Increasing

- Refers to individuals who have never been married, are divorced or widowed - Includes people who live alone, with roommates, with an unmarried heterosexual partner or same-sex partner - People who live alone are 25% of all households - In the age group of 30 to 34, 30% of women and 39% of men have never been married - Same-sex couples have unrecognized legal status depending on the state - Some gay and lesbian couples keep their relationships secret to avoid discrimination based on their sexual orientation - In 2000, it was estimated that there were 360,000 same-sex couples in the US - In 2010, it was estimated that there were 650,000 same-sex couples in the US - Represents an 80% increase

The Sexual Relationship in Marriage

- Sex is an important aspect of marital relationships - Sexual satisfaction is highly correlated with marital quality - Frequency of sex - Driven by the length of the relationship and the age of the partners - Frequency of sex can be a source of conflict - Gendered in that husbands usually desire sex more than wives

Calling

-"Calling" was the process that allowed young men and women to get to know each -Calling occurred under the watchful eyes of girls' parents -Calling led to courting which was a way to select a mate -With calling, very little money was involved because girls' parents provided refreshments

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

-(Human Immunodeficiency Virus) and (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) -AIDS was first reported in 1981 and is a worldwide epidemic -Common transmission modes are male-to-male sexual contact, injection drug use and heterosexual contact -Individuals with Stage 1 or 2 HIV do not have AIDS -If left untreated, Stage 3 HIV advances to full-blown AIDS

Infertility

-1 in 8 couples are unable to naturally conceive -Among 40% of couples, the problems are caused by the male partner -Insufficient number of active and healthy sperm -For infertile women, the problem is usually the failure to release healthy eggs or the blockage of the fallopian tubes -One solution is in-vitro fertilization -Eggs are removed from the ovary and placed in a petri dish where sperm are added -Once fertilization occurs, the egg is placed in the uterus -Another solution includes the use of fertility drugs -One consequence is the increased probability of multiple births -Since 1980, the birth rate of twins has doubled

Class Mobility

-62% of Americans raised in the top fifth of incomes stay in the top two-fifths -65% of Americans born in the bottom fifth of incomes stay in the bottom two-fifths -8% of American men born in the bottom fifth of incomes rose to the top fifth

Paid household labor

-90% of private household workers are women and disproportionately women of color

African American Families in the 21st Century

-A decline of two-parent households became pronounced in the 60s, 70s, and 80s -African Americans marry later and have higher marital disruption rates than Whites -Economic stressors produce distinctive marital patterns -African American women opt out of marriage if they can't marry an economically stable partner -African American women outnumber men in the pursuit of higher education

Mate selection in Western societies is highly individualized

-A stable marriage is a lifetime goal for most Americans -The key is finding an appropriate partner -As societies change, the process for finding an appropriate partner changes -As young people sought independence from their families, the rise of romantic love as the basis for marriage became prevalent

Intimacy in Social Context

-Although current society is consumed with sexuality, few guidelines are offered for establishing and sustaining intimate relationships -Many people have unrealistic expectations -Individuals demand too much of intimacy and relationships fail for this reason -An intimacy revolution has occurred over the past several decades -There has been a shift in the purpose of marriage from economic necessity to companionship -Marriage is now focused on personal growth and fulfillment

Cultural Approach to Racism

-An idealized model of White families is considered the norm -Racial-ethnic families were considered culturally deficient -Family values transmitted among minority families were considered deviant -Family pathology was used to explain the minority group's place in society -Typically applied to African American and Latino families

Children Demographics

-Approximately 25% of all US children live with one parent -The vast majority of single-parent households are headed by women -Single-parent households are due to divorce or never being married -There are more unwed births among Whites than among African Americans and Latinos

Single-parent households

-Approximately 33% of households with children are maintained by a single parent -90% of single-parent households are headed by women -Single-mother families have the lowest median incomes and the highest rates of poverty -Many single-parent households rely on extended family for assistance

Parenting styles have become less authoritarian and more flexible

-Authoritarian favors strict obedience and less autonomy -Children are less inhibited and more entitled -Middle class families are more likely to develop their child's talents through arranged activities -Working-class and low-income families allow children's talents to develop spontaneously -In working-class and low-income families, parents do not reason with their child but are more authoritarian

Variations in Dating Practices by Race

-Being non-White means being situated in social networks and activities that differ from White people -Typically, dating and mating occurs within race and class-based networks -This is changing due to more intergroup contact in the broader society -Interracial dating is more common and accepted in the broader society although still the exception -Approximately half of American adults have dated interracially -Men are more likely to date interracially than women -It is unclear whether there are differences in relationship quality between interracial and intra-racial relationships

Children on Parents

-Children are active agents in their construction of knowledge about the world -Children shape their parents while they are being shaped by their parents

Negative aspects of parenthood

-Children can negatively affect marital happiness -Emotional costs include worrying about their children's safety, their physical/emotional development and peer influences -Children are a financial burden -In 2017, the estimated cost of raising a child from birth to 17 was $233,610 for a child born in 2015

Effects of Single Parenting

-Children from single-parent households are more likely than children from intact families to have behavioral problems -There is also a strong likelihood that single-parents will be financially troubled -Many single mothers are young and never married -Many divorced or separated women have not been employed for years -Women are poorly paid -Child support may not be paid or may not cover the child's expenses

The Economy on childhood

-Children were greatly affected by unemployment, forced removal from their homes and the reduced social net -Child well-being was eroded on: (School performance, Mental health, Nutrition) -Growing up in poverty results in poor nutrition, lack of health insurance and frequent moving

The Structural Approach Structure

-Class privileges shape family relationships -Class privileges are advantages, prerogatives and options available to those in the middle and upper classes -Families are key because they transmit class privileges or the lack thereof from generation to generation -Family arrangements are consequences of social inequality -Social class is closely related to race and gender -Economic circumstances affect every aspect of family life - This approach identifies five categories of families based on class: -Families in poverty -Blue-collar families -Middle-class families -Families of professionals -Wealthy families

The National Health and Social Life Survey

-Conducted in 1992 -Based on interviews with 3,500 adult men and women -Considered topics such as early sexual experiences, masturbation, contraception and fertility, sexual abuse and coercion, sexual health, sexual satisfaction, and homosexuality Findings: -People's sexual choices are shaped by their social networks -Most people meet sexual partners through their social networks -Being more highly educated is associated with greater sexual satisfaction -Declining economic fortunes contribute to sexual dysfunction

Asian Americans

-Considered the "model minority" -Experiences differ for some groups (e.g., Vietnamese and Cambodians) compared to others (e.g., Chinese and Japanese)

Racial inequalities create separate societies

-Different jobs, housing, health care, and educational opportunities based on the intersection of race and class -However, class variation exists

Type of work

-Different types of work have different consequences for families -Jobs vary in wage levels and benefits such as health insurance, Social Security, pensions, disability and employment insurance -Higher occupational prestige and income increase marital stability and satisfaction but the worker may be absent from the family -Working class jobs maintain families on insecure foundations -Many blue-collar workers hold multiple part-time jobs with nonstandard work schedules -Women constitute a large segment of workers in working-class employment -These jobs have lower earnings -Transnational work includes women who leave their countries and cross international borders for low-wage work -Many jobs in care work are filled by women of color from less developed nations -This work depends on the cheap labor of developing countries' workers

Families in Poverty

-Difficult to sustain the nuclear family structure with lack of economic resources -Poverty reduces the likelihood of marriage -Impoverished individuals want economically secure partners -In 2011, 74% of impoverished individuals worked but earned low incomes that kept them in poverty -Impoverished families face a higher degree of stress and disorganization in their neighborhoods

Cultural Approach Structure

-Each class has distinct cultures and values -Middle-class = self-directed and willing to take initiative -Working class = dependent and follows orders -Low income = unmotivated and incapable of deferring gratification -Culture of poverty -The poor have certain characteristics that set them apart from society -Poverty is the result of a defective subculture -Out-of-wedlock births and single-parent families are examples of this defective subculture

The Transition to Parenthood

-Effects -The birth of a first child results in changes for the parents -Couples who plan conception are less likely to experience marital decline -Marital satisfaction decreases among couples who don't share domestic duties after the birth of children

Family Composition

-Families are smaller -Increasing childless married couples -Increasing one-child couples -Diverse family forms (Dual parents, Single parents, Same-sex parents, Children living in multigenerational families, Children living with relatives, friends or foster families

Social Class and Life Chances

-Family resources and educational achievements affect children's self-perceptions -Advantages or disadvantages begin with brain development -Accrue in the course of growing up -Result in disparities between affluent and poor children -Parents vary in the knowledge, skills and resources provided to their children -Where children live is also influenced by parents' income

Race/ethnicity in families

-Family size varies by racial/ethnic groups -White households have the smallest families -Latino households have the largest families -Asian American and African American households are in the middle

Birth order characteristics

-Firstborns - reliable, conscientious, structured, cautious, controlling and achievers -Middle Children - people pleasers, rebellious, peacemaker, has large social circle, and thrives on friendships -Last born - fun-loving, uncomplicated, outgoing, self-centered, attention-seeker and manipulative -Only children - mature for their age, diligent, leaders, perfectionists, and conscientious

Gender Influences on Marriage

-Gender plays a key role in shaping women's and men's marital experiences -Men and women make marriage and family related decisions in a different context compared to earlier eras (e.g., colonial America, Industrialization) -The new marriage model is less patriarchal and more egalitarian -Husbands and wives expect to share responsibilities for breadwinning, parenting, housework and household decision-making

There are two ways to think about gender:

-Gender roles approach -Gendered institutions approach

Social constructionist

-Gendered roles of parenting are not explained by biological differences -8% of all households are headed by a single father -24% of all single parent households are headed by a single father -During colonial America, mothers and fathers both cared for children because both worked at home -If divorces occurred, custody was granted to the father -This changed after the Industrial Revolution when fathers began working outside the home -Mothers became responsible for their children's development

Variations in Dating Practices by Gender

-Heterosexual dating is still based on a gendered style of relating -It is expected that men will initiate and plan the date -Some women initiate relationships with men they are attracted to -Sexual double standards exist -Men who sleep around are labeled "studs" -Women who sleep around are labeled "sluts" -Some individuals are torn between traditional standards and new expectations

Developments and characteristics of racism

-Historically, racial classification was based on a Black/White dichotomy -Latinos are classified as an ethnic group -Within and across racial/ethnic groups, individuals with lighter skin have more advantages than dark-skinned individuals

Types of mating

-Homogamy: occurs when individuals partner within their class, race/ethnicity, religion and education levels -Usually the most typical among married couples -Hypergamy: occurs when women marry men of higher statuses to achieve upward mobility -Hypogamy: occurs when women marry men of lower statuses

Hook Ups

-Hook-up is a casual physical encounter that ranges from kissing to sexual intercourse -Hooking-up is considered the "fast food" of dating -There is the potential for no strings attached sex -Sometimes hooking-up leads to dating and long-term relationships

Middle-class families

-Idealized family form in society and includes breadwinning father, homemaker mother and their children -Middle class families earn salaries rather than wages -Middle class families remain "middle class" when wives work rather than stay home -Marriage has not declined among middle-class families -Marriage is becoming a luxury among those who have the social and material goods to make it work -Middle class families have hidden advantages with non-familial institutions such as the health sector (e.g., health insurance) and economic sector (e.g., bank accounts)

Enlarging the Sexuality Frame

-Ideas and behaviors regarding sexuality are rapidly changing in the US and worldwide -Sexual identity refers to self-classification (e.g., straight, gay, lesbian) -Sexual orientation refers to sexual attraction and desire -Sexual identity and sexual behavior may differ if people identify themselves as heterosexual and desire people of the same sex

Variations in Dating Practices by Immigration Status

-Immigrant youth and young adults are less likely than US-born adolescents and young adults to enter romantic relationships and participate in sexual behaviors -The second generation is more likely to adopt the dating norms of American culture

Middle Easterners

-Immigrants began arriving from Syria, Lebanon, Egypt and Iran in the 1970s -Diversity across religion, education levels, and places of settlement -The groups are not monolithic or interchangeable -Sparse empirical research conducted on Middle Eastern families

Fertility rates are Declining

-In 1800, the average woman birthed 7 children -Currently, the average woman births < 2 children -Reasons: (People are marrying later, The delayed marriage rate was exacerbated by the Great Recession, The population is aging, The high divorce rate reduces childbearing years, The majority of women work, which conflicts with kids, Legalized abortion reduces fertility

Grandparents raising grandchildren

-In 2010, approximately 7% of children were being raised by their grandparents -Can result from parental death, teen pregnancy, divorce, drug use, incarceration, child abuse, and/or illness

Same-Sex Orientation and Intimacy

-In 2013, the Supreme Court ruled that same-sex marriages are legal -Gender exerts a greater influence than sexual orientation -Gay and lesbian couples reported more personal autonomy than heterosexual couples -Lesbians reported more equality in their relationship than heterosexual women -Gay and lesbian couples receive less support from their families than heterosexual couples

Multigenerational Forms

-In 2014, approximately 19% of households included 3 or more generations -Includes aging parents living with their children -Includes older children and their families who have moved back home

Unmarried parenting

-In 2016, 39.8% of all births were to unmarried women -Many unwed births are due to cohabitating couples -41% of cohabitating couples have children under the age of 18 at home -In 2016, the teen birth rate dropped 9% -20 births per 1000 women aged 15 to 19 -Massachusetts has the lowest teen birth rate -Alabama has the highest teen birth rate

The wife as sole provider

-In 8% of households, the wife is the sole provider -Wives were pushed into this role when husbands were laid off -Women in health care and education fields have been less vulnerable to job loss than men in manufacturing fields -In some instances, families choose for the wife to be the sole provider while the husband is the homemaker -Working wives may also have retired or disabled husbands

Intimacy

-In Western societies, gender and sexual relationships follow a certain script: -Men are supposed to dominate women -Strong men and weak women -Regardless of race and class, many men are similar in their selfish, peer-oriented nature expressions of sexual behavior

Gendered Labor in the Household Children's contributions

-In general, children do little housework -Girls do laundry, dishes and cleaning while boys do outside work -African American and Latino children do more housework than their White peers

Parenting

-In most societies, there are cultural pressures toward parenthood -Approximately 85% of married couples in the United States have children -Approximately 66% of childless couples want children but are infertile -More children are being raised: -In single parent households -In same-sex households -By grandparents -Idealized image includes breadwinner father and homemaker mother with children -This is inaccurate since only 7% of families fit this idea -Dual-income families outnumber traditional families

Same-sex families

-In some instances, lesbians mothers had children before coming out -Artificial insemination is another practice by which lesbian partners become parents -In some instances, gay men become parents through adoption or surrogacy

Women's Employment

-Increased in the labor force -Women account for 47% of the labor force -Women of childbearing age have high rates of labor force participation -Women's labor force participation has grown at a faster pace than men's in recent decades -The rate of participation varies slightly by race (60% AF AM, 58% W, 57% AS and LAT) -There are more dual-earner families than breadwinner and homemaker families -29% of wives in dual-earner families earn more than their husbands -Working wives contribute 37% of their families' incomes -In 2010, 70% of married women with dependent children were employed

Corporation-sponsored work-family programs

-Increases in when (flextime) and where (flexplace) individuals work -77% of organizations offer flextime -Reduction in options -Includes working part-time after the birth of a child -Working part of the year on a regular basis -Family-friendly environments -Many companies work to create family-friendly cultures

Factors in Mate Selection

-Individuals choose marital partners based on personality traits, behaviors and attractiveness -Earlier norms governing marriage were: -Marry within your own race -Marry someone of the opposite sex -Increasing interracial marriages -Interracial marriage became legal with Loving v. Virginia in 1967 -In 2015, 17% of US newlyweds were interracial -In 2015, 10% of US married couples were interracial -Increasingly, both men and women seek partners who are successful in the labor market -Humans prefer to partner with attractive individuals -Attractiveness is driven by cultural beauty standards -Recent studies suggest that men and women's mate preferences have converged -The top three criteria are: -Mutual attraction and love -Dependable character -Emotional stability and maturity

Other Forms of Family Work

-Interaction work: (Women sustain communication with their mates) -Emotion work: (Women engage in trying to keep the relationship running smoothly) -Consumption work: (Women select goods and make purchases for families) -Kin work: (Women maintain contact and connections among kin) (Women provide care and assistance to family members)

Adoption

-Lacks the stigma from previous eras -40% of adoptions are transracial in which the child's race/ethnicity differs from the parents -The most common form includes White parents adopting African American children -10% of adoptions involve foreign-born children -The number of children in same-sex families has increased -Since 2010, gay and lesbian couples can adopt children in all 50 states -Some states have legal hurdles (e.g., Mississippi)

Teenage Childbearing is a major social problem

-Latina adolescents are most likely to give birth followed by African American girls -The strongest predictor is social class -Less economically advantaged youth become sexually active earlier and don't consistently use birth control -Most teen mothers were impoverished before becoming pregnant -The teen birth rate is dropping -In 1991, 62% of adolescent girls (15 to 19) gave birth -In 2010, 34% of adolescent girls (15 to 19) gave birth

Changes in Social Conditions of Marriage

-Marriage behaviors are changing because social conditions have changed - Realignment of gender - Women's employment has changed traditional marriage roles - Economy - Globalization and structural changes have resulted in greater economic insecurity - The new economy does not provide economic supports to maintain a stable marriage

Legal Influences for Marriage

-Marriage is a legal contract -States stipulate the legal age of marriage, health requirements, the length of the waiting period required before marriage, and rules concerning division of property in divorce -In 2013, the Supreme Court ruled that DOMA (Defense of Marriage Act) was unconstitutional, which resulted in same-sex marriages being legal at the federal level -Legal hurdles for same-sex marriages exist at the state level -Common-law marriages -A couple is legally considered married without having formally registered their relationship as a civil or religious marriage -Only nine states and the District of -Columbia recognize common-law marriages -Requirements can include living together and representing as a married couple -Common-law marriages can only be ended with legal judgments of divorce

Marriage

-Marriage is a multifaceted bond based on commitment, love and intimacy -Marriages do not occur in a vacuum, and are shaped by the law, economics, religion, and gender expectations -There are patterns across marriages that vary by social class, race, gender and locality -These patterns involve gendered behaviors, decision-making, appropriate sexual behaviors and the division of housework

Gendered Labor in the Household Race/ethnic differences

-Married women of all racial groups spend more time doing housework than men -The gender gap is greatest for Latino and Asian couples and smallest for Black couples

Latino Families in the 21st Century

-Mexican-Americans and Puerto Ricans have the highest poverty rates -Marriage rates are declining given that 43% of Latino adults were married compared to 52% of White adults -Extended kinship systems -This includes the nuclear family, extended family and godparents

Power and Decision Making in Marriage Regarding Social Class

-Middle class families are presumed to be egalitarian - The husband's career continues to take precedence in dual-earner households - The behaviors of working-class men is more egalitarian - Working-class men have lost the economic resources that justified control of family decisions

Religious Influences on Marriage

-Most religions prohibit sexual relations outside of marriage such as fornication or adultery -Some religions oppose same-sex marriages -Some religions don't permit marriage after divorce -Some religions oppose abortion -Some religions oppose the use of contraception -Some religions encourage large families

Family Structure

-One-child families are the fastest growing family unit -A significant variable is ordinal position -Siblings are important for teaching children how to resolve conflict, educating each other about the opposite sex and negotiating with parents -The person who does the bulk of parenting has a huge effect on his/her children -Growing up in nontraditional gender role families does not have negative effects on children -Children do better in stable living arrangements than transitory ones -Children in stepfamilies, compared to those in first-married families are more likely to have adjustment problems

Online dating

-Online dating is a new technological development -Online dating affords the opportunity to access a large pool of potential dates, and has lost much of its stigma -5% of Americans who are in a marriage or committed relationship met their significant other online -It is estimated that 30% of individuals using online dating sites may be married -A majority of online daters report good experiences with sites -Online daters believe dating websites help people find a better match because they get to know a lot more people -While some stigma remains, most people do not view online dating as a last resort -There are websites for more than dating (e.g., Tinder, Grindr)

The Benefits of Parenthood

-Parenthood is evidence of reaching adulthood -Having children gives parents a sense of purpose -Parents are more likely to be integrated into their communities

Parents on Children

-Parents interact with their children on a continuing basis and have a crucial impact on their physical, social and emotional development

Gendered Labor in the Household Gay/lesbian couples

-Patterns resemble heterosexual couples -Partners with more intensive work demands and longer job hours did less housework than partners with less demanding jobs

Matrix of domination

-People experience race, class, and gender differently depending on their social location -The hierarchies of race, class and gender are intersecting systems of inequality -People in the same racial group will experience race differently depending on their class status, their gender and/or their sexuality -Systems of inequality create an imbalance of power between and within families

Racial boundaries are also sexual boundaries

-Powerful sexual stereotypes create and sustain the racial hierarchy -Racial stereotypes place White men and women at the top of the sexual hierarchy -Black women are believed to be promiscuous or asexual -Black men are considered to be hypersexual -Latina women are believed to be sexual firebrands -Latino men are considered to abusive and oppressive -Asian American men are characterized as asexual -Asian American women are considered to be passive, demure and deferential

Families of professionals

-Professional occupations require advanced degrees and relocate every 5 to 7 years -Professional families typically merge work and family -Sometimes family life is subordinate to the demands of the husband-father's occupation, and sometimes family life is subordinate to the wife-mother's occupation -Professional careers also provide economic resources and ties with supportive non-familial institutions

Macro-Structural Systems

-Race, class, and gender are forms of stratification that foster group-based inequalities -influence family life through their distribution of resources and opportunities -relational systems of power that place families and individuals in different social locations

Religion Fertility Rates

-Religious individuals have higher fertility rates than nonreligious people -Certain religions encourage high fertility rates (e.g., Catholicism, Mormonism)

Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA)

-Requires employers with 50 or more people to grant 12 weeks of unpaid leave to any worker with a medical emergency -Includes caring for an adopted, newborn or seriously ill child, spouse or parent -Doesn't cover part-time workers -Employers with less than 50 workers are not required to provide a leave -Maternity leaves taken by women are short because many cannot afford the loss of income

Native Americans

-Research among indigenous families is rare -Two values are salient: (respect for elders, extended family networks)

Shortcomings of the Gender Roles Approach

-Role division not functional but based on stereotypes -Gender roles are unequal in power, resources and opportunities -Families are integrated, not separate from society and influenced by social institutions -Husband-wife relationships are political as love is complicated by power

Sexuality

-Sexual behavior refers to the sexual acts that people engage in -Sexual desire is the motivation to engage in sexual acts -A person's sexuality consist of both sexual behavior and sexual desire -Sexuality varies across time, space and individual lives -Sexuality is influenced by the inequalities that plague society - social class, race and gender -Social institutions define what sexual behaviors are considered "socially legitimate" -Heterosexuality is the normative ideal in most societies -Compulsory heterosexuality refers to practices that enforce heterosexual behavior as normal and natural while stigmatizing other forms of sexual expression

Gendered Love and Sex

-Sexual experience is closely tied to gender, and sexual scripts exist -Men are socialized to initiate and orchestrate sexual interactions -Women are socialized to be restrictors or responders -Double standard -Men stress the sexual aspect of the relationship -Women stress the emotional aspect of the relationship -One consequence is that many relationships may be devoid of emotional intimacy -Love became "feminized" when women were relegated to the domestic sphere after the Industrial Revolution -Women became responsible for the emotional management of marriage and family relationships -Women work harder at the "emotional work" of love -Men manage love less

Social and structural forces

-Since the 1960s, family life has changed -Both mothers and fathers are in the work force -Child care is usually done by other caregivers -The isolated homemaker is no longer dominant -Compulsory motherhood is weakening as more woman choose not to marry, postpone marriage or remain childless -The relation between marriage and childbearing is weakening given increasing numbers of single mother households

Social class affects on family formation, marriage, divorce and childrearing

-Social class includes people who occupy the same economic rank -class groups are not homogeneous -Household income or the amount of money possessed is the basis for income classification -Income is the amount of money brought into a household in one year -In 2017, the U.S. median household income was $61,372

Voluntary Childlessness

-Some couples choose to remain childless -Childless women are more negatively stereotyped than childless men -Motherhood is one of the central identities for women -Some couples choose to remain childless due to career choices

Teen Sexuality

-Teens become sexually active earlier than their parents' generation -Among high school students, African Americans are most likely to say they were sexually experienced, Latinos were second and Whites were third -Half of all teens have engaged in oral sex, more than a decade ago -Some teens have oral sex and not vaginal sex, and still consider themselves virgins -Sex education is a controversial topic -After 1996, federal support shifted from comprehensive sex education to abstinence-only education programs during the Bush administration -The Obama administration returned to comprehensive sexual education -The Trump administration has returned to abstinence-only sexual education programs

Education

-Teens enrolled in school are less likely to work -As high school graduation and college attendance rise, teen employment will decrease -High school drop-outs are more likely to work

Teens' Employment Race and social class

-Teens from higher income families are more likely to work than teens from lower-income families -Low income or working poor teens compete with adults for the same types of jobs -White teens are more likely to work than African American or Latino teens -

Generations

-The Silent Generation: Born between 1928 and 1945 -Baby Boomers: Born between 1946 and 1964 -Generation X: Born between 1965 and 1980 -Millennials: Born between 1981 and 1996 -Generation Z: Born between 1997 and the present

Delayed Childbearing Consequences

-The age gap between parents and children is greater than in earlier generations -When children are born later, they have fewer siblings -Older parents will be more financially secure than younger parents -Children may push parents into traditional divisions of labor rather than egalitarian forms of labor

Delayed Childbearing

-The age of first-time mothers has risen -The increased age of first marriage -The greater likelihood of highly educated women launching their careers before having children -Women who become mothers in their mid-thirties or later increase the health risks of their newborns -Low birth weight Increased chances of premature birth Increased likelihood of learning disabilities

Dual-worker families

-The dominant pattern -Approximately 65% of US couples are dual earners -Women who are employed report better health than those who are not employed -Women's power within the family is greater when they produce income

Wealthy families

-The elite have great power and influence through ownership or control of the economy -Wealthy families are small in number -Families are the units by which wealth is accumulated and transmitted -Potential marriage partners are restricted to a small but national market -Marriage concentrates capital and maintains in-group solidarity -Marriage maintains the exclusivity of affluent families

dating

-The emergence of dating shifted the role of initiating relationships to men -This shifted the dynamic from the private sphere (e.g., girls' family) to the public sphere (e.g., public settings) -Men usually paid for dates so a girl could not ask a boy out -Dating was not necessarily about mate selection

Latina women have the highest fertility rate

-The fertility rate among Latina women is declining -In 2007, there were 97.4 births per 1000 women -In 2010, there were 80.3 births per 1000 women -American-born Latinas have a lower fertility rate than immigrant Latinas -Reasons for the declining fertility rate -Greater numbers of Latina women are working outside the home, obtaining higher levels of education and postponing marriage -Differences between native-born and immigrant Latina women suggest adaptation to an American lifestyle

Differential fertility rates

-The higher the income, the lower the fertility rate -The greater the level of educational attainment, the lower the fertility rate -Those least able to afford children have larger families

Variations in Dating Practices by Class

-The higher the social class, the more control parents have over their children's dating activities -Elite-class: Most parents ensure that their children associate with the "right" families -Middle-class: Some parents exert control by living in certain neighborhoods and enrolling their kids in certain schools to narrow their mate choices -Lower-class: Most parents exert no control over their children's mate choices -Whenever people date outside their class stratum, the possibility of exploitation increases -People from higher social classes are viewed as more attractive than partners from lower social classes -The Principle of least interest -The person with least interest in continuing the relationship has the power to control it -The higher status person can make excessive demands on the lower status person

Blue Collar Families

-The largest group of families in the US -Men and women who work in the manufacturing and service sectors -Hourly wages are the norm -These families are vulnerable to economic fluctuations since the lack of education offers little support when their jobs disappear -They depend on social services like food stamps -The decline in manufacturing jobs has weakened marriage among blue-collar families

Mixed-race families

-The number of biracial children has grown 400% over the past 30 years -This is expected to rise with increasing numbers of interracial marriages

The consequences of low fertility rates

-The smaller the family, the more resources available for health and educational benefits -Smaller families are linked to improved health -Smaller families are linked to increased marital satisfaction

The Gender Roles Approach

-The standard nuclear family was considered "normal" -Men assumed the instrumental or breadwinning family role -Women assumed the expressive or domestic family role

Timing and scheduling of work

-The work schedules of Americans are changing as US society moves toward a 24-hour, 7-day a week economy -Both men and women work longer hours than they did 20 years ago -When both husbands and wives are employed, families are better off economically, but they are "time poor" -Timing affects quality of life by determining when, where and how much a worker can be with his family -The less men's schedules overlap with their wives, the more they are involved in caring for their children

Teens' Employment

-There has been a steep decline since 2000 in summer employment and during the school year -Teen workers include high school and college students, recent high school graduates and high school dropouts -Job opportunities: Restaurants, grocery stores, miscellaneous entertainment and service stores, department stores and construction -In Arizona, the minimum wage is $11.00

Cultural Approach shortcomings

-This approach ignores institutional practices that are deeply embedded in social structures -Family life among the poor is not caused by deviant values -Some poor families experience short-term poverty spells as they slip in and out of poverty -Usually caused by job loss -Marital shifting, high divorce rates, and common law unions are alternatives among low-income or impoverished families

Social Forces

-Today's children are separated from work roles and spend more time in school and doing leisure activities -Children are more likely to have experienced a divorce -The lower birth rate allows parents to lavish time, attention and resources on each child -The technological innovations (e.g., cell phones, iPods, Facebook, YouTube) have dramatically altered the experience of childhood

Shortcomings of the cultural approach to racism

-Views the family as the bedrock of society rather than understanding that families are shaped by social forces -Ignores the impact of racism and economic structures on family formation -It treats African American and Latino families as monolithic entities rather than acknowledging their diversity

Racial wealth gap

-Whites have the highest median income and African Americans have the lowest median income -Whites have 20x the net worth of African Americans and 18x the net worth of Latinos -White families have greater resources for their children to inherit -Fewer than half of African American and Latino families own homes -Fewer than 60% of Asian American and Native American families own homes -75% of White families own homes -Economic inequality is racialized

Race/ethnicity fertility rates

-Whites have the lowest fertility rate -Latinos have the highest fertility rate -African Americans have the second highest fertility rate -The fertility rate for foreign-born women is 50% higher than native-born women

Gendered Labor in the Household

-Women continue to do a disproportionate share of family labor -Men continue to be responsible for breadwinning and women for domestic work -"second shift" Women's disproportionate time in housework, child care and home management after getting off work -Although current men do more housework than men in previous eras, women still do more housework

Work and Family

-Work-family conflict occurs when individuals experience incompatibility between their responsibilities as workers and responsibilities as family members -Work may interfere with family life or family life may interfere with work -Spillover is the transfer of moods, feelings and behaviors between work and family -Men's work stress is more likely to affect their family life -Women's family stress is more likely to affect their work life

Diverse Work-Family Contexts

-Work-family relations vary because they are linked to a larger society that is stratified by class, race, gender and sexual orientation -Workplace discrimination against African Americans has been documented in hiring, promotion, training and compensation -Reducing workplace racial discrimination increases marital stability among African American families -The family in the work-family relation is assumed to be heterosexual -Workplace discrimination, legal prohibition of same-sex marriage and resistance to accepting same-sex couples are distinct challenges for same-sex families

Extra-familial Factors

-Workforce dynamics affect how parents and children interact -School is an important agent for children -Other adults become important like teachers, coaches and youth leaders -Peers become increasingly important once children reach adolescence

Sexism

-gender-based discrimination -Includes the belief that one gender is intrinsically superior to another gender -Sexism can affect any gender, but it primarily affects women and girls more -Sexism has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles

Gender

-inequality is built into the larger society -Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females -Gender refers to the social and cultural meanings attached to women and men -Gender is linked with other characteristics like class, race and sexual orientation -These overlapping inequalities produce different experiences for women and men

Gendered Institution

-means that gender is the basis for structuring relationships between women and men -Men and women receive different positions of advantage and disadvantage in their social lives

Classism

-systematic oppression of subordinated class groups to advantage and strengthen the dominant class group

Racism

-the exercise of power against a racial group defined as inferior by individuals and institutions with the full support of the entire society -Power is central in this definition -Racism marshals the full weight of all social systems so that a specific ideology can be reinforced

Wealth

-the sum of assets (e.g., home ownership, pension funds, savings accounts and investments) -An important indicator of wealth is home ownership

Three causes of Women's increased labor force participation

1. Changes in the economy (The switch from a manufacturing to a service economy) -The demand for workers in service-producing industries (e.g., government, education, real estate, health care and clerical work) has been met by women -Women have taken 80% of the new jobs created from this switch 2. Decline in real earnings (Most men do not earn a sufficient wage to support a wife and children) -Women's earnings allow many families to achieve an adequate standard of living. -Unless both partners have jobs, many families would not be able to survive economically. 3. Personal fulfillment and self-reliance (Many women have realized that working is best for their long-term interest) -There are negative consequences for staying out of the labor force such as lower lifetime earnings, reduced retirement savings and lower occupational status when they return to work

Three causes of decreased labor force participation

1. The shift from a manufacturing to a service and information economy reduced industrial work -Men have been more likely to be employed in manufacturing jobs, which have been lost over time and during the recession 2. With the loss of manufacturing jobs, men have to turned to lower paying jobs -These types of jobs pay low wages, offer few benefits and produce limited opportunities for career advancement 3. The majority of men lack college degrees affecting their earning potential -The vast majority of men in the labor force lack a college degree, which hinders their ability to attain high paying jobs -Men's lack of and/or low wages don't support the "good provider" role

Social Stratification

=(structured inequality) -Inequalities are socially patterned and not caused by biological, cultural and/or lifestyle differences. -Groups are socially defined and then treated unequally Race, class and gender produce different life chances, or the chances an individual has to experience the good things in life throughout their life cycle -Families reflect racial, gender and class inequalities and also transmit (or not) resources and opportunities to their members

intimacy

=companionship, emotional bonding and a process that changes as relationships mature -shaped by the broader society -In preindustrial America, work relationships and personal relationships were not sharply divided -After the Industrial Revolution, work moved out of the home -Relationships were split between public and private selves -Currently, identities remain disconnected with a separation between private and public selves

The Great Recession reduced teen job opportunities

Adult workers displaced from their regular jobs have taken low-wage, part-time jobs traditionally held by teens

Men's Employment

Declining -Men's employment rates have declined from 83% to 70%

Transition to adulthood

Emerging adulthood is the transition period between adolescence and adulthood (approximately 18 to 25 years old) -Emerging adulthood is the transition period between adolescence and adulthood (approximately 18 to 25 years old) -They take longer to finish school, decide on a career, marry and leave their parents' home

Racial stratification

Social scientists acknowledge that race is socially defined.The biological concept of race has been rejected Racial categories sort people in the overall society Racism structures and segregates neighborhoods, schools, churches and families The racial order shapes the lives of all people, even White people who are advantaged by racism