Final Exam

Demographics

- (a dispositional factor of violence) - age of first offense: - arrest prior to age 14 is associated with more serious and extensive criminal records -gender: - males at higher risk than females for general offending and violence - although some self-report measures suggest that females engage in similar rates of less serious violence.

Victim Selection

- Beauregard, Russmo, and Proulx (2007) - 25% of offenders had an occupation or hobby that allows access to potential victims (ex. hospitals, nursing homes, kindergartens, coaching, etc.) - 42% reported spending a lot of time prowling for victims - Hunting field: 57% said through a local visibility (public place), 20% said through occupation, 16% through family. - Victim selection: 74% targeted specific victims - most important factor was location and availability of victim - next was physical appearance - victim vulnerability. - overall, not what we stereotypically think it is (girl asking for it for short skirt).

Do Stalkers Reoffend?

- Eke et al. (2011) - 78 offenders from a previous study, followed for 5-15 years post-police contact - the proportion and speed of re-offending was high (56% committed another stalking offence) - some would even reoffend in jail, by calling the person they stalked. -another study found stalkers recidivate with a variety of types of crimes, but are quicker to re-offend for stalking and related crimes - first time offenders are less likely to reoffend however.

Female Stalkers

- Meloy, Mohandi, and Green (2011) - studied 143 females stalkers - usually not an ex girlfriend - none of them had prior history of being sexually violent or harming animals - found they tend to be single /separated /divorced, mid 30s, with a mental disorder - victim likely to be an acquaintance, stranger, or celebrity - duration ranged from 1 day to 10 years, (mean of 17 months) - less threatening and violent, but if they had prior relationship with victim there was an increase likelihood of threats and violence - threats = greater risk of violence - letter writing = decrease risk of violence - high rates of recidivism: 57% of female stalkers who were asked to stop continued. - police were usually skeptical and useless when a female reported a female stalker, or if a male reported a female stalker.

Violence Risk Scale (VRS)

- a structured professional judgement tool - measures the risk to reoffend and has treatments to reduce that risk - includes 26 items (6 static risk factors, 20 dynamic risk factors) - predicts violent and nonviolent reoffending at moderate levels

Mary Kay Letourneau

- had a sexual relationship with her 12-year old student named Vili Fualaau - march 1997, husband turned her into police because she was pregnantwith Fualaau child - convicted of second degree rape of a child - caught having sex with Fualaau while on probation and got pregnant again - imprisoned from 1997-2004 - kept seeing each other afterwards despite no contact order - the pair were married in 2005 - they recently separated last year but there is speculation that it is only because he can't be hired for this particular job if he lives with person convicted of crime.

Monahan and Steadman (1994)

- identified 3 weaknesses of research on prediction of violence. 1) There's a limited number of risk factors being studied: -Violent behaviour is due to many different reasons like person's background, social situation, biological and physical features etc. -Assessment of risk may be improved by considering these other factors. 2) How the criterion variable is measured: - criterion variable is what we are trying to measure aka risk - researchers often use official criminal records as their criterion measure, however many crimes aren't reported to the police ex. sexual assault - official records underestimate violence 3) Overly simplistic criterion variable: - some researchers only classify participants as having engaged in violence or not - should be more of a spectrum that measures severity, types of violence (affective violence vs. predatory), targets of violence, location, and motivation

Relapse Prevention ** FINISH SLIDE

- identify offense cycle (what leads up to it) - target difference between laps and relapse (lapses = thoughts and fantasies before relapse which is behaviours). - therapist will try to help you and identify lapses and stop -

Treatment of Homicide Offenders

- relatively little research - programs can vary considerably - often target anger/emotion management, self regulation/self control, problem solving, interpersonal skills, social attitudes - several studies show positive effects - but again, problems especially with low-base rate of recidivism.

Empathy

- some sex offenders show general deficits - for many others it is just with respect to their victims

Current Issues

1) Lack of theory: - particularly for actuarial methods - risk factors based on statistical relationship outcomes, but WHY are they associated?? (in other words why are certain risk factors linked to violence - understanding cause of violence will help prevention and intervention programs) 2) Sampling bias: - most risk assessment measures are developed and validated with male offenders. - how well does this generalize to women? - also some concerns about cultural biases as well (ex. static-99 might not be as predictive in USA as in Canada)

Clinical Factors

1) Substance use - drug and alcohol use associated with criminal behaviour - violent behaviour as a result of drug use with especially stimulants - violent and criminal behaviours associated with obtaining drug, drug users at much higher risk for committing burglary, robbery, or other property crimes. - increased contact with antisocial people results in more violent interactions - combination of disinhibition, expectancies, and factors in the situation/environment 2) Mental disorders: - increased risk only for some disorders and behaviours - affective disorders and schizophrenia increase risk of violence - history of suicide attempts and self-harm - psychotic symptoms such as command hallucinations (greyhound bus guy) - both self-harm history and hallucinations are problematic when combined with substance abuse - victims most likely to be family or friend

Typologies of Male Batterers

Family-only batterer: - not violent outside of home, do not engage in other criminal behaviours - accounts for about half of batterers - low levels of psychopathology - engages in least amount of violence Dysphoric/borderline batterer - moderate to severe violence - inside and outside family unit violence, and also some other criminal behaviours too - often have problems with jealousy and/or depression - often have impulsivity problems and alcohol/drug use as a result Generally violent/antisocial batterer - engages in violence outside of home, are aggressive everywhere - usually have antisocial or narcissistic traits - high levels impulsivity, alcohol and drug problems - engage in other crime too * no research on female batterers or domestic violence in gay couples (research is only on heterosexuals).

Guay, Proulx, Cusson, and Ouimet (2001)

Victim-Choice Polymorphia: - among serious sex offenders, do they stick to same type of victim? - generally, answer is yes. people don't usually switch victim types - looked at 3 offenses with respect to age with stable victim choice stability. - those who liked adult victims stuck to that victim type, and those who liked prepubertal victims stuck to that type. - stable regarding choosing victim as stranger or known to offender - highest levels of polymorphia were pseudoincest (non-biologically related but parental role ex. step parent) offenders and aggressors of familiar women, because they are more opportunistic. - stable with respect to gender (very few bisexual offenders)

Psychopathy

- (dispositional factor for violence) - callous and unemotional interpersonal style characterized by grandiosity, manipulation, lack of remorse, impulsivity, and irresponsibility - pervasive pattern of disregard, or violation of, the rights of others - associated with diverse and chronic criminal behaviours - predicts reoffending in different countries, males and females, offenders with mental disorders, male adolescent offenders, and sexual offenders.

Personality Characteristics

- (dispositional factor for violence) - impulsivity: - inability to regulate behaviour in response to impulses or thoughts - increases the likelihood of engaging in crime and/or violence

Unstructured Clinical Judgement

- (way of assessing risk) - characterized by a large amount of professional discretion and lack of guidelines - judgements vary across clinician and cases - there are no predefined rules about what risk factors should be considered how to make decision about risk etc.

Actuarial Prediction

- (way of assessing risk) - mechanical prediction based on risk factors - has predefined rules about what risk factors should be considered, how to collect info, etc. - empirical evidence favours actuarial approach - with actuarial prediction, the risk factors used have been selected and combined based on their empirical or statistical association with a specific outcome.

Structured Professional Judgements (SPJ)

- (way of assessing risk) - Combines aspects of the clinical judgement and actuarial approach - the final assessment is based on evaluators professional judgement, but is guided by predetermined risk factors - it's a fairly new approach, so the reliability, validity, and utility are still being assessed - Hanson and Morton-Bourgon (2009) did a meta-analysis looking at the accuracy of recidivism risk assessments for sexual offenders, and found that SPJs accuracy was between that of actuarial judgements and unstructured professional judgements.

Static-99

- 10 item actuarial scale designed to predict sexual recidivism - prediction of sexual recidivism - 4 risk categories (low, moderate-low, moderate-high, high) - good predictive validity (moderate to strong)

Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA)

- 20 item structured professional judgement scale - can also be used by summing items to form a single risk score, but this method isn't recommended by authors - 10 general violent risk factors and 10 spousal violent risk factors - has moderate predictive accuracy, and higher predictive accuracy with score method instead of SPJ format (contrary to what authors said

Rebecca Schaffer

- American actress on a sitcom - was killed by an obsessive fan called Roberto Bardo, who got her address from a private investigator - had sent her lots of fan mail but she had hired people to answer her fan mail for her - he decided she was becoming another "Hollywood *hore" because she was moving on to bigger movies - he went to her home and she told him to go away and never come back - he left and ate dinner, and then returned to her home and shot her. - he was convicted of murder and it resulted in changes to privacy laws in the U.S, so that agencies could no longer give out people's addresses. - in 1990, California was the first state to criminalize stalking behaviours in response to other cases as well as Rebecca's. - within 3 years, almost all states had more stalking laws to criminalize these behaviours - in Canada, stalking behaviours were criminalized in 1993.

History of Sexual Offenses

- Historically, sexual assault/rape often considered an attack on the property of the dominant male in the female victim's life - if you weren't a virgin, it was hard to get married and you got shamed etc. - sometimes rapists would have to marry victim because that way she wouldn't be a non-virgin single lady, because there were laws to compensate for lack of virginity (lack of value), sometimes including castration or death if not marriage. - technically all women were protected, but the penalty would vary based on "type" of woman involved (super classist). - The Statues of Westminister: revised the standards so that it was an offense to rape any woman against her will, and any underage girl with or without her consent (at the time age of consent was 10). - allowed 40 days for a complaint to be filed - also reduced punishment to a maximum of 2 years imprisonment, except for statutory rape - to determine if it was actually rape, it had to have: - use of force: resistance must be to the point of being overpowered by actual force, or fear of death. A simply No was not enough. - Lack of Consent: changes in mid 19th century, so an old man gave a 13 year old so much liquor she was unconscious and she won her case. (being unconscious was sufficient) but lack of consent isn't enough, also had to show force. - Pregnancy: Myth that conception is only possible when sexual desire is present, therefore pregnant victims were not raped apparently and could not press charges. - Marital rape: wives enter a binding contract which involves permanent consent, so marital rape doesn't exist.

Baxtrom V Herold (1966)

- US supreme court ruled that the plaintiff Johnnie Baxtrom had been detained beyond his sentence and ordered him to be released into the community - Because of this case, over 300 mentally ill offenders were released into the community or transferred to less secure institutions - basically the first time risk assessment was used -

Battered Woman Syndrome

- a woman's presumed reactions to a pattern of continued physical and psychological abuse - usually happen over years and person called police many times but nothing was done to help them - learned helplessness, low self esteem, impaired functioning (cognitive and emotional), anger/rage, fear/terror, perception of diminished alternatives, cycle of abuse, hyper-vigilance - woman might snap and think only option is to kill abuser - has been used to argue self-defense in cases where a woman killed her partner (however there are some concerns because sometimes abuser is sleeping, however this still works for BWS because it was the only time she could overpower him). - There are some concerns about the validity of BWS, because many believe that PTSD is more appropriate because they share many similar characteristics. - BWS is a valid defence in Canada, but it doesn't happen as often as it did in the past. - instead of arguing BWS, more and more it is PTSD being presented in court. Regardless, it is the chronic abuse that leads to this and holds up in court.

Strongest Predictors for Recidivism of Adolescent Offenders

- age of first police contact - non-severe pathology, - family problems - conduct problems - ineffective use of leisure time, - delinquent peers

Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (LS/CMI; 2004)

- assessment and screening tool for all offenders - measures risk factors such as criminal history, employment, family/marital, companions, alcohol/drug problems, emotional and personal and attitude orientation. - used to assess offenders' service and supervision needs.

Stalking (aka Criminal Harassment)

- can involve repeatedly following, communicating with, watching, and/or threatening a person - considered a violent offense - women are more often victims than men and most stalkers are male - most victims know their stalker well, often can be a current or previous intimate partner. - stalkers are likely to be white, between 18-35 years old, often with above average income (more common in university students than general population wtf). - stalking behaviours that last more than 2 weeks are likely to continue.

MacDonald Triad

- certain characteristics in childhood that are common in serial killers - include: bed wetting, starting fires, animal torture - many believe this is actually an urban legend, there isn't much evidence for this except that animal torture is a predictor of later violent behaviour, but the other two don't have support.

The Pathways Model (Wart and Siergert, 2002)

- combine Finkelhor and Marshal and Babaree and other models - multiple independant causal pathways for sexual aggressions - each pathway has different dysfunctional mechanisms - intimacy deficits, distorted sexual scripts, emotional dysregulation, antisocial cognitions, and multiple dysfunctional mechanisms - explains multiple types of sexual offending using multiple mechanisms - a study was done looking at internet sexual offenders by chatting up young people and ask them to engage in things over the internet (sometimes pretend to be a kid too) - 60% of sample showed dysfunctional mechanisms - most prominent dysfunctional pathways were intimacy deficits and emotional dysregulation.

General Aggression Model (GAM)

- complex theory - inputs personal factors and situational factors - considers cognitions, emotions, and arousal - combines all of these for behavioural outcomes

Finkelhor's Precondition Model *** finish slide!!!

- designed for child molestation theory 1) Offender motivated to abuse a) emotional congruence b) sexual attraction to child c) blockage of emotional outlets 2) lack of internal inhibitions (or overcome internal inhibitions) often with use of alcohol! 3) overcome external inhibitions 4) overcome child's resistance (threats and violence, or rewards for their compliance such as attention or gifts)

Single Explanation Theories for Sexual Aggression

- evolutionary model: rape as an adaptive mating strategy (spreading your seed) - hormonal accounts: testosterone as cause of sexual aggresions - these are unlikely to explain all types of rapists or child molesters and does not give a full and complete explanation.

Protective Factors

- factors that might reduce the likelihood of reoffending - most of the exiting research involves children and youth - protective factors include prosocial involvement, strong social supports, positive social orientation (ex. school, work), strong attachments, and intelligence. - For adults, factors are employment stability and family connections (for low risk males and female offenders)

Thornberry and Jacoby (1979)

- followed 400 patients for 3 years - 60 patients arrested or re-hospitalized for violent incidents

Effectiveness of Treatment (problems with assessing effectiveness)

- incarceration is not a deterrent - most studies show some success with treatment for both adolescent and adult offenders - cognitive-behavioural therapies seem to be effective (though some studies report surgical castration as most effective). - There are many problems with assessing effectiveness: - ethical issues with control group (not treating half the people is questionable) so can't conduct an actual study. - there's a super low base rates of sexual recidivism, even in untreated offenders. And even those who do recommit only do so after 5-10 years, so it's hard for researchers to detect any difference between treatment groups.

Mandatory Charging Policies

- it used to be ask the victim "do you want to press charges"? - now, if they see evidence of assault, they can press charges whether or not the victim wants this - this is so that discretion is no longer used in domestic violence, because people were literally dying from it.

Mass Murderers

- killing of 3 or more victims at a single location during one event - school shootings ex. ecole polytechnique - intention can be to kill many or to kill one with others just being collateral damage - crimes are planned, display warning signs, bring weapons, plan attack, often plan to commit suicide or suicide by cop afterwards. - offenders are often depressed or angry, feel rejected, or socially isolated. - bullying is a huge reason!!!

Filicide

- killing of children by biological parents or step-parents - neonaticide (killing within 24 hours of birth) typically a young single mother that has hidden pregnancy and is scared and will abandon or kill child shortly after birth - infanticide (on other cue card)

Infanticide

- killing within first year of life, usually mothers killing their child often with post natal depression - as children get older, less likely to be killed by parent - often associated with high level of stress, usually with single mother that is lower income and has little social support - criminal code differentiates infanticide and neonaticide - infanticide = max 5 years in prison

Female Serial Killers

- less research because less common - black widows (kill husbands/family members for financial gain) - angels of death (nurses who kill patients) - more likely to have no prior criminal history, have an accomplice, use poison, kill for money, and kill family/known victims.

Female Sexual Offenders

- limited research - only 2-5% of incarcerated sex offenders are females - 5% of college men molested as children, 60% by females (often older babysitters) - 50% reported voluntarily participating and did not feel victimized - suggestions that female sexual assault is often under-reported and is disguised as caregiving, - target own children, target boys. - females may account for 13% of abuse of females and 24% of the abuse of males (either alone or acting with partner) - estimated drop in half when female acting alone

Feminist Psychoeducational Group Therapy (aka Duluth Model)

- method of treatment (older version, debatable) - geared to males abusing wives - views patriarchial ideology as the primary cause of violence - has high drop out rates, restricted usefulness with women, views violence as always one-sided, and focuses almost exclusively on attitudes associated with power and control

Cognitive-Behavioural Group Therapy

- method of treatment for domestic violence - teaches alternatives to violence, anger management, communication skills training, and some also target attitudes - studies show that domestic only abusers are most likely to complete training, and antisocial batterers are least likely.

Correctional Service of Canada's Family Violence Prevention Programs

- moderate and high-intensity programs, plus programs for Aboriginal offenders - based on cognitive-behavioural techniques - Super effective! - court mandated treatment programs don't encourage motivation, but at least ensure they complete program. - if person is self motivated and decides to complete this program, it is really effective! - at 6 months, treated offenders are less likely to engage in spousal assault or violent offending

Deviant Sexual Interests

- motivate some offenders - often assessed with penile phallometry - extra-familial child molesters, mixed results for rapists - variety of therapies such as aversion therapy (fantasize or show pic about deviant behaviour and then give them painful shock) and masturbatory satiation (masturbate to non-deviant picture, and then continue after finishing to deviant pic but they won't be able to come twice in a row and it will train them) - pharmacological treatments to decrease sexual desire or ability to respond sexually - "chemical castration" - problems with compliance however some can be court ordered and given by injection involuntarily (allowed in California). - usually only works for people motivated and choosing to take treatments, but person who if forced will likely be really aggressive and maybe rape with different object.

Serial Murderers

- multiple definitions but usually 3 or more killings over time, with a cooling off period - most often: male (83%), operate on their own, occasionally work in teams or pairs, white (73%), target young female victims but some specifically target other types of victims

Adolescent Sexual Offenders

- previously under-reported and under-studied - discounted as "normal experimentation" - 20% of rapes are committed by adolescents - 30-50% of child sexual abuses are committed by adolescents - offenders often also victims of sexual abuse (but most abused kids do not go on to abuse others) - risk factors includes previous abuse, social inadequacy, lack of intimacy in other relationships, and impulsiveness. - victim is most likely a young female (63% under age of 9).

Sexual Assault

- rape was redefined as sexual assault in Canada in 1983 - fundamentally an act of violence, not passion - it is an assault of sexual nature, so we call it sexual assault - penetration no longer has to be proven, there are different levels (penetration is the worst, unwanted touching etc. is still very punishable) - victim could be male or female - relaxed rules on corroboration (aka less distrust of what victim was saying it, someone did not have to witness assault for it to count). - restrictions on evidence of sexual history of victim (rape shield law, because fear it would bring up twin myths: sex history means you are less credible and more likely to have consented)

The Revised Rapist Typology Version 3 (MTC:R3) **** LOOK AT BOOK FOR THIS AND FIX SOME STUFF BECASUE SHE WENT REALLY FAST

- rapists are not a homogenous group - they are highly variable 1) Opportunistic: typically occurs when person is doing different offenses ex. breaks into house to steal stuff but sees a woman is home. wasn't originally planning on it. 2) Pervasively Angry: typically taken out on women, hates everyone though, inability to control behaviour, usually injure victim. 3) Sexual: 4) Sadistic: sexual fantasies include sadistic fantasies like pain and humiliation of victim. 5) Vindictive: only angry towards women, wants to degrade them and hurt them - High and low social competence for opportunistic, sexual and vindictive types. - overt and muted sadism for sadistic type, meaning unnecessary physical abuse like torture etc.

HCR-20

- risk assessment instrument - It is probably the most commonly used structured professional judgement - risk factors fall into 3 clusters: 1) historical (past) 2) Clinical (present) 3) risk management (future) - estimates probability of violence, often with low, moderate, or high categories - often includes the design of a risk management plan

Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG)

- risk assessment instrument developed in Ontario - coded 50 risk factors, then found the 12 best predictors of violence - you get a 0 or 1 for each category, and then add up score ranging from 9% risk (low) to 100% risk (high) - some factors include: - Hare Psychopathology checklist (measures psychopathy because that's the strongest predictor for violence) - elementary school maladjustment - marital status - gender (female = lower risk) - diagnosis of schizophrenia (lower risk than if not diagnosed) - history of alcohol abuse - separation from biological parent - personality disorder diagnosis

Desistance

- the process of ceasing to engage in criminal activity - most show a pattern of decrease offending over time - reasons for desistance is poorly understood, is it because of maturation? increased family orientation? insight into consequences of criminal behaviours?

What is Risk Assessment?

- the process of using risk factors to estimate the likelihood of an outcome occurring in a population - it used to be viewed as a dichotomy (dangerous vs. not dangerous) but not risk is viewed as a range where individual can vary in degree.

Steadman and Cocozza (1974)

- tracked 98 people who were released into community, but mental health professionals considered them too dangerous to be released - only 20 were re-arrested in the next 4 years - only 7 committed a violent offense

Denial, Minimization, and Cognitive Distortions

- typical to shift blame and minimize offenses ex. the victim wanted it, or I was drunk - those who shift blame have increased risk of recidivism (especially low risk offenders and incest offenders who don't take responsibility for what they did) - deviant cognitions, values, and beliefs (many child molesters believe their "relationships" are positive, and may be endorsed by various sources!!!)

Reactive (affective) vs. Instrumental (predatory) Agression

-reactive is impulsive, driven by emotion, unplanned, victim more likely to be family friend spouse or acquaintance (most common) -instrumental is planned and premeditated and more goal driven

Stalker Typologies

1) Ex-intimate stalker - most common type - follows a break up of relationship - often had a history of domestic violence before breakup. 2) Love-obsessed stalker - fairly rare - has not had an intimate relationship with the victim but often acquainted ex. coworker - Ex. Hinckley obsession with jodie foster and was in love with her (however had never met her) - intense emotional feelings that are not warranted, will even seek out a relationship that is negative with person because any relationship is better than none for them 3) Delusional Stalker - no relationship with victim but believed there is - ex. woman was obsessed with David Letterman and was convinced she was his wife and mother of his children - she would break into his house, drive his car, etc. and this went on for years - often targets a public figure or celebrity 4) Grudge Stalker - angry with victim over perceived injustice 5) Rejected stalker - to reverse, correct, or avenge a rejection 6) Resentful stalker - because of a sense of grievance 7) Intimacy seekers - to establish an intimate loving relationship 8) Incompetent suitor - poor social skills but seeks a relationship, often with someone who is already in a relationship 9) Predatory stalker - spy on victim to plan an attack (usually sexual attack).

Groth's Child Molester Typology

1) Fixated Child Molester - primary sexual orientation is toward children, little to no sexual contact with adults - begins in adolescence and is persistent - tend to target male children - offenses are planned and often go to great lengths to "groom" their victims (things that prepare them for sexual activity, like showing kid porn) - emotionally immature, poor social skills, usually single - feel no remorse or distress about their behaviour because they often believe they are in love or in a relationship with the child. 2) Regressed Child Molester - primary sexual orientation is to adults - interest in children begins in adulthood and is sporadic - tend to target female victims - offenses tend to be impulsive and situational / opportunistic - tend to target young female victims - precipitating stress (ex. losing a job) - often alcohol abuse - likely to report remorse

Classification of Sexual Offenders

1) No-contact sexual offenders - voyeurs: aka peeping toms, obtain sexual gratification by observing unsuspecting people. - exhibitionists: obtain sexual gratification by exposing their genitals to strangers 2) Rapists - sexually assault victims over aged of 16 (adult like victim) 3) Child Molesters *** - sexually molest or assault child - HOWEVER, difference between this and pedophile. - pedophiles is an adult who's primary sexual orientation is children, they do not always act on their urges. - child molesters have acted on urges, and aren't always pedophiles but may just have been opportunistic. - Intra-familial child molester: incest offender, sexually abuse biological children, or children whom they assumed parental role over, can sometimes be an older sibling. - Extra-familial child molester: sexually abuse children outside of the family.

Hazelwood (FBI guy)

1) Power reassurance - most common but least violent - easiest to profile and catch - usually start as voyeur and escalated with age 2) Power assertive - less common, more violent - 12% of cases - moderate level of force and fairly impulsive - wants to hurt women, and approaches by conning or force (date rapists fall into this category) 3) Anger retaliatory - less than 5% of cases - excessive level of force, purpose is to punish and degrade - use high level of insults and verbal degrading - response to resistance is more violence 4) Anger Excitation: - most dangerous, least common - control victims physically - pain is exciting, true sexual sadist - usually premeditated plan of where to take victim and what to do, but victim can be picked opportunistically or planned.

Type of Coercion

1) Sex-pressure - persuasion or entrapment - make child feel obligated 2) Sex-force - threatens or uses physical force - 2 sub types: A) exploitive = use threat or force to obtain compliance B) Sadistic = obtains sexual gratification from fear and suffering (very small group of child molesters, most are low on psychopathy and have high feelings of empathy).

Theories of Homicidal Aggressions

1) Social Learning Theory: - aggressive behaviour is learned and reinforced - importance of observational learning 2) Evolutionary Theories: - homicide is an adaptive way to eliminate competitors

Types of Predictors

1) Static risk factors: - do not fluctuate over time and are not impacted by treatment - ex. age at first arrest 2) Dynamic risk factors: - fluctuate over time and can be changed - ex. antisocial attitude - can be changed with treatment.

Types of Female Sexual Offenders

1) Teacher/lover - in position of authority, often reports being in love with victim - ex. Mary Kay Letourneau! 2) Male-coerced - coerced or forced by abusive male partner - usually to their own kid, and wife is being forced to do so - Karla Homolka claimed to be male-coerced but she was just male accompanied willing participant. 3) Male-accompanied - victims may be inside or outside the home - willing participant with male partner 4) Predisposed - female sexual offender who initiates abuse on her own and acts by herself - often experienced severe and persistent childhood sexual abuse and intimate partner violence - deviant sexual fantasies - attacks are often violent, bizarre and involve young children

4 Type of Homicide in Canada

1) first-degree murder - willful murder that is premeditated 2) second-degree murder - willful murder but isn't planned beforehand (in between first and manslaughter) 3) manslaughter - unintentional murder due to heat of passion 4) infanticide - killing of child

Contextual Factors

1) lack of social support - 4 types of social support: a)instrumental = family gives you house, clothes, food, etc. b) emotional support = shoulder to cry on c) Appraisal = to encourage them d) Information = provide new facts 2) familial relationship of offender with mental disorder is related to violent outcomes 3) Access to weapons or victims - environments that provide easy access to weapons or victims are problematic - these are often conditions of release 4) Access to violent peer group or drug-using peer group - may encourage problematic behaviours - concerns about return to environment that fostered the original behaviours.

Historical Factors for Violence

1) past behaviour: - the best predictor of future behaviour is past behaviour - past violent behaviour associated with future violence 2) age of onset: - early age of onset is a risk for more serious and chronic offending - particularly for early violent offenses, but not a strong predictor for female offenders. 3) Childhood history of maltreatment - physical and sexual abuse or neglect associated with higher risk for violence (particularly chronic abuse)

Judgement Error and Biases

1) use of heuristics: -shortcuts in decision-making process that mean it often, but not always, leads to a correct answer - clinicians may make use of traits/characteristics they falsely believe to be important/associated with risk 2) Illusory correlations and the confirmation bias: - illusory correlations are the belief that a correlation exists between two events that actually aren't correlated at all, or are but to a lesser degree. - a clinician might assume there's a strong relationship between mental disorder and high risk of violent behaviour. - clinicians also tend to ignore base rates of violence (base rate for recidivism in homicides is very low). 3) Overconfidence: - in general, people are overconfident in their judgements - Desmarais et el. (2010) saw minimal association between clinician's confidence in their risk assessment and accuracy of the assessment.

Groth (1979)

Anger Rapist: - commits rape as means of expressing anger/hostility - not motivated primarily by sexual gratification - excessive use of force, degrading acts - rapes often impulsive Power Rapist: - assert dominance and control to "possess" victim - violence is proportionate to amount of submission of victim - frequent rape fantasies - may be planned/premeditated - often look for vulnerable victim Sadistic Rapist: - obtain sexual gratification from victim's fear and suffering - although least common, is the most dangerous - typically high level of planning and premeditation - frequent violent sexual fantasies - high level of injury (extreme abuse, torture, mutilation, murder).

The Base Rate Problem

Base rate: represents the percentage of people within a given population who commit a criminal or violent act - basically predicts the likelihood of a given behaviour - when predicting a low base rate behaviour, it is likely that many false positives will occur ex. predicting which kids might engage in a school shooting results in many kids being wrongly classified as potential shooters. - easier to predict frequent events (like violating conditions of conditional release), but are hard to predict for infrequent events (school shootings).

Massachusetts Treatment Center Typology (MTC:CM3)****** FINISH SLIDE !!!

Degree of fixation and social competence: - high fixation/high social competence - High fixation/low social competence - Low fixation/high social competence - Low fixation/low social competence Amount of contact: - high contact/interpersonal (grooming, then assault with groping and fondling rather than painful things like penetration) - high contact/narcissistic - low contact/low physical injury/non-sadistic - low contact/ ??????????????????/ FINISH SLIDE FROM TEXTBOOK.

Criminal Contexts

Pretrial: - denial of bail (ex. flight risk, violence risk, risk of committing additional crimes) - youth tried as adults Sentencing: - custodial sentence vs. community-based sanction - dangerous offender status Release: - parole decisions - sanctions associated with parole/conditional release

Prediction Outcomes

True positive: a correct prediction, someone is predicted to be violent and engages in violence. True negative: correct prediction, someone is predicted to not be violent and does not act violently False positive: an incorrect prediction and occurs when a person is predicted to be violent but is not. False negative: incorrect prediction and occurs when a person is predicted to be nonviolent but acts violently.