Final Exam Child Development

Nomination technique

"tell me the names of 3 kids in class that you like"

Difficult Child

(10%) easily frustrated, slow to adapt, withdraws from novelty, show irregular patterns

Slow to warm up

(15%) mildly negative initial responses gradually change to positive, reactions less intense than difficult child __remaining 35% of sample didn't fall into the previous three categories

Easy Child

(40% of sample) smiles easily, adapts to change, quickly develops, regular patterns of eating and sleeping

Sociometric Systems clarify children into 5 groups

-popular, rejected, neglected, average, controversial 2/3 can be placed into one of these categories

Reinforcement (14)

Reinforcement is any action that increases the likelihood of the response that it follows. Parents may use praise to reinforce a child's studying or give a reward for completing household chores.

What determines the type of attachment?

quality of interaction between parent and child

Children grouped:

-few positive, few negative nominations: neglected -few positive nom, many neg nom: rejected -many pos nom, few neg nom: popular -many pos nom, many neg nom: controversial

Outcome: Attachment and later development

-secure attachment related to positive outcomes in: preschool, middle childhood -continuity of caregiving may link infant attachment and later development

What do children understand about emotion?

-social referencing (visual cliff--scary(stop), happy(go) -emotion understanding in childhood --cognitive development and emotional understanding -empathy and sympathy -when do infants use emotion as info?

associative play (15)

Beginning at roughly 15 to 18 months, toddlers no longer just watch one another at play. In associative play, youngsters engage in similar activities, talk or smile at one another, and offer each other toys. Play is now truly inter active (Howes & Matheson, 1992). An example of associative play would be two 20montholds pushing toy cars along the floor, making "car sounds," and periodically trading cars.

joint custody (14)

In joint custody, both parents retain legal custody of the children. Children benefit from joint custody if their parents get along well (Bauserman, 2002). Unfortunately, relatively few divorced couples get along well enough for joint custody to succeed; most divorced couples fight or simply ignore each other (Amato, Kane, & James, 2011).

rough and tumble play (15)

In rough-and-tumble play, children playfully chase, punch, kick, shove, fight, and wrestle with peers. Notice the word play in this definition: Unlike aggression, where the intention is to do harm, roughand tumble play is for fun. When children are involved in roughandtumble play, they are usually smiling and sometimes laughing (Pellis & Pellis, 2007). When parents or teachers intervene, the youngsters usually explain that there's no prob lem; they're just playing. Roughandtumble play is more common among boys than girls, and girls' roughandtumble play tends to emphasize running and chasing over wrestling and fighting.

Mesosystem (14)

Microsystems themselves are connected to create the mesosystem. The mesosystem represents the fact that what happens in one microsystem is likely to influence what happens in others. Perhaps you've found that if you have a stress- ful day at work or school, you're grouchy at home. This indicates that your meso- system is alive and well; your microsystems of home and work are connected emotionally for you.

Valanced emotions

innate and learned

Display Rule

rules about displaying emotion

Self- conscious emotions

secondary, complex, social emotions -shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, pride emerge middle of second year injury to or enhancement of sense of self need adult instruction about when to feel them **socialized, culturally based

Rating Scale technique

the child is asked to rate each child in there class on a 5pt scale

Paired Comparison

the child is presented with two names at a time and asked who they like more

Popularity (status)

the degree to which children are liked or disliked by their peers as a group -measuring popularity: sociometric techniques

Parents influence development through socialization in at least 3 ways

- as direct instructors of skills, rules, and strategies -by providing indirect socialization in the course of day to day interactions with their children -by managing their children's experience and social lives, thus providing and controlling opportunities for socialization

Controversial children

-"controversial" children are those who are liked by some peers and disliked by others -characteristics of both popular and rejected children -they may be aggressive, disruptive, and prone to anger, but also cooperative, social, and good at sports -they may be viewed by peers as arrogant and snobbish -they may be socially active and good group leaders

Cultural Influences

-Japanese and Chinese infants are less likely to become upset and are satisfied more readily than european american babies -heredity may be involved but environment is also important. Japanese and Chinese mothers spend more time in physical contact with their babies, gently soothing them.

The functions of Emotions

-communication -adaptation and regulation tendencies toward action (charles darwin=constancy and differences in animal/human emotion -including: adapt to environment self conscious/social emotions emotion understanding sympathy and empathy emotion regulation and display rules "crying helps me slow down and obsess over the weight of life's problems"

What is the cause?

-culture and community (culture embrace this, poverty, social isolation) -parents (1/3 of abusers were abused as children)--ineffective parents, unrealistic things that they want child to do -child characteristics (younger, vulnerable, disabled, sick)

Regulations of Emotions

-emotions are useful because they help people adapt to their environment. but how? -fear leads to avoiding danger -happiness strengthens relationships -disgust keeps people away from things they don't like

Gender differences

-females are more expressive and more sensitive to other people, emotions than men -girls tend to show more positive emotions than boys -socially girls are encouraged to smile more than boys -females tend to internalized emotions while males externalize

Physiological Measures

-galvanic sweat response (sweating) -pulse (heart rate) -blood pressure -breathing -finger temperature EEG -wire attached to head fMRI-machine, people go in tubes PET- "

Basic Emotions (primary)

-happy, sad, fear, angry, surprised, disgust different things make everyone feel differently, but everyone experiences each of these emotions

Harlow

-importance of mother child relationships for monkeys -study wire mother (provided food) and cloth mother (provided comfort) - monkey prefers cloth mother

Cultural Variations in Attachment Security

-international differences in attachment types reflect values of the culture -in US, attachment classifications show socioeconomic and ethnic variability -strange situation procedure ma be inappropriate for studying infants raised in other circumstances or cultures **attachment is universal, culturally based -infants can become securely attached when parents are at work (babies aren't with mother all day anyway-sleeping and mother is doing dishes, laundry etc)

Popular Children

-liked by many peers and disliked by few peers -skilled at initiating social interactions and maintaining positive relationships with peers -cooperative, friendly, sociable, and sensitive to others (perceived this way by teachers, parents, and other children)

Related research showing the importance of parent-child bond: Lorenz and imprinting

-look at mother as someone to help them survive -adaptive if no imprinting occurs, they will grow up with duck problems (don't learn how to eat, mate, live) -certain window of time where they can imprint -it has to be moving for them to imprint on sheep: if a mother doesn't smell the baby in a certain time after birth, the mother will reject the baby -critical period to form mother, baby bond

Stability of Temperament

-modestly stable throughout infancy and preschool years -somewhat stable throughout adulthood, more so for difficult temperaments

Multiple Attachment

-mother, fathers, siblings, grandparents, professional caregiving -dont need to have more than one, but its fine to have 1+ caregivers -infants become attached to fathers, different than with mothers moms-reading, talking dads- play

Factors that affect attachment security

-opportunity for attachment -quality of caregiving (interactional synchrony) -infant characteristics -family circumstances -parents internal working model

Why is authoritative the best? (but it depends)

-parents set demands and guidelines on the childs behaviors -parental demands are accompanied with reasonable explanations -parents take childs responses into account and shows affection toward child

Appropriate discipline

-positive programs of discipline emphasize teaching rather than punishing -positive discipline techniques --managing the situation --settling clear rules and limits --praising good behavior --using explanations and reasoning --removing privileges, using timeouts

Neglected Children

-quiet, reserved, not social -some withdrawn children are categorized as neglected because they are neither liked nor disliked - they tend to be neglected because they aren't though of by their peers

Rejected Children- social cognition and social recognition

-rejected children are more likely than their better liked peers to be motivated by getting even with others or showing them up - they are more likely to attribute malicious intent to others - they have more difficulty finding constructive solutions, such as taking turns

At first, 3 attachment styles:

-secure (60%) use mother as a base of exploration, warm contact upon reunion - insecure --anxious avoidant (20%) display negative behavior at reunion --anxious-ambivalent/resistant (12-15%) may appear to want held and then push mother away

Determinants of Popularity

-social cognition -emotion regulation - birth order; last born children are more popular then first born children -intellectual ability; academic performance correlates with sociometric measures of popularity -physical attractiveness; relatively attractive children are more popular--unattractive children may be unpopular in part because of their negative behaviors and motor skills

Rothbart

-surgency/extraversion is child happy, vocal, into things, seek stimulation -Negative affect intensity, soothability -effortful control focus attention or distracted easily

Peer relationships

-tends to be positive -influences; important component -learn to interact with others, being with your equal/same age

Discipline

-the application of techniques used to teach children appropriate behavior -not synonymous with punishment, the techniques used to eliminate or reduce undesirable behavior -punishment often overemphasized as disciplinary technique

Peer influence

-the impact of peer influence on behavior can very with; time(age)= peer influence peaks in adolescence and declines thereafter area of life=peers are important for issues related to clothing and music while parents are more important for issues relating to academic planning and occupational choices The child= some children are resistant to peer influence while others are sensitive

Outcomes

-theorists believe that there are consequences of a secure attachment -higher quality friendships -less likely to have behavior problems -more skillful peer interaction

Interviews

-works well for adults, even adolescents, but what about younger children? (start talking at 1) -children talk about feeling states -emotions important to children- express them

Social Smile (10)

...Social smiles first appear: Infants smile when they see another person. As with the baby in the photo, the social smile seems to reflect the infant's pleasure in simple interac- tions with others. When smiling, they sometimes coo (the early form of vocalization described in Module 9.1), and they may move their arms and legs to express excitement.

Factors to be considered when interpreting finding on attachment and daycare:

1) importance of maternal attitudes about being at work vs home 2) quality of daycare 3) strange situation may lose validity when used with infants who have different childbearing experiences

Four behavioral signs of attachment

1) orienting (turn attention to someone) 2) proximity seeking (near attachment figure) 3) joy/ relief at reunion 4) distress at separation

Rejected children

2 categories; -agressive rejected: prone to hostile and threatening behavior, physical aggression, disruptive behavior and delinquency, they engage in relational aggression, spread rumors, withholding friendship, and ignoring and excluding other children -withdrawn rejected: (10%-20% of those in ejected category) are socially withdrawn, wary, and socially awkward, not liked (lack social skills)

Hitting and spanking used by:

65% of infants, 90% of parents with 3 yo, 35% parents of 16 yo -how often? in one study two thirds of mothers of 6 year olds reported spanking an average of 150x per year

direct instruction (14)

A better approach is direct instruction, telling a child what to do, when, and why. Instead of just shouting "Share your candy with your brother!" a parent should explain when and why it's important to share with a sibling.

Evolutionary Psychology (10)

According to evo- lutionary psychology, many human behaviors represent successful adapta- tion to the environment. That is, over human history, some behaviors have made it more likely that people will reproduce and pass on their genes to following generations. For example, we take it for granted that most people enjoy being with other people. But evolutionary psychologists argue that our "social nature" is a product of evolution: For early humans, being in a group offered protection from predators and made it easier to locate food.

Stanger Wariness (10)

At about 6 months, infants become wary in the presence of an unfamiliar adult, a reaction known as stranger wariness. When a stranger approaches, a 6-month-old typically looks away and begins to fuss (Mangelsdorf, Shapiro, & Marzolf, 1995). The baby in the photo is showing the signs of stranger wariness. The grandmother has picked him up without giving him a chance to warm up to her, and the outcome is as predictable as it was with Claude, the baby in the vignette who was frightened by his aunt: He cries, looks frightened, and reaches with arms outstretched in the direction of someone familiar.

Microsystem (14)

At any point in life, the microsystem consists of the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment. These are the people closest to a child, such as parents or siblings. Some children have more than one microsystem; for example, a young child might have the microsystems of the family and of the day- care setting. As you can imagine, microsystems strongly influence development.

latchkey children (15)

Children who care for themselves are sometimes called latchkey children, a term that origi- nated more than 200 years ago to describe children who raised a door latch to enter their own homes. Some latchkey children, like the child in the photo, stay at home alone (sometimes with parental supervision in absentia via phone calls and text messages). Others may stay at friends' homes where adults are sometimes present, or they may be unsupervised in public places such as shopping malls.

The structure of temperament

Emotionality- strength of the infants emotional response, ease of triggering the response, regulation Activity- tempo and vigor of a child's movements, busy/active, quiet Sociability- preference for being with people, contact, attention, involvement, or solitude and quiet

Secondary Emotions

Emotions that develop with cognitive maturity and vary across individual and cultures. They generally include jealousy, pride, shame and guilt.

Chronosystem (14)

Finally, these systems all change over time, a dimension known as the chronosystem. This dimension reminds us that microsystem, mesosystem, exo- system, and macrosystem are not static but are constantly in flux. For example, the child's microsystem changes when an older sister leaves home to attend col- lege and the child's exosystem changes when a mother leaves an easy but low- paying job for a more challenging but higher-paying job. And, of course, children themselves are changing over time, which often influences the way in which they are affected by the other elements in the system.

blended family (14)

Following divorce, most children live in a single-parent household for about five years. However, like the adults in the photo, most men and women eventually remarry (Sweeney, 2010). The resulting unit, consisting of a bio- logical parent, stepparent, and children, is known as a blended family. (Other terms for this family configuration are remarried family and reconstituted family.)

time out (14)

In time-out, a child who misbehaves must briefly sit alone in a quiet, unstimulating location. Some parents have children sit alone in a bathroom; others have children sit alone in a room, as shown in the photo. Time-out is punishing because it interrupts the child's ongoing activity and isolates the child from other family mem- bers, toys, books, and, generally, all forms of rewarding stimulation.

Internal Working Model (10)

Infants develop an internal working model, a set of expectations about parents' availability and responsiveness, both generally and in times of stress. When parents are depend- able and caring, babies come to trust them, knowing they can be relied on for comfort. That is, babies develop an internal working model in which they believe their parents are concerned about their needs and will try to meet those needs (Huth-Bocks et al., 2004; Thompson, 2000).

Social Referencing (10)

Infants in an unfamiliar or ambiguous environment often look at their mother or father, as if searching for cues to help them interpret the situation, a phenom- enon known as social referencing. If a parent looks afraid when shown a novel object, 12-month-olds are less likely to play with the new toy than if a parent looks happy (Repacholi, 1998). Infants' use of their parents' cues is precise.

ego resilience (14)

One factor that protects children is their ego-resilience, which denotes children's ability to respond adaptively and resourcefully to new situations. The effects of abuse tend to be smaller when children are flexible in responding to novel and challenging social situations (Flores, Cicchetti, & Rogosch, 2005). Another protective factor is being engaged in school: When maltreated children are cognitively engaged in school—they pay attention, complete tasks, and are well organized—they are less prone to antisocial and aggressive behavior (Pears et al., 2013).

Macrosystem (14)

The broadest environmental context is the macrosystem, the subcultures and cultures in which the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embed- ded. A mother, her workplace, her child, and the child's school are part of a larger cultural setting, such as Asian Americans living in southern California or Muslim Americans living in large cities on the East Coast. Members of these cultural groups share a common identity, a common heritage, and common values.

Exosystem (14)

The exosystem refers to social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development. For example, a mother's work environment is part of her child's exosystem, because she may pay more atten- tion to her child when her work is going well and less attention when she's under a great deal of work-related stress. Although the influence of the exosystem is at least secondhand, its effects on the developing child can be quite strong. Think about the woman in the photo, who doesn't look as if she's having a good day at work; do you think she'll do her best mothering when she gets home? Probably not, which means that the workplace has affected her child's development.

parallel play (15)

The first type of social play to appear—soon after the first birthday—is parallel play: youngsters play alone but maintain a keen interest in what other children are doing. For example, each girl in the photo has her own toy but is watching the other play, too. During parallel play, exchanges between youngsters begin to occur. When one talks or smiles, the other usually responds (Howes, Unger, & Seidner, 1990).

negative reinforcement trap (14)

The most surprising discovery is that parents often unwittingly reinforce the very behav- iors they want to discourage, a situation called the negative reinforcement trap 1-mother tells son to clean his room 2- son complains 3- mother gives in and tells him he doesn't have to do it feedback to son= arguing works

cooperative play (15)

Toward the second birthday, cooperative play begins: Now children orga- nize their play around a distinct theme and take on special roles based on the theme. For example, children may play hideandseek and alternate roles of hider and finder, or they may have a tea party and alternate being the host and guest. By the time children are 31⁄2 to 4 years old, parallel play is much less common and cooperative play is the norm. Cooperative play typically involves peers of the same sex, a preference that increases until, by age 6, youngsters choose samesex playmates about twothirds of the time (LaFreniere, Strayer, & Gauthier, 1984).

Attachement styles

Type A- insecure avoidant- nothing phases baby Type B- secure attachment- sad at separation Type C- insecure resistant- hard time soothing at reunion and when left alone

The Strange Situation

a laboratory procedure, with series of episodes, including: -strange room -stranger -separation from mother -reunion with mother (escalating stress, see attachment behaviors)

Separation anxiety

a response in which negative protests accompany separation from attachment figures

Stanger anxiety

a wary and fearful reaction to strangers

Bowlbys Ethological theory of attachment

attachment emerges from behaviors evolved over time to increase chances of infant survival (darwin) -attachment figure provides a secure base from which to explore -interactional synchrony (still face experiment) -sensitive caregiving - these lead to: an internal working model; a set of expectations derived from caregiving experiences about the availability of attachment figure -a guide for all future close relationships **expect same type of care from close family members (consistent relationships)

family economic stress model (15)

background- The harmful effects of poverty on children have been known for decades; but only recently have researchers attempted to understand the many different ways in which poverty harms children. Among the most difficult to understand is the way in which poverty causes children to receive less effective parenting. the theory-Adults living in chronic poverty often experience much stress, from constantly wor rying about whether they will have enough money to buy food and clothing or to pay rent. Rand Conger and Glen Elder (1994) proposed the Family Economic Stress Model (FESM) to explain how such poverty induced stress could affect children's development. According to the FESM, economic hardship results in a series of consequences: 1. Parents find that their income is not adequate to meet their needs. 2. This economic pressure affects parents' mental health, causing some to become depressed. 3. Once depressed, the quality of the marital rela tionship declines. 4. This results in less effective parenting (parents are not as warm with their children, praise them Module 15.3 471 less frequently, and instead, are often angry and impatient with them). 5. Because children receive less effective parenting, behavioral problems are common (e.g., children become anxious or angry). Thus, in the FESM, poverty harms children's devel opment because parents struggling to make ends meet become depressed and parent less effectively.

Observational learning (14)

children learn a lot from just watching their parents. (intergenerational continuity) Observational learning can also produce counterimitation, learning what should not be done. If an older sister like the one in the photo has been mean to a classmate and the mother punishes her, the younger sister may learn to be friendly instead of mean.

Spanking may work in short run to terminate undesirable behavior but...

children return to misbehavior and repeated spanking may escalate into physical abuse -parent most often identify "hitting other children" as misbehavior needed a spanking -physical forms of discipline send wrong message to child;parents model aggression - a recent metanalysis; physical punishment linked with increases in child aggression, delinquency, and antisocial behavior

Counterimination (14)

counterimitation, learning what should not be done. If an older sister like the one in the photo has been mean to a classmate and the mother punishes her, the younger sister may learn to be friendly instead of mean.

Authoritative

demanding, but responsive, reasoned compliance, clear demands, consider child perspective (high nurturance, high control)

Authoritarian

demanding, but unresponsive, forced compliance, consider own perspective, clear demands (low nurturance, high control)

Primary Emotions

emotions considered to be universal and biologically based. They generally include; happiness, fear, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust and interest (interest/ surprise=neutral)

Attachment

enduring social- emotional relationship, lasting across time and space -relies upon infants growing perceptual and cognitive skills -by 7-8 most, have identified a single attachment figure -usually first attach to mothers then to fathers

Child maltreatment in the US

hard to estimate (not reported) -about 750,000 children suffer maltreatment or neglect, about 75% neglected, 15% physical abuse, 10% sexual abuse, 5% psychological abuse

Temperament

is the consistent mood or style of behavior, like personality -temperament has different dimensions (emotionality, activity, sociability)

Transitory emotions

more passive than active

Stability of sociometric status:

most stable? rejected least stable? controversial or neglected -peer status as a predictor of risk; adjustable problems -rejected aggressive children are more at risk for; aggression, delinquency, ADHD, hyperactive, substance abuse etc. lonely, depressed -nonagressive withdrawn children are also at risk for internalizing systems

Genetics and environment in temperament

outcome determined largely by goodness of fit between temperament and environment

"parenting styles"

refers to parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate of parent-child interactions

Regulating Emotions

regulation of emotions begins in infancy -example: infants will look away when they encounter something frightening or confusing -with age, children develop even more effective strategies -children who don't tend to regulate their emotions tend to have problems with peers: display rules

Indulgent/ Permissive

responsive but undemanding, consider childs perspective, few demands, feel powerless. Low self esteem (high nurturance, low control)

Define Emotion

the complex set of arousal responses caused by some external or internal event (an elicitor), which included at least three components: -a set of physiological changes -a physical expression (facial or body language) -an internal, subjective experience (understanding of what its like to be happy, sad, what makes you angry etc)

Parental Worth

the degree to which parents are accepting, responsive, and compassionate with their children

Parental Control

the degree to which parents set limits, enforce rules, and maintain discipline for children

Fine Grained Analysis of Facial Muscles

the maximally discriminate facial movement coding system-Izard (1993) A- brow, forehead, nasal root (bridge) B- eyes, nose, cheeks C- lips and mouth

Socialization

the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge and behaviors appropriate for their present and future role in their culture -parents have to socialize their children -make them apart/functioning in society

Indifferent/Uninvolved

unresponsive, undemanding, neglectful (low nurturance, low control)

Ethnic and cultural differences

varying parenting styles have different results in different cultures; -authoritarian parenting is not associated with negative outcomes for african american girls, as it is for european girls -african american parents who are more authoritarian tend to have children who are more academically competent and who have less deviant behavior -authoritarian parenting is the norm among Chinese and it is not associated with negative outcomes