Final exam essay

What are the affects of touch on babies? (contact)

"Handled" infants of both species develop faster neurologically and gain weight more rapidly. They sleep better, experience less stress, and show better cognitive development 10 years later.

What is Structualism?

- Used Introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. - Wundt & Titchener

What do Humans Usually Do when They See Random Events?

- We tend to perceive order out of it.

What is Expectancy Effect?

- When people believe certain things; such as alcohol affects social behavior in certain ways, or even just that they have been drinking alcohol, they will behave accordingly

In what cases can a child produce accurate witnesses?

- When they are questioned about their experiences in neural words - When interviewers use less negative, more effective technique. - *Especially* when the child and the interviewer who the child never met before, but use neutral word and kept neural position until & during the interview

What is an Experiment?

- a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

What is Near-death experience?

- an altered state of consciousness reported after close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest) - Often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

What are positive effects of stress?

- mobilize the immune system for fending off infections and healing wounds. - arouses and motivates us to conquer problems.

What are the positive effects of anger?

- motivates people to take action and achieve goals - communicates strength and competence

What are the effects of high self-esteem and self-efficacy?

- succumb less easily to pressures to conform - More persistent at difficult tasks - Less shy, anxious, and lonely - Plain happier However, for children: - High efficacy helps children, but not high self-esteem *Accept yourself and you'll find it easier to accept others*

What are the pillars of positive psychology?

-Positive well-being -Positive character -Positive groups, communities, cultures

What is cognition?

All the mental activities associated with *thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating* - Includes forming a concept

What is cognition?

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

What is Source amnesia?

Also called source misattribution: attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

Which brain area responds to stress hormones by helping to create stronger memories?

Amygdala

What is Relational aggression, and who are more likely to commit them?

An act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing Such as passing along gossips Women are more likely to commit them.

What is *antero*grade amnesia? What is *retro*grade amnesia?

An inability to form *new memories*; an inability to *retrieve information* from one's past.

What is a norm?

An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior

What is aggression, and who are more likely to commit them?

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally Men are more likely to commit them.

What is significant about observation of Aplysia by Kandel and Schwartz?

Aplysia: simple animal with a mere 20000 or so unusually large and accessible nerve cells. When learning occurs, the slug releases more of the neurotransmitter *serotonin* into certain neurons. Experience and learning can increase the number of synapses, even in slugs.

What distinguishes imprinting from attachment?

Attachment is the normal process by which we form emotional ties with important others. Imprinting only occurs in certain animals that have a critical period very early in their development during which they must form their attachments, and they do so in an inflexible manner.

What is *Emotional focused coping*?

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction. We usually use this method when we believe we cannot change the situation.

What is *Problem focused coping*?

Attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. We usually use this method when we feel a sense of *control* over a situation and think we can change the circumstances.

*(T/F)* Stress causes cancer.

False.

*(T/F)* Genes does not matter in terms of happiness.

False. About 50% of difference among people's happiness ratings are heritable.

*(T/F)* Amount of money you possess does not matter at all in terms of happiness

False. Especially in poor environments, having more money to help you get basic needs does increase the happiness level.

*(T/F)* the effect of roll playing is universal.

False. Even with Zimbardo's experiment, some people really acted out the situation and became part of it, whereas others did not.

*(T/F)* What type of emotions you are expressing does not influence what type of emotions you are experiencing (such as faking joy does not make you joyful)

False. Expressions not only communicate emotion, they also amplify and regulate it.

(T/F) Genes have no affect on motor development.

False. Genes guide the motor development; Identical twins typically begin walking on nearly the same day.

(T/F) There is one mighty genius gene.

False. However, they figured some important regions in the dna that is important for intelligence.

(T/F) The difference between girls and boys' IQ test result stays similar across the globe.

False. In countries with more equal rights, they also tend to show very similar at their markets, etc.

*(T/F)* effect of fundamental attribution error does not vary across the cultures and regions.

False. Individualist *Westerners* often attribute behavior to *people's personal traits*, whereas people in *East Asian cultures* are more sensitive to the *power of the situation*.

(T/F) Reasoning goes up as one ages.

False. It goes down.

(T/F) For an adopted child, the family-environment effect grow with age and genetic-legacy effect shrink.

False. Mental similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families wane with age, until the correlation approaches zero by adulthood.

*(T/F)* For humans, will to have better health comes before will to have better social life.

False. People sometimes risk their health to gain social acceptance.

What is Behavioral Psychology's Focus on Psychology?

How do we learn observable responses

What is Cognitive Psychology' Focus on Psychology?

How we encode, process, and retrieve information

What are the 10 basic emotions defined by Carroll Izard?

Joy, Interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt

Which psychological principle helps explain why women tend to perform more poorly when they believe their online chess opponent is male?

Stereotype threat.

Social networking tends to ___________________ your relationships with people you already know, ___________________ your self-disclosure, and ___________________ your true personality.

Strengthen, increase, reveal.

What happens with memory when there is stress?

Stress provokes the *amygdala* to initiate a memory trace in the *frontal lobes & basal ganglia* and to boost activity in the brain's memory-forming areas.

What general effect does stress have on our overall health?

Stress tends to reduce our immune system's ability to function properly, so that higher stress generally leads to greater incidence of physical illness.

How do twin and adoption studies help us understand the effects and interactions of nature and nurture?

Studying different groups help the researchers to take heredity and environment into different subjects. Heritable individual differences (in traits such as height and weight) do not necessarily explain gender or ethnic group differences. Shared family environments have little effect on personality.

What is culture?

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

What are strengths about Emotional Intelligence?

The four components that predict social success.

What is behavior genetics?

The study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

What is evolutionary psychology?

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

What is molecular genetics?

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

What is *Type D personality*?

The suppress their negative emotion to avoid social disapproval. They mainly feel *distress* during social interactions. Having a Type D personality have significantly increased risk for mortality and nonfatal heart attack.

What is spacing effect?

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

About what percentage does parenting influence the development of children's differences? (success vs. troublemaking, etc)

Less than 10%

Who is George Sperling, and what did he discover?

Psychologist who demonstrated iconic memory.

Adolescence is marked by the onset of ________________________.

Puberty

Which reinforcement schedules produce higher response rate?

Ratio (reinforcement linked to number of responses)

What is Neuroscience' Focus on Psychology?

- How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

What is Deja vu, and what is a key element in forming it?

"I've experienced this before"; cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. The key seems to be familiarity with a stimulus without a clear idea of where we encountered it before. We also usually experience a feeling of familiarity before we consciously remember it.

What findings in psychology support (1) the stage theory of development and (2) the idea of stability in personality across the life span? What findings challenge these ideas?

(1) Stage theory is supported by the work of Piaget (cognitive development), Kohlberg (Moral development), and Erikson (Psychosocial development), but it is challenged by findings that change is more gradual and less culturally universal than these theorists supposed. (2) Some traits, such as temperament, do exhibit remarkable stability across many years. But we do change in other ways, such as in our social attitudes.

What are the two dimensions of emotion?

*Arousal*: low versus high *Valence*: Pleasant versus unpleasant

Where in the brain are working memories are processed?

*Frontal lobe*: processes different types of memories. Examples: - Left side: remembering the password, (verbal information and numbers) - Right side: remembering visual party scene (visual memories) *Hippocampus*: "Save button" for explicit memories

What is LTP?

*Long term potentiation (LTP)*: an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

What are the two forms of *persuasion efforts*?

*Peripheral route persuasion*: occurs when people are influenced by *incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness* - Does NOT engage systematic thinking, but produce *fast results* *Central route persuasion*: occurs when interested people focus on the *arguments and respond with favorable thoughts* - Occurs when people are *naturally analytical or involved in the issue* Other factors still influence our behavior, such as strong social pressures.

What is *Subjective well being*?

*Self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life.* Used along measures of objective well being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

What is "storage" and "retrieval"?

*Storage*: the process of retaining encoded information over time *Retrieval*: the process of getting information out of memory storage

What is *Catharsis*?

*emotional release*. In psychology: the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.

How similar are the intelligence scores of "virtual twins", who are same age, unrelated siblings adopted as infants and raised together?

+0.28; still suggest a modest influence of their shared environment

What is Hindsight Bias?

- "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon" - The tendency to Believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

What is the Cerebellum?

- "Little Brain" at the rear of the brainstem - Functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

What are four types of immune cells that are active in immune system?

- *B-lymphocytes (white blood cells)*: mature in *bone marrow* and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections. - *T-lymphocytes (white blood cells)*: mature in the *thymus* and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances. - *Macrophages*: identify, pursue, and ingest harmful invaders and worn-out cells. -*Natural killer cells*: pursue diseased cells (such as those infected by viruses or cancer)

What are the three main types of stressors?

- *Catastrophes*: unpredictable large-scale events such as earthquakes, floods, wildfires, and storms - *Significant life changes*: leaving home, becoming divorced, losing a job - *Daily Hassles*: spotty phone connections, aggravating housemates, long lines at the store

What are influences a religious life brings to our lives (In terms of stress)?

- *Healthy behaviors*: religion promotes self control. - *Social support*: faith is a communal experience in Judaic, Christian, and Islamic religions. - *Positive emotions*: they tend to live longer even after controlling all the other factors

What are the best ways to manage your anger?

- *Wait*: just having some time reduces the level of physiological arousal of anger - *Find a healthy distraction or support*:Exercise, playing an instrument, talking with friends, etc - *Distance yourself*: move away from the situation mentally

What is Operational Definition?

- A carefully worded Statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study - Defining the specific terminology used in researches

What is a psychoactive drug?

- A chemical substance that laters perceptions and moods

What is a Standard Deviation?

- A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

What is the split brain?

- A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum connecting them.

What is a Case Study? What is the limit of Case Study?

- A descriptive Technique in which ONE INDIVIDUAL or group is studied in depth in the HOPE of revealing universal principles - If the individual (Or a small group) studying is atypical, then it will not give any meaningful information about the universal principles

What is Naturalistic Observation? What is the limit of Naturalistic Observation?

- A descriptive Technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. - The sample size is usually a lot bigger than case study - It describes the situation, but it does not tell us why it is happening.

What is the survey? What is the limit of Survey?

- A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group usually by questioning a representative, RANDOM SAMPLE of the group - It is possible that the survey getting answered is not from very random sample of the group.

What is Myelin Sheath?

- A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons - Enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next - Nodes of Ranvier: gaps between the myelin sheath; it recharges the axon?

What is the Agonist?

- A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

What is the Antagonist?

- A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

What is the all-or-none response of action potential?

- A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

What is a Reuptake?

- A neurotransmitter's re-absorption by the sending neuron - Excess neurotransmitters

What is the Refractory Period?

- A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. - It sets back the equilibrium to it's initial state

What is Scientific Method?

- A self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

What is a reflex?

- A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. - Signal only goes to spinal cord for the simple but quick response.

What is night terrors?

- A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified - Unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered - Mostly Children

What is Sleep Apnea?

- A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

What is narcolepsy?

- A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks - The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

What is a statistical significance?

- A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. - It does not imply that the result is practically significant.

What is a Normal Curve?

- A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes - Also known as Normal Distribution

What is a hypothesis?

- A testable prediction, typically derived from a theory

What is brain's plasticity?

- Ability to modify itself after damage - Neurogenesis: produces new brain cells by itself: finds a way to form connections besides the pre-connected parts that are now not functional

Which organ in the endocrine system responses in the moment of danger?

- Adrenal Gland - Release Epinephrine & Norepinephrine_

What are things that can help us gather inner strength and lessen stress effects?

- Aerobic exercise - Relaxation - Meditation - Spiritual communities

Which factors affect encoding efficiency?

- Age - selectiveness of our sensory system (only encoding part of what we see and hear)

What is Alcohol use disorder?

- Alcoholism - Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawl, and a drive to continue problematic use.

What is an intuition?

- An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

What is a theory?

- An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.

What are the six classes of psychiatric medications?

- Antidepressant - Stimulant - Antipsychotics - Mood stabilizers - Anxiolytics - Depressants

What is the "association areas"?

- Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions - Rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

What does Clinical Psychologists do?

- Assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavior disorders

What is Temporal Lobes specialized in?

- Auditory Areas - Each side of the brain receives information from the opposite side

What is Guillain-Barre?

- Autoimmune disorder with acute attack of peripheral nerve Myelin

What is the Corpus Callosum?

- Axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

Who is B. F. Skinner?

- Behaviorism - Studied Operant Conditioning - Studied how consequences shape behavior.

What is Nativist View?

- Believe that certain ideas or personal characteristics are innate or inborn.

What are the type of researches that happen in Psychology

- Biological - Developmental - Cognitive - Personality - Social - Positive Psychology

What are the Psychology's Three Main Levels of Analysis?

- Biological Influences: Natural Selection, Genes, Brain Mechanisms, Hormonal influences, etc. - Psychological Influences: Fears & other learned expectations, Emotional res ponses, etc. - Social-Cultural Influences: Presence of others, group influences, compelling models, etc. - "Biopsychosocial Levels of analysis"

Who is Carl Rogers?

- Humanistic Psychology - American psychotherapist

How does sleep deprivation affect us?

- Brain: Decreased ability to focus attention and process and store memories; increased risk of depression - Immune system: Decreased production of immune cells; increased risk of viral infections, such as colds - Fat cells: Increased production; greater risk of obesity - Joints: Increased inflammation & arthritis - Muscles: Reduced strength; slower reaction time and motor learning - Stomach: Increase in hunger-arousing ghrelin; decrease in hunger-suppressing leptin - Heart: Increased risk of high blood pressure

What does Reticular Formation do?

- Brainstem - Important role in controlling arousal & alertness - Brings back consciousness from sleep - Travels through the brainstem into the thalamus

What does midbrain do?

- Brainstem - Processing centers to turn the eye or the head toward sights and sounds

What are the pons?

- Brainstem - Relays messages between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to help coordinate body movements - Plays a role in sleep

What is a medulla?

- Brainstem - The base of the brainstem - Controls heartbeat and breathing and other vital functions

What are effects of having good social support?

- Calms us - Reduces blood pressure and stress hormones. - Foster stronger immune functioning - Gives us opportunity for "open heart therapy", which is a chance to confide painful feelings.

What are Glial Cells (Glia)?

- Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons - They may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory - Forms Myelin Sheath

What are the neurotransmitters?

- Chemical Messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. - When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

What are the hormones?

- Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other issues.

What are effects of prolonged stress?

- Childhood stress leads to greater adult stress responses and disease risk - Brain's production of new neurons also slows and some neural circuits degenerate - Shortening of telomeres (ends of chromosomes: shorter cell life)

What are the physical consequences to anger?

- Chronic hostility is linked to heart disease - Boosts heart rate - Causes our skin to drip with sweat - Raise in Testosterone level - Triggers blood flow into brain->causing us to reflect on why we are angry

What is Multiple Sclerosis?

- Chronic, progressive degenerative disease affecting the myelin sheath of the white matter of the brain & spinal cord

What are three ways that helps you process information faster? (Thus learning faster)

- Chunking - Mnemonics - Hierarchies

What are the most addictive drugs?

- Cocaine - Heroin - Alcohol - Nicotine - Meth

What is a Substance Use Disorder?

- Continued substance craving and use despite the significant life disruption and/or physical risk

What is Nature-Nurture issue?

- Controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

What does angular gryus do? Which lobe is it part of?

- Converts written language into sounds so that Wernicke's area can understand the meaning. - Parietal lobe.

What are the Applied field of Psychology?

- Counseling Psychology - Educational Psychology - Industrial-Organizational Psychology - Community Psychology - Clinical Psychology

What are the three scientific Attitudes?

- Curious - Skeptical - Humble

What is Parkinson's Disease?

- Depletion of dopamine levels in the basal ganglia of the mid brain, which is where dopamine is produced and stored.

Describe the Following Drug: Opiates

- Depressant - Morphine, Heroin - Pupils Constrict, breathing slows, and lethargy sets in as blissful pleasure replaces pain and anxiety - Depress Neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety - agonizing withdrawal - Highest Overdose Risk

Describe the Following drug: Alcohol

- Depressant - Slow Neural Processing - Memory Disruption - Reduced Self-awareness and self-control - Depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions

Describe the Following drug: Barbiturates

- Depressant - Tranquilizers - Depress CNS nervous activity - Reduces anxiety, but impairing memory and judgement - Can be lethal if taken with alcohol

What is a Correlational Research? What are the weaknesses?

- Detect naturally occurring relationships - Assess how well one variable predicts another - Collect data on two or more variables; no manipulation - Cannot specify cause and effect

What are some ways to boost the creative processes?

- Develop your expertise. - Allow time for incubation. - Set aside time for the mind to roam freely. - Experience other cultures and ways of thinking.

What is the empirical approach to scientific study?

- Directly observing what we want to study

What is the thalamus?

- Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and media

What are the depressants? List the names of the drugs that are depressants.

- Drug that reduce neural activity and slow body functions - Alcohol, Barbiturates, and Opiates

What are discoveries about LTP that marks its significances?

- Drugs that block LTP interferes with learning. - Mutant mice engineered to lack an enzyme needed for LTP couldn't learn their way out of a maze. - Rats given a drug that enhanced LTP learned a maze with half the usual number of mistakes.

Who is Abraham Maslow?

- Humanistic Psychology - Developed a theory of motivation that emphasized psychological growth

What are Stimulants? List the names of the drugs that are stimulants.

- Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions - Caffeine, Nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy, and methamphetamine

What does EEG stand for, and what does it do?

- Electroencephalogram - An amplified recording of the WAVES of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. - Waves measured by Electrodes placed on the scalp

What is the limbic system?

- Emotions, Drives, and Memory - Hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

What is Humanistic Psychology?

- Emphasizes human growth potential - Thought both behaviorism and Freudian Psychology is limiting - Rogers & Maslow

What is Freudian Psychology?

- Emphasizes on the ways our unconscious thought process and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior. - One of the two major forces in psychology into 1960s - Freud

What is Behaviorism?

- Emphasizes the observable behaviors - Believe that psychology should be an objective science - "cannot observe and measure a sensation, a feeling, or a thought" - "Psychology is the scientific study of observable behavior" - One of the two major forces in psychology into 1960s - Watson & Skinner

What is the pituitary gland?

- Endocrine system's most influential gland - Regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

What is the Wording Effect?

- Even subtle changes in the order or wording of question can have major effects.

What is a Placebo Effect?

- Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

What is Functionalism?

- Explored how mental and behavioral processes function; how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. - William James

What are the physical symptoms under parasympathetic nervous system (calming) for Eye, Heart, Digestion, Gallbladder, Bladder, and sex organs?

- Eye: Contracts Pupils - Heart: Slows heartbeat - Digestion: Stimulates - Gallbladder: Stimulates - Bladder: Contracts - Sex Organ: Allows bloodflow to sex organs

What are the physical symptoms under sympathetic nervous system (arousing) for Eye, Heart, Digestion, Liver, Adrenal Gland, Bladder, and sex organs?

- Eye: Dilates Pupils - Heart: Accelerates heartbeat - Digestion: Inhibits - Liver: Stimulates glucose release by liver - Adrenal gland: Stimulates secretion of epinephrine, norepinephrine - Bladder: Relaxes - Sex organ: stimulates ejaculation in male

Who is Mary Whiton Calkins?

- First woman president of APA - American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams - Could not get Ph.D.

Who is Margaret Floy Washburn?

- First woman to receive a Ph. D. in psychology - Second woman president of APA - American psychologist who studied animal behavior

Who is John. B. Watson?

- Founded Behaviorism - American psychologist who studied Behaviorism

Who is Sigmund Freud?

- Founded Freudian Psychology - Founded Psychoanalysis: understanding the self.

What are the dream theories we have?

- Freud's wish-fulfillment - Information-processing - Physiological function (like preserving neurons) - Neural activation - Cognitive development -> We need REM sleep!

On which days are we most happy? On what time of the day?

- Friday & Saturday - Early and Middle part of most days

What is the somatosensory cortex?

- Front of the parietal lobes - Registers and processes information from the body senses: body touch and movement sensation - Process internal body signals

What does fMRI stand for, and what does it do?

- Functional MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) - Revels bloodflow, and therefore, brain activity - Unlike MRI, fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.

Who is William James?

- Functionalism - American philosopher and psychologist - Wrote an influential psychology textbook: Principles of Psychology - Influenced by Charles Darwin

What are two ways the biology can influence genders?

- Genetically: males and females have different sex chromosomes. - Physiologically: males and females have differing concentrations of sex hormones, which trigger other anatomical differences

What is a control group in an experiment?

- Group NOT exposed to treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

What is an experimental group in an experiment?

- Group that is exposed to the treatment: to one version of the independent variable.

Describe the Following Drug: LSD

- Hallucinogen - Powerful; also known as acid - The user's current mood and expectations color the emotional experience, which may vary from euphoria to detachment to panic

Describe the Following Drug: THC

- Hallucinogen - aka Marijuana - Triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations - Amplifies sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells - Like alcohol, marijuana relaxes, disinhibits, and may produce a euphoric high -

What does Community Psychologists do?

- Help create social and physical environments that are healthy for individuals and groups

What does Counseling psychologists do?

- Help people cope with challenges by recognizing their strengths and resources

What is Psychodynamic Psychology' Focus on Psychology?

- How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.

What is Behavior Genetics' Focus on Psychology?

- How our genes and our environment influence our individual differences.

What is Evolutionary Psychology's Focus on Psychology?

- How the Natural Selection of trait has promoted the survival of genes

What are the Organs in the Endocrine System?

- Hypothalamus (controls pituitary gland) - Thyroid gland (metabolism) - Adrenal gland (flight-or-fight) - Testis: Male sex hormoes - Ovary: Female sex hormones - Pancreas: Level of sugar in blood - Parathyroids: Help regulate the level of calcium in blood - Pituitary gland: Secretes many hormones)

What is a Confounding Variable?

- In an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect.

What is Occipital Lobes specialized in?

- Includes area that receive information from the visual fields

How does exercise affect our physical state?

- Increases arousal, thus counteracting depression's low arousal state - Leads to muscle relaxation and sounder sleep - Orders up mood-boosting chemicals from our body's internal pharmacy (*norepinephrine, serotonin, and the endorphines*) - Foster *neurogenesis* (basically producing nerve cells)

What does broca's area do? Which lobe is it part of?

- Involved in the production of language - Usually in left hemisphere - Frontal Lobe

What does Wernicke's area do? Which lobe is it part of?

- Involved in understanding language sounds - Usually in left hemisphere - Temporal Lobe

What are the Debate Topics fr animal testing?

- Is it right to place the well-being of humans above that of other animals? - If we give human life first priority, what safeguards should protect the well-being of animals in research?

What is the Amygdala?

- Limbic System - Aggression and Fear - lima-bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system

What is the Hippocampus?

- Limbic System - Process Explicit memories for storage: new memories!

What is the Hypothalamus?

- Limbic System - Several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) - Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward - Important connection between the brain & general body

What is introspection? What are the limitations of introspection?

- Looking inward in an attempt to study feelings and sensations. - The results varied from person to person and experience to experience as it relied on someone's explanation.

What does MRI stand for, and what does it do?

- Magnetic Resonance Imaging - A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue - Shows brain anatomy

What causes higher heritability, and what causes lower heritability?

- More similar environments create higher heritability, because if there is higher variation among the group despite the very similar environment, then the heritability is high. (About what percentage of the trait is inherited?) - Similar with lower heritability; more variation in the environment creates lower heritability.

What is Cognitive Revolution?

- Movement in the 1960s that brought the attention back to the mental process.

Who is Rene Descartes?

- Nature - Nativist - Proposed Dualism: The idea that the mind and body are two separate things - French Philosopher

Who is Charles Darwin?

- Nature - Natural Selection & Evolution - British Biologist

Who is Plato?

- Nature - Proposed that some ideas are innate - Greek Philosopher

Who are the Scientists on the Either Side of the Nature vs. Nurture Argument?

- Nature: Plato, Descartes, Darwin - Nurture: Aristotle, Locke

What are sensory (afferent) neurons?

- Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

What are Motor (efferent) neurons

- Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

What are the interneurons

- Neurons within CNS - Communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

What does Glutamate do?

- Neurotransmitter - A major excitatory neurotransmitter - Involved in memory - Oversupply: overstimulate the brain: migraines or seizures - Exist in MSG (Mono-sodium glutamate)!

What does GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) do?

- Neurotransmitter - A major inhibitory neurotransmitter - Undersupply: Seizures, tremors, insomnia

What does Serotonin do?

- Neurotransmitter - Affects Mood, hunger, sleep, arousal - Undersupply: Depression

What does Acetylcholine (ACh) do?

- Neurotransmitter - Enables muscle action, learning, and memory - Alzheimer's disease deteriorate ACh-producing neurons

What does Norepinephrine do?

- Neurotransmitter - Helps control alertness and arousal - Undersupply: Depress mood

What does Dopamine do?

- Neurotransmitter - Influence movement, learning, attention, and emotion - Oversupply: Schizophrenia - Undersupply: Tremors & Loss of Motor Control in Parkinson's s

What are the endorphins?

- Neurotransmitter - Natural, opiate like neurotransmitters - Linked to pain control and to pleasure

Who is Aristotle?

- Nurture - Supported the Empiricist view that all knowledge comes from sensory experiences - Greek Philosopher

Who is John Locke?

- Nurture - Empiricist - Blank Slate - British Empiricist philosopher

What is a Descriptive research? What are the weaknesses?

- Observe and Record Behavior - Case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys - No control of variables; single cases may be misleading

Describe the Following Drug: Amphetamines

- Stimulant - Stimulate neural activity - causes speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Why do we dream?

- To satisfy our own wishes - To file away memories - To develop and preserve neural pathways - To make sense of neural static

What are the Ethics Codes that researchers should follow?

- Obtain potential participants' informed consent before the experiment (giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate) - Protect them from harm and discomfort - Keep information about individual participants confidential - Fully debrief people (explain the research afterward)

What is a brainstem?

- Oldest part and central core of the brain - Begins where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull - Responsible for automatic survival functions - Consists Medulla, Pons, Midbrain, and Reticular Formation

What are the ideas of natural selection?

- Organism's varied offspring compete for survival. - Certain biological and behavioral variations increase organism's reproductive and survival chances in their particular environment. - Offspring that survive are more likely to pass their genes to ensuing generations. - Thus, over time, population characteristics may change.

What is a useful Theory?

- Organizes a range of self-reports and observations - Implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications - Stimulate further research that leads to a revised theory that better organizes and predicts what we know

Who is Franz Gall?

- Phrenology - German Physician

How is temperament affected by genes?

- Physiological differences; anxious, inhibited infants have high and variable heart rates and a reactive nervous system - They become more physiologically aroused - Gene that regulates neurotransmitter serotonin predisposes a fearful temperament and, in combination with unsupportive caregiving, an emotionally reactive child

What does PET stand for, and what does it do?

- Positron Emission Tomography - A VISUAL DISPLAY of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. - Inserts a radioactive form of glucose in the brain to get the signal which area is getting activated when

What are the type of information that gets automatically processed?

- Procedural memory for automatic skills - classically conditioned associations among stimuli - Space - Time - Frequency (of events)

What are hallucinogens? List the names of the drugs that are hallucinogens.

- Psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. - LSD and Marijuana (THC)

What are the Sleep stages?

- REM: Rapid Eye Movement: vivid reams commonly occur. aka Paradoxical sleep: cannot move the body except minor twitches. Drops a lot during infancy - NREM 1 - NREM 2 - NREM 3

What is the motor cortex?

- Rear of frontal lobes - Controls voluntary movements

What is parietal lobes specialized in?

- Receives sensory input for touch and body position - Process the input from the body's senses such as touch and temperature

What are ways to improve memory?

- Rehearse repeatedly - Make the material meaningful - Activate retrieval cues - Use mnemonic devices - Minimize interference - sleep more - Test your own knowledge

Why should we forgive?

- Releases anger and calms the body - Increases blood flow to brain regions that help people understand their own emotions and make socially appropriate decisions

What is Replication?

- Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations - To see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

When is an Observed Difference Reliable?

- Representative samples are better than biased samples - Less variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable - More cases are better than fewer

What are the two Psychology's Subfields?

- Research vs. Applied Psychology

What are two ways where the immune system doe not function correctly?

- Responding *too strongly*: attacking your own body, causing allergic reactions or autoimmune diseases (self-attacking diseases) - *Under-reacting*: allow bacterial and viral infection and cancer cells to basically go crazy. Sometimes done to protect transplanted organs.

Who is Ian Pavlov?

- Russian Physiologist who studied the study of learning

What is frontal lobe specialized in?

- Speaking and muscle movements - Making plants and judgement - Speaking center usually in the left hemisphere

What is Correlation?

- Statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables- that is, the extent to which factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other.

Describe the Following Drug: Cocaine

- Stimulant - A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant - Produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria - Depletes Dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine

Describe the Following Drug: Methamphetamine

- Stimulant - A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes - Over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels - Triggers 10 times the normal level of dopamine -> affects brain's limbic system - The most destructive

Describe the Following drug: Nicotine

- Stimulant - A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco - Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine - increased alertness, increased heart rate and blood pressures, relaxes muscles and triggers the release of neurotransmitters that may reduce stress, suppresses appetite, reduces circulation to extremities - Very addictive

Describe the Following Drug: Caffeine

- Stimulant - Increased alertness and wakefulness - Anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia on high doses

Describe the Following Drug: Ecstasy

- Stimulant - MDMA - Mild hallucinogen at the same time - Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition - Triggers Dopamine release, mainly releases stored serotonin and blocking its reuptake

What are the effects of *mindfulness*? (mindfulness meditation)

- Strengthens connections among regions in our brain - Activates brain regions associated with more reflective awareness (also less activation in regions with fear: amygdala, and more in regions which aids emotion regulation: prefrontal cortex) - Calms brain activation in emotional situations

What are the effects of feeling that they *cannot* control their environment?

- Stress hormone level rise - Blood pressure increases - Immune response drops People thrive when they live in conditions of personal freedom and empowerment, but *too much* is always harmful. (*Tyranny of choice*)

Who is Wilhelm Wundt?

- Structualism - German Physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science - Opened first psychology research Laboratory that looked at people's reaction times

Who is Edward Bradford Titchener?

- Structualism - Popularized the method of introspection - Student of Wundt

What does Industrial/Organizational Psychologists do?

- Study and advise on behavior in the workplace

What does Educational Psychologists do?

- Study learning and teaching, along with children's behavior in a school setting

What is SCN?

- Suprachiasmatic nucleus - A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm - In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, this modifying our feelings of sleepiness - High melatonin: sleepy!

What is the SQ3R method?

- Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review

Who is Jean Piaget?

- Swiss Psychologist who studied cognitive development in child.

What is Overconfidence?

- Tendency to think that we know more than we actually do.

What is Circadian Rhythm?

- The biological clock - Regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

What is the endocrine system?

- The body's "slow" chemical communication system - A set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

What is Tolerance?

- The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

What is a Withdrawl?

- The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

What is the Somatic Nervous System?

- The division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles. - Also called the skeletal nervous system

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

- The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

- The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

What is Culture?

- The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

What is Cognitive Neuroscience?

- The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

What is the Cerebral Cortex?

- The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres - The body's ultimate control and information-processing center

What are delta waves?

- The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

What is the Threshold in action potential?

- The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

What is the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

- The part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as heart) - Sympathetic division arouses; Parasympathetic division calms.

What is Natural Selection?

- The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

What are alpha waves?

- The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

What is the Modern Definition of Psychology?

- The science of behavior and mental processes.

What is the REM Rebound?

- The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

What is the Regression Toward Mean?

- The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average. The illusion that uncontrollable events correlate with our actions.

What does Psychiatrists do?

- They are medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs and treat physical causes of psychological disorders

What are the criticisms on the twin studies?

- They should have had a control group of biologically unrelated pairs of the same age, sex, and ethnicity - The twins were united with one another before tested - identical twins share an appearance, and the responses it evokes - Adoption agencies also tend to place separated twins in similar homes

What is Critical Thinking?

- Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions - Rather, it does the following: * Examines Assumptions * Appraises the source * Discerns hidden values * Evaluates evidence * Assesses conclusions

What is a lesion?

- Tissue Destruction - A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

What is an Experimental Research? What are the weaknesses?

- To explore cause and effect - Manipulate one or more factors; use random assignment - Sometimes not feasible - Results may not generalize to other contexts - Not Ethical to manipulate certain variables

What is a flashbulb memory?

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Match the following terms to the correct explanation. 1. Epigenetics 2. Molecular behavior genetics 3. Behavior genetics a. Study of the relative effects of our genes and our environment on our behavior. b. Study of how the structure and function of specific genes interact with our environment to influence behavior c. Study of environmental factors that affect how our genes are expressed.

1-c, 2-b, 3-a

What are the 3 types of intelligence by Sternberg?

1. *Analytical* (academic problem-solving) intelligence: assessed by intelligence tests 2. *Creative* Intelligence: innovative smarts; ability to generate novel ideas 3. *Practical* intelligence: required for everyday tasks that are not well-defined, and that tmay have many possible solutions.

What two new concepts update the classic Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage information-processing model?

1. *Automatic processing*: forming memories without our awareness. They only focused on conscious memories. 2. *Working memories*: emphasizes the active processing that we know takes place in their model's short-term memory stage.

What are the three ways in which individuals and environment interact?

1. *Different people choose different environments*. The schools we attend, readings we do... We choose our environment and it then shapes us. 2. *Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events*. If we perceive the world as threatening, we will watch for threats and be prepared to defend ourselves. 3. *Our personalities hep create situations to which we react*. How we view and treat people influences how they then treat us.

What are five components of creativity?

1. *Expertise*: well developed knowledge 2. *Imaginative thinking skills*: Provide ability to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns, and to make connections. 3. *A venturesome personality*: seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles. 4. *Intrinsic motivation* driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge that by external pressures. 5. A *creative environment* sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas.

What is developmental psychology?

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

What are 4 categories under emotional intelligence?

1. *Perceiving* emotions (recognition of faces, music, stories, etc) 2. *Understanding* emotions (predicting them and how they may change and blend 3. *Managing* emotions (Knowing how to express them in situations) 4. *Using* emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking

What are two basic functions of working memory?

1. Active processing of incoming visual-spatial and auditory information 2. Focusing our spotlight of attention

What are the two reasons that identical twins might have different characteristics?

1. Although same genes, not the same number of copies of genes. (explains some illnesses and disorders) 2. In 1 in every 3, the twins do not share the same placenta, and often one placenta gets slightly better nutrients than the other one.

What are three parenting types?

1. Authoritarian: coercive parents. they impose rules and expect obedience 2. Permissive: unrestraining. They make few demands and use little punishment. They may be indifferent, unresponsive, or unwilling to set limits 3. Authoritative: confrontive. They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions.

What are four stages of speech?

1. Babbling stage: ~4 month - Infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household empty. 2. One-word language: The stage in speech development, from about age 1~2. speaks mostly single words. 3. Two-word stage: About age 2; starts speaking 2 word statements 4. telegraphic speech: early speech stages in which a child

What are the two types of experiments the behavior geneticists perform?

1. Control heredity while varying the home environment 2. Control the home environment while varying the heredity

What are three reasons why we forget?

1. Encoding failure 2. Storage Decay 3. Retrieval Failure

What are three criticisms on the survey done between male and female about the sexual relationship? How do the evolutionary psychologists respond?

1. Evolutionary psychologists start with an effect, and work backward to explain what happened. 2. Unethical and immoral men could use such explanations to rationalize their behavior toward women. 3. This explanation may overlook the effects of cultural expectations and socialization. Response: understanding our predispositions can help us to overcome them. They recognize the importance of social and cultural influences, but they also cite the value of testable predictions based on evolutionary principles.

What are 8 stages of psychosocial development proposed by Erikson?

1. Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust (1 year) 2. Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (1~3 years) 3. Preschool: Initiative vs. Guit (3~6 years) 4. Elementary school : Competence vs. Inferiority (6~puberty) 5. Adolescence: Identity vs. Role confusion (teen years ~ 20s) 6. Young adulthood: intimacy vs. isolation (20s~40s) 7. Middle adulthood: Generativity vs. stagnation (40s~60s) 8. Late adulthood: integrity vs. despair (late 60s~up)

Describe the action potential in an axon.

1. Initial: Interior of the Axon is Negative 2. Depolarization: The sodium channels open up: sodium ions (Positive charge) flows into the axon making the axon positive 3. The potassium channels open up: potassium ions (negatively charged) flows out of the axon making the axon negative again 4. Sodium-Potassium pump (requires ATP) opens up & brings the axon's ratios back to initial

What are the four perspectives in viewing motivated behaviors?

1. Instinct theory (now replaced by the evolutionary perspective): genetically predisposed behaviors 2. Drive-reduction theory: how we respond to our inner pushes 3. Arousal theory on finding the right level of stimulation 4. Hierarchy of needs on the priority of some needs over others.

What are the four possible explanations why more intelligent people might live longer?

1. Intelligence facilitates more education, better jobs, and healthier environment. 2. Intelligence encourages healthy living: less smoking, better diet, more exercise. 3. Prenatal events or early childhood illnesses might have influenced both intelligence and health. 4. A "Well wired body" as evidenced by fast reaction speeds, perhaps foster both intelligence and longevity.

What are intuition's powers?

1. Intuition is analysis "frozen into habit". 2. Intuition is adaptive, enabling quick reactions. 3. Intuition is huge.

What are the two points that both Gardner and Sternberg agree to?

1. Multiple abilities can contribute to life success 2. Differing varieties of giftedness and spice to life and challenges for education.

What are the three issues that developmental psychologists focus on?

1. Nature and nurture: How does our genetic inheritance interact with our experiences to influence our development? 2. Continuity and stages: What parts of development are gradual and continuous, like riding an escalator? What parts change abruptly in separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder? 3. Stability and change: Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?

1. Does stress cause AIDS? 2. Could it speed the development of AIDS? 3. Would efforts to reduce stress help control the disease?

1. No: you need to be infected with HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) 2. Yes: more stress, faster development of AIDS after infection 3. Yes, but smaller than being treated with drug

What are the Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

1. Physiological needs 2. Safety needs 3. Belongingness and lve needs 4. Esteem meet 5. Self-actualization needs 6. Self-transcendence needs

What are the three levels of moral thinking proposed by Kohlberg?

1. Preconventional morality (before age 9): self interest, obey rules to avoid punishment, etc. 2. Conventional morality (early adolescence) Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order. 3. Postconventional morality (Adolescence and beyond): Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

What are four major drawbacks of physical punishment?

1. Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. The temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents' punishing behavior. 2. Punishment teaches discrimination among situations. 3. Punishment can teach fear. 4. Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems.

What are 11 suggestions for improving mood and increasing satisfaction with life?

1. Realize that enduring happiness may not come from financial success. 2. Take control of your time. 3. Act happy. 4. Seek work and leisure that engage your skills. 5. Buy shared experiences rather than things. 6. Joint he "movement" movement (such as aerobic exercise) 7. Give your body the sleep it wants. 8. Give priority to close relationships. 9. Focus beyond self (reach out to people in need) 10. Count your blessings and record your gratitude 11. Nurture your spiritual self.

What are three steps basic to all our sensory systems?

1. Receive: sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells. 2. Transform: that stimulation into neural impulses. 3. Deliver: the neural information to our brain.

How do we get away from spotlight effect?

1. Simply knowing about the spotlight effect 2. Take the audience's perspective.

Why do we sleep?

1. Sleep protects 2. Sleep helps us recuperate 3. Sleep helps restore and rebuild our fading memories of the day's experiences 4. Sleep feeds creative thinking 5. Sleep supports growth

What is Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin's three-stage model of memory forming process?

1. We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting *sensory memory.* 2. From there, we process information into *short-term memory,* where we encode it through rehearsal. 3. Finally, information moves into *long-term memory* for later retrieval.

What are the two reasons on infantile amnesia?

1. We index much of our explicit memory using words that nonspeaking children have not learned. 2. The hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature, and as it matures, more information gets retained.

What are the things we fear?

1. What our ancestral history has prepared us to fear. 2. What we cannot control 3. Immediate 4. what is most readily available in memory.

What situations have researchers found to be most likely to encourage obedience in participants?

1. When the experimenter was *nearby* 2. and was a *legitimate authority figure* 3. the victim was *not* nearby 4. there were *no models for defiance*

Why is Ivan Pavlov's work remain so important?

1. finding that many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms 2. Pavlov showed us how a process such as learning can be studied objectively.

What are the two criterion to be diagnosed with intellectual disability?

1. low IQ test score: below 70 2. have difficulties to adapt to the normal demands of independent living, such as: - conceptual skills (language, literacy, etc) - Social skills (interpersonal skills, etc) - Practical skills (daily personal care, occupational skills)

What are ways to maintain balance between the real world and online time.

1. monitor your time. 2. Monitor your feelings. 3. "Hide" your more distracting online friends. 4. Try turning off your mobile devices or leaving them elsewhere. 5. Try a social networking fast or a time controlled social media diet. 6. Refocus by taking a nature walk.

What are two ways that memory improving drugs function?

1. using glutamate, LTP enhancing neurotransmitter 2. Boost production of CREB which then also enhances the LTP

How many morphemes are in the word *cats*? How many phonemes?

2 Morphemes (Cat + s) 4 Phonemes

What are genes?

20,000~25,000 genes in human; the biochemical units of heredity that makes up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.

About what percentage of babies in America walk by 11 month of age? within a week after their first birthday? by age 15 months?

25%; 50%; 90%

About how many sperms go for one egg?

250 million

What is Savant syndrome?

A condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an *exceptional specific skill, *such as in computation or drawing. about 4 in 5 people with this condition are males.

What is intellectual disability?

A condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score or 70 or below and difficulty adapting to the demands of life.

What is Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?

A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

What is "recognition"?

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

What is "relearning"?

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

What are prototypes?

A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

What is iconic memory?

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenth of a second.

What is working memory?

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

What are differences between perceptual set and mental set?

A perceptual set predisposes what we *perceive*, a mental set predisposes how we *think*.

What is temperament?

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. Genetically influenced! difficult vs. easy baby

What is an incentive?

A positive or negative environment mental stimulus that motivates behavior

What is reconsolidation?

A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially *altered* before being stored again.

What is mutation?

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

What is *self-serving bias*?

A readiness to perceive oneself *favorably*. ->People accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, and for successes than for failures.

What is stereotype threat?

A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

What is heuristics?

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedien

What is longitudinal study?

A study that collects data from the same people (*cohort*) at more than one point in time.

What is *Health psychology*?

A subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine (integrating behavioral and medical knowledge).

What is mental set?

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

What is the difference between a test that is biased culturally and a test that is biased in terms of its validity?

A test may be culturally biased if higher scores are achieved by those with certain cultural appearances. That same test may not be biased in terms of validity if it predicts what it is supposed to predict. For example, SAT may be culturally biased in favor of those with experiences in the u.s. school system, but it does still accurately predict U.S. College students

What is signal detection theory?

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

What is a critical period for mastering certain aspects of language?

A time period where when you try to language, you never can master the language 100%. It is something around the age of 2~3.

What is Operant learning?

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

What is classical conditioning?

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Which of the following strengthens conformity to a group? A. Finding the group attractive B. Feeling secure C. Coming from an individualist culture D. Having made a prior commitment

A. Finding the group attractive

If we encounter a person who appears to be high on drugs, and we make the fundamental attribution error, we will probably attribute the person's behavior to A. moral weakness or an addictive personality B. peer pressure C. the easy availability of drugs on city streets D. society's acceptance of drug use

A. moral weakness or an addictive personality

In Milgram's experiments, the rate of compliance was highest when A. the "learner" was at a distance from the "teacher". B. the "learner" was close at hand. C. other "teachers" refused to go along with the experimenter. D. the "teacher" disliked the "learner"

A. the "learner" was at a distance from the "teacher".

The social-cognitive perspective proposes our personality is shaped by a process called reciprocal determinism, as personal factors, environmental factors, and behaviors interact. An example of an environmental factor is A. the presence of books in a home B. a preference for outdoor play C. the ability to read at a fourth-grade level 0 the fear of violent action on television.

A. the presence of books in a home

About when can babies recognize differences in speech sounds?

About 4 months

Using sound as an example, explain how absolute, subliminal, and difference threshold differ.

Absolute: minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular sound. Sublimal: happens when, without our awareness, our sensory system processes the sound of the approaching bike when it is below the absolute threshold. Difference: minimum difference needed to distinguish between two sounds.

What is basic trust?

According to Erik Erikson, A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

The first step of classical conditioning, when an NR becomes a CS, it's called ________________________. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called ________________________.

Acquisition, extinction

What is accommodation?

Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

What is *conformity*?

Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. - Suggestibility and mimicry are subtle types of this

What is the selection effect, and how might it affect a teen's decision to drink alcohol?

Adolescents tend to select out similar others and sort themselves into like-minded groups. This could lead a teen who wants to experiment with drinking alcohol to seek out others who already drink alcohol.

Which of the following reduce depression more? - Relaxation treatment - Aerobic exercise

Aerobic exercise

Where do our brain storage the memories?

All across the brain; it does not storage the information at one specific location, even about one event.

After moving to a new apartment, you find the street noise irritatingly loud, but after a while, it no longer bothers you. This reaction illustrates the A. relative deprivation principle B. adaptation-level phenomenon C. feel-good, do-good phenomenon D. catharsis principle

B. Adaptation-level phenomenon

Who developed experiments about operational conditioning?

B. F. Skinner

Which of the following is an effective strategy for reducing angry feelings? A. Retaliate verbally or physically. B. Wait or "simmer down". C. Express anger in action or fantasy. D. Review the grievance silently.

B. Wait or "simmer down"

Seligman's research showed that a dog will respond with learned helplessness if it has received repeated shocks and has had A. the opportunity to escape B. no control over the shocks. C. pain or discomfort D. no food of water prior to the shocks

B. no control over the shocks.

Which part of the brain facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills?

Basal ganglia: involved in implicit memories created by classical conditioning

Does electronic communication stimulate healthy self-disclosure?

Because of the electronic communication, we are less self-conscious and less inhibited to self-disclosure.

How do behavior geneticists differ from Evolutionary psychologists?

Behavior geneticists explore the genetic and environmental roots of human differences. Evolutionary psychologists instead focus mostly on what makes us so much alike as humans.

How do behavior geneticists explain our individual differences?

Behavior geneticists study the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

What kind of behaviors do the nature selects for?

Behaviors that increase the likelihood of sending one's genes into the future

What is subliminal?

Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

What is maturation?

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

What is bottom-up processing and top-down processing?

Bottom-up processing: analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. Tom-down processing: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Which of the following is NOT one of the three main types of stressors? A. Catastrophes B. Significant life changes C. Threatening events that we hear about. D. Daily Hassles

C. Threatening events that we hear about

What is androgyny?

Displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics: A blend of both feels right to them

Research on the faith factor has found that A. pessimists tend to be healthier than optimists B. our expectations influence our feelings of stress. C. religiously active people tend to outlive those who are not religiously active. D. religiously engagement promotes isolation, repression, and ill health.

C. religiously active people tend to outlive those who are not religiously active.

Research has shown that people are at increased risk for cancer a year or so after experiencing depression, helplessness, or bereavement. In describing this link, researchers are quick to point out that A. accumulated stress causes cancer. B. anger is the negative emotion most closely linked to cancer. C. stress does not create cancer cells, but it weakens the body's natural defense against them. D. feeling optimistic about chances of survival ensures that a cancer patient will get well.

C. stress does not create cancer cells, but it weakens the body's natural defense against them.

What is *self* in contemporary psychology?

Center of the personality: the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

Which part of the brain plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by *classical conditioning?*

Cerebellum

How is brain involved in fight or flight response (stress times)?

Cerebral cortex orders via the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, and the outer part of the adrenal glands secrete glucocorticoid stress hormones such as cortisol.

What is the brain's plasticity?

Changing and reorganizing brain neural pathway depend on the new experiences.

What was the premise of researcher Noam Chomsky's work in language development?

Chomsky maintained that all languages share a universal grammar, and humans are biological predisposed to learn the grammar rules or language.

When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite, each contributes

Chromosomes

What is belief perseverance?

Clinging to one's *initial conceptions* after the basis on which they were formed has been *discredited*.

What are fraternal twins?

Dizygotic twins: develop from a two separate fertilized eggs. They share the same prenatal environment, but genetically, they are no more similar than ordinary brothers and sisters.

Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience are supporting ________________________; those who emphasize biological maturation are supporting ________________________.

Continuity, Stages

What is Broca's area?

Controls *language expression*; an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in *speech*.

What is Wernicke's area?

Controls *language reception*; a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

What is transduction?

Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

What is a social script?

Culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

One of the most consistent findings of psychological research is that happy people are also A. more likely to express anger. B. generally luckier than others. C. concentrated in the wealthier nations. D. more likely to help others.

D. More likely to help others

Your friend has experienced brain damage in an accident. He can remember how to tie his shoes, but has a hard time remembering anything told to him during a conversation. What's going on here?

Damage is mostly likely to have happened in *hippocampus* or *frontal lobe*, as the friend is having problem with explicit memories.

What is habituation?

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

What is difference between *defensive* self-esteem and *Secure* self-esteem?

Defensive self-esteem - Fragile - focuses on sustaining self: makes failure and criticism feel threatening Secure self-esteem - Less fragile - Feel accepted for who we are

*(Secure/Defensive)* self-esteem correlates with aggressive and antisocial behavior. *(Secure/Defensive)* self-esteem is a healthier self-image that allows us to focus beyond ourselves and enjoy a higher quality of life.

Defensive, Secure

Describe the flow of the neural impulse through a neuron.

Dendrites -> Cell Body -> Axon (Myelin Sheath) -> Axon Terminal

What is DNA?

Deoxyribonucleic acid: a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

What are strengths about Spearman's general intelligence?

Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate.

When faced with a situation over which you feel you have no sense of control, it is most effective to use *(emotion/problem)-focused solving.

Emotion

What is an information-processing model?

Encoding -> storage -> retrieval

What is effortful processing?

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. They produce explicit memory.

What is testing effect?

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also, sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

What is the availability heuristic?

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. It can distort our judgement of other people.

What is environment?

Every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

How do evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain behavior tendencies?

Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand how our traits and behavior tendencies are shaped by natural selection, as genetic variations increasing the odds of reproducing and surviving in their particular environment are most likely to be passed on to future generations.

How do evolutionary psychologists explain sex differences in sexuality?

Evolutionary psychologists theorize that females have inherited their ancestors' tendencies to be more cautious, sexually, because of the challenges associated with incubating and nurturing offspring. Males have inherited an inclination to be more casual about sex, because their act of fathering requires a smaller investment.

What is divergent thinking?

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions. Creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

(T/F) Self control stays relatively stable in one person.

False. Self-control changes from day to day, ,hour to hour, and even minute to minute. Self control weakens after use, recovers after reset, and grow stronger with exercise.

(T/F) In Twin studies, they determined that the time of separation affect the personality difference, as of earlier they separate, more personality difference emerge.

False. Separation shortly after birth versus later such as age 8 does not amplify the personality difference.

*(T/F)* Stress causes diseases.

False. Stress itself does not make us sick, but it alter our immune functioning which leaves us less able to resist infection.

(T/F) Fixed interval produces steady responding to the stimulus compared to the variable intervals.

False. Variable stimulus produces more steady responses

(T/F) Short-term memory capacity reflect intelligence level of that person.

False. Working memory might be, but not short-term memory.

(T/F) A person can master a language at any time.

False; people who learned a language after adolescence don't learn the language completely.

What are *attitudes*?

Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. ->If we *believe* someone is threatening us, we may *feel* fear and anger toward the person and *act* defensively.

What is FAS?

Fetal alcohol syndrome: Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.

How many zygotes survive after first 2 weeks?

Fewer than half

Fear is to flight as Anger is to _____________________.

Fight

A philosopher observed that we cannot escape envy, because there will always be someone more successful, more accomplished, or richer with whom to compare ourselves. In psychology, this observation is embodied in the ______________________ ______________________ principle.

Fill this in

Selye's general adaptation syndrome (GAS) consists of an alarm reaction followed by ______________________, then ______________________.

Fill this in

The number of short-term illnesses and stress-related psychological disorders was higher than usual in the months following an earthquake. Such findings suggest that A. daily hassles have adverse health consequences. B. experiencing a very stressful event increases a person's vulnerability to illness. C. the amount of stress a person feels is directly related to the number of stressors experienced. D. small, bad events don't cause stress, but large ones can be toxic.

Fill this in

When faced with stress, women are more likely than man to experience the ______________________ -and- ______________________ response.

Fill this in

When people are induced to assume fearful expressions, they often report feeling a little fear. This result is known as the ______________________ ______________________ effect.

Fill this in

______________________ psychology is a scientific field of study focused on how humans thrive and flourish.

Fill this in

Why is there difference between men and women in terms of responding to stress?

First of all, the difference is: - Men are more often than women to withdraw socially, turn to alcohol, or become aggressive whereas women respond by nurturing and bonding It is because of *Oxytocin*: a stress-moderating hormone released by cuddling, massage, and breast feeding

What is Social-Cultural Psychology' Focus on Psychology?

How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

What is a pruning process in brain?

Frequently used neural pathways broaden, and unused neural pathways weaken. By puberty, this process results in a massive loss of unemployed connections.

Where is the most rapid growth in your brain from age 3 to 6? why?

Frontal lobe; it enables rational planning.

Driving to school one snowy day, Marco narrowly misses a car that slides through a red light. "Slow down! What a terrible driver," he thinks to himself. Moments later, Marco himself slips through an intersection and yelps, "Wow! These roads are awful. The city plows need to get out here." What social psychology principle has Marco just demonstrated? Explain.

Fundamental attribution error. He attributed the other person's behavior to the *person* ("he is a terrible driver") and his own to the *situation* ("these roads are awful").

What is difference between gender role and gender identity?

Gender role: describes how others expect us to think feel, and act. Gender identity: our personal sense of being male, female, or a combination of two

What are gender roles, and what do their variations tell us about our human capacity for learning and adaptation?

Gender roles are socil rules or norms for accepted and expected behavior for females and males. The norms associated with various roles, including gender roles, vary widely in different cultural contexts, which is proof that we are very capable of learning and adapting to the social demands of different environments.

Put the following cell structures in order from smallest to largest: Nucleus, Gene, Chromosome

Gene < Chromosome < Nucleus

What is generalization, and what is discrimination?

Generalization: responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar response Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and stimlus that do not signal an US

Those studying the heritability of a trait try to determine how much of the person-to-person variation in that trait among members of a specific group is due to their differing ________________________.

Genes

When a person is adopted, which family does he/she resemble more in terms of personality? Genetic relatives / environmental relatives

Genetic environments! The environment shared by a family's children has virtually no discernible impact on their personalities.

What are some benefits and risks of prenatal genetic testing?

Genetic tests can now reveal at-risk populations for dozens of diseases, and the search is on to discover the markers of genetically influenced disorders. However, it has some ethical dilemmas, such as looking for the children's specific sex. Also, sometimes; the troubled people are the most talented people.

What is individualism?

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identification. US is the most individualist culture.

What is Collectivism?

Giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's family or work group) and defining one's identity accurately - It provides a sense of belonging, a set of values, and an assurance of security in colectivist cultures.

Which neurotransmitter enhances LTP? What about Protein?

Glutamate (Neurotransmitter), CREB (Protein)

When like-minded groups discuss a topic, and the result is the strengthening of the prevailing opinion, this is called ______________________ ______________________.

Group Polarization

When a group's desire for harmony overrides its realistic analysis of other options, ______________________ has occurred.

Groupthink

How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned?

H

Why are habits, such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee, so hard to break?

Habits form when we repeat behaviors in a given contexts, and, as a result, learn associations-- often without our awareness. For example, we may have eaten a sweet pastry with a cup of coffee often enough to associate the flavor of the coffee with the treat, so that the cup of coffee alone just doesn't seem right anymore!

Developmental psychologists use REPEATED stimulation to test an infant's ________________________ to a stimulus.

Habituation

Who is George Miller, and what did he propose?

He proposed that we can store about seven bits of information (give or take two) in short-term memory

What is Sigmund Freud's opinion on the forgetting?

He proposed that we repress painful or unacceptable memories to protect our self-concept and to minimize anxiety. However, he still believed that those memories can be retrieved.

What did psychologist Wolfgang Kohler show?

He showed that we are not the only creatures to display insight; other animals do too, such as chimpanzee or birds.

What is heritability, and how does it relate to individuals and groups?

Heritability describes the extent to which variation among members of a group can be attributed to genes. Heritable individual differences need not imply heritable group differences. Genes mostly explain why some people are taller than others, but not why people are taller today than they were a century ago.

Would the heritability of aggressiveness be greater in Belyaev and Trut's foxes, or in a wild population of foxes?

Heritability of aggressiveness would be greater in the wild population, with its greater genetic variation in aggressiveness.

Which mental shortcuts allow us to act quickly (make quick judgements)?

Heuristic

What is the aim of drive-reduction?

Homeostasis

Why do psychologists NOT diagnose an intellectual disability based solely on the person's intelligence test score?

IQ score is only one measure of a person's ability to function. Other important factors to consider in an overall assessment include conceptual skills, social skills, and practical skills.

Between the Identical twins and fraternal twins, ________________________ are more genetically similar, and ________________________ are more behaviorally similar

Identical twins, Identical twins

What is Aphasia?

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area.

What is special about Philip Zimbardo's experiment?

Importance of roll-playing People were assigned as a guard versus a prisoner; "When ordinary people are put in a novel, evil place such as most prisons, *situations win, people lose*"

What is *social facilitation*?

Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. - First explained by *Norman Triplett* Not really true now; presence of others strengthenes our most likely outcome, whether that is a failure or a success

What is preoperational stage?

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Develops: - Pretend play - Egocentrism

What is sensorimotor stage?

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. Develops: - Object permanence - Stranger anxiety

What is concrete operational stage?

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. Develops: - Conservation - Mathematical transformations

What is Formal Operational stage?

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts)

What is neural stimulus?

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

What is acquisition?

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

In prosperous country X, everyone eats all they want. In country Y, the rich are well fed, but the semistarved poor are often thin. In which country will the heritability of body weight be greater?

In country X; Where environmental differences in available nutrition are minimal.

What is egocentrism?

In piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

What is grit?

In psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

If environment becomes more equal, the heritability of intelligence would:

Increase

How do Individualist and collectivist cultures differ?

Individualists give priority to personal goals over group goals and tend to define their identity in terms of their own personal attributes. Collectivists give priority to group goals over individual goals and tend to define their identity in terms of group identifications.

What is the difference between receptive and productive language, and when do children normally hit these milestones in language development.

Infants normally start developing receptive language skills around 4 months of age. Then, starting with babbling at 4 months and beyond, infants normally start building productive language skills.

What are strengths about Gardner's multiple intelligence?

Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability.

Which testing requires which thinking?

Intelligence tests: intended to assess aptitude and typically demand a single correct answer: -> Require *Convergent* Thinking Creativity tests: require *Divergent* thinking

What is assimilation?

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Does social networking promote narcissism?

It does not necessarily make people narcissism, but it promotes them, as they have an easier platform now.

Why is it sometimes better to be concerned about future exams?

It helps to be prepared for the exam: *Excessive optimism can blind us to real risks*.

Does perceptual set involve bottom-up or top-down processing? Why?

It involves top-down processing. Our perceptual set influences our interpretation of stimuli based on our experiences, assumptions, and expectations.

What is *social cognitive perspective*?

It views behavior as influenced by the interaction between *people's traits* (including their thinking) and their *social context*. -> by *Albert Bandura* -> believe that we learn many of our behaviors either through conditioning or by observing and imitating others. -> What we think about a situation affects our resulting behavior -> Focus on how we and our environment *interact*. "Nature is to nurture as individuals are to their situations"

Imagine being a jury member in a trial for a parent accused of sexual abuse based on a recovered memory. What insights from memory research should you offer the jury>

It will be important to remember the key points agreed upon by most researchers & professional associations; Sexual abuse, injustice, forgetting, and memory construction all happen; recovered memories are common, memories from being at age 3 are unreliable; memories claimed to be recovered through hypnosis or drug influence are especially unreliable, and memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting.

Who conducted the research on the classical conditioning? which view of psychology doeso classical conditioning follow?

Ivan Pavlov, Behaviorism

Which part of the brain develops faster, and what is the consequence of that? Frontal lobe vs. Limbic system

Limbic system, therefore you follow more the emotional side rather than the reasoning side.

The neural basis for learning and memory, found at the synapses in the brain's memory-circuit connections, results from brief, rapid stimulation. It is called ________________________-________________________ ________________________.

Long-term Potential

Who are more likely to initiate sexual activity? Man vs. Woman

Man

The biological growth process, called ________________________, explains why most children begin walking by about 12 to 15 months.

Maturation

What is Mnemonics?

Memory aids, especially those *techniques* that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. For example, /One is a bun,/ /Two is a shoe,/ /Three is a tree, etc.../

What is explicit memory?

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare". They are produced by effortful processing.

Who is Hermann Ebbinghaus, and what did he discover?

Memory researcher; showed that we learn things faster and faster if we re-learn it. Tests of recognition and of time spent relearning demonstrate that we remember more than we can recall.

What is the puberty's landmark for girls?

Menarche: First menstrual period (age around 12 1/2)

What is mental practicing, and how can it help you to prepare for an upcoming event?

Mental practice uses visual imagery to mentally rehearse future behaviors, activating some of the same brain areas used during the actual behaviors. Visualizing the details of the process is more effective than visualizing only your end goal.

Attitudes are especially likely to affect our behavior when external influences are *(minimal/maximal)*, and when the attitude is stable, specific to the behavior, and easily recalled.

Minimal

What are identical twins?

Monozygotic twins: develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. also share same conception and uterus.

*(More/less)* people think they would do better if they rule the world now than before.

More

What is *Type A personality*?

More reactive, competitive, hard-driving, impatient, time conscious, supermotivated, verbally aggressive, and easily angered people. People with Type A personality are more prone to have coronary heart diseases. This concept is established by *Friedman and Rosenman*

Depressed people tend to smoke *(more/less)* and exercise *(more/less)*

More, less. Both heart disease and depression may result when chronic stress triggers persistent inflammation

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff to your blinking eye. After several repetitions, you blink tot he tone alone. What is NS, US, UR, CS, CR?

NS: The tone before conditioning US: air puff UR: Blinking to air puff CS: The tone after conditioning CR: Blinking to the tone

What is convergent thinking?

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best answer

What are the 8 types of intelligence by Gardner?

Naturalist, Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal

About what percent of the genetic differences among humans arise from population group differences?

No more than 5%; However, 95% genetic variation exist within population, which means that the typical genetic variation between to people in one village is greater than across race.

What is universal grammar?

Noah Chomsky argued for universal grammar: that all language have nouns, verbs, etc. in these orders, and also ready to learn stuff.

What is the secondary sex characteristics? What are some examples?

Non-reproductive sexual traits Female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

What does *Attitude follow behavior* mean?

Not only people stand up for what they believe, they also will more strongly believe in *what they have stood up for*

(T/F) Toilet training can be very efficient, every in very young age.

Not really... Until the necessary muscular and neural maturation, neither pleading nor punishment will produce successful toilet training.

What is significant about Stanley Milgram's experiment?

Obedience Study Obedience was highest when: - The person giving the orders was close at hand and was perceived to be a legitimate authority figure. - The authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution - The victim was depersonalized or at a distance, even in another room. - There were no role models for defiance -> *Strong social influences can make people conform to falsehoods or capitulate to cruelty*

Which generation gives lower intelligence test score during cross-sectional study?

Older generation

When does the number of nerve cells peak in life?

On the day you are born. the developing brain forms nerve cells at the explosive rate. If you count the time in the womb; then 28 weeks in womb (before you are born). The network grows after you are born, but not the number of the nerve cells.

How is molecular genetics research changing our understanding of the effects of nature and nurture?

One of the goal for them is to find some of the many genes that together orchestrate complex traits such as body weight, impulsivity, etc). Environments can trigger or block genetic expression. The field of epigenetics studies the influences on genetic expression that occur without changes in DNA.

What is *Type B personality*?

Opposite of Type A; more easygoing, relaxed people. Not one of the pure type Bs: the most mellow and laid back of their group: had suffered a heart attack

What is Hierarchies?

Organizing information in a hierarchies composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts.

What is chunking?

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. For example, memorizing alphabets are easier for English speakers, where as memorizing Chinese characters are easier for Chinese speakers.

What is fluid intelligence?

Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to *decrease* during late adulthood

What is crystallized intelligence?

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to *increase* with age

How do our attitudes and our actions affect each other?

Our attitudes often influence our actions as we behave in ways *consistent* with our beliefs. However, our attitudes also follow our actions: we come to *believe in what we have done*.

What is language?

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

What is the *adaptation-level phenomenon*?

Our tendency to form judgements (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. Therefore, we cannot form permanent social paradise, and feeling of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, success and failure are judgements we make based partly on our prior experience.

What is *chameleon effect*?

Our tendency to unconsciously mimic those around us -> proposed by Chartrand and Bargh - Automatic mimicry: helps us to *empathize*

How are Belyaev and Trut's breeding practices similar to, and how to they differ from, the way natural selection normally occurs?

Over multiple generations, Belyaev and Trut selected and bred foxes that exhibited a trait they desired: tameness. This process is similar to naturally occurring selection, but it differs in that natural selection normally favors traits (including those arising from mutations) that contribute to reproduction and survival.

How similar are humans and chimpanzees (in terms of genome)?

Overall: 96%; at functionally important DNA sites: 99.4%

What is the *spotlight effect*?

Overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us) -> by *Thomas Gilovich*

What characteristics are parents more important for, and what characteristics are peers more important for?

Parents: - Education, discipline, responsibility, orderliness, charitableness, and ways of interacting with authority figures Peers: - Learning cooperation, finding the road to popularity, inventing styles of interaction among people of same age

Why does misinformation and imagination effects occur?

Partially because visualizing something and actually perceiving it activate similar brain areas. Imagined events also later seem more familiar, and familiar things seem more real. More vividly we can imagine things, the more likely they are to become memories.

What are the positive and negative effects of high self-esteem?

People who feel confident in their abilities are happier, have greater motivation, and are less susceptible to depression. Excessive optimism and very high self-esteem can lead to blindness to one's own incompetence, self-serving bias, and narcissism.

People with *(Internal/External)* locus of control achieve more in school and work, acted more independently, enjoyed better health, and felt less depressed.

People with *Internal* locus of control

How does the existence of savant syndrome support Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?

People with savant syndrome have limited mental ability overall but possess one or more exceptional skills, which, according to Howard Gardner, suggests that our abilities come in separate packages rather than being fully expressed by one general intelligence that encompasses all of our talents.

What is theory of mind?

People's ideas about their own and others' mental stages- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behaviors these might predict. Babies develop this at around the age of 3~4 1/2

What is *Feel-good, do-good phenomenon*?

People's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood. *Reverse* is true too.

What is difference between *Personality psychologists* versus *Social psychologists*?

Personality psychologists: focus on the person - try to explain why *different people may act differently in a given situation*. Social psychologists: focus on the situation - study social influences that explain why the *same person will act differently in different situations*.

What is the difference between Pessimist and Optimist? What are the consequences of being one?

Pessimist expect things to go badly ,when optimists expect things to go better. Optimists are expected to have more control, to cope better with stressful events, and to enjoy better health. They also tend to get better grades!

What is different about Piaget's theory and Lev Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development?

Piaget emphasized how the child's mind grows through interactions with the physical environment, Viygotsky emphasized how the child's mind grows through interactions with the social environment

What was J. Hunt's findings in Iranian orphanage?

Poor environmental conditions can depress cognitive development.

According to Kohlberg, ______________ morality focuses on self-interest, ______________ morality focuses on self-defined ethical principles, and ______________ morality focuses on upholding laws and social rules.

Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional

In which stage in Piaget's theory do children have trouble with the concept of conservation?

Preoperational stage (and of course the stage before it too)

What is *Pro*active interference? What is *Retro*active interference?

Proactive interference is the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of the new information. For example, if you buy a new combination lock, your well-rehersed old combination may interfere with your retrieval of the new one. Retroactive interference is the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. For example, if someone sings new lyrics to the tune of an old song, you may have trouble remembering the original words.

What did Mark Rosenzweig, David Krech, and their colleges discover by putting rats in two different environments?

Rats living in the enriched environments, which stimulated a natural environment, usually developed heavier and thicker brain cortex. Like, the weight of the brain differs too.

What are three measures of retention?

Recall, recognition, relearning

If you want to be sure to remember what you're learning for an upcoming test, would it be better to use recall or recognition to check your memory? why?

Recall. Recalling information is harder than Recognizing information, therefore it really insures that you remember such thing.

Multiple-choice questions test our ________________________. Fill-in-the-blank questions test our ________________________.

Recognition, Recall

How is reinforcement different than punishment?

Reinforcement increases a behavior; punishment decreases the frequency of behavior.

Genetics research reveals that under the skin, the races are __________________________.

Remarkably alike.

What is cross-sectional study?

Researchers at one point in time test and compare people of different ages.

How do researchers use twin and adoption studies to learn about psychological principles?

Researchers use twin and adoption studies to understand how much variation among individuals is due to genetic makeup and how much to environment factors. Some studies compare the traits and behaviors of identical twins (same genes) and fraternal twins (different genes, as in any two siblings). They also compare adopted children with their adoptive and biological parents. Some studies compare traits and behaviors of twins raised together or separately.

What is implicit memory?

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. They are produced by automatic processing.

Who is Dmitry Belyaev, and what did he do?

Russian scientists; tried to pet the foxes - Realized it is possible! - It manipulates genetic selection

How do you shape through operant conditioning in school? sport? work? home?

School: immediate response after answering a question Sports: first reinforcing small successes and then gradually increasing the challenge. Work: Using reward At home: parenting

The tendency to accept responsibility for success and blame circumstances or bad luck for failures is called ______________________- ______________________ ______________________.

Self-serving bias

What is the *general adaptation syndrome*?

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases. Phase 1: *Alarm reaction*. - Heart rate zooms - Blood diverted to skeletal muscles - Feel the faintness or shock - Ready to fight back Phase 2: *Resistance* - Temperature, blood pressure, respiration remains high - *Adrenal gland* pumps hormones into the bloodstream - If the stress is not relieved: body's reserves begin diminish Phase 3: *Exhaustion* - More vulnerable to illness, collapse, and even death

What is the rough distinction between sensation and perception?

Sensation is the bottom-up process by which our sensory receptors and our nervous system receive and represent stimuli. Perception is the top-down process in which our brain creates meaning by organizing and interpreting what our senses detect.

At which of Atkinson-Shiffrin's 3 memory stages would iconic and echoic memory occur?

Sensory Memory

Why is it that after wearing shoes for a while, you cease to notice them (until questions like this draw your attention back to them)?

Sensory adaptation; The shoes provide constant stimulation, and sensory adaptation help us to only focus on changing stimulations

What is difference between sex and gender?

Sex: The biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females. Gender: The socially influenced characteristics by which people define men and women. Our gender is the product of the interplay among our biological dispositions, our developmental experiences, and our current situations.

What is Phonemes?

Smallest distinctive sound units in a language. English uses about 40.

What is Morphemes?

Smallest language unit that carry meaning such as prefix.

People tend to exert less effort when working with a group than they would alone, which is called ______________________ ______________________.

Social Loafing

Albert Bandura proposed the ______________________- ______________________ perspective on personality, which emphasizes the interaction of people with their environment. To describe the interacting influences of behavior, thoughts, and environment, he used the term ______________________ ______________________.

Social-cognitive, Reciprocal determination

In which area are males usually better than females?

Spatial ability tests; harder problems

What is the puberty's landmark for boys?

Spermarche: First ejaculation (age around 14)

The tendency to overestimate others' attention to and evaluation of our appearance, performance, and blunders is called the ______________________ ______________________.

Spotlight Effect

What is *aerobic exercise*?

Sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness. It may also alleviate depression and anxiety. It helps with quantity of life (about 2 years) and quality of life (more energy and better mood, reduce stress, depression, and anxiety)

What is grammar?

System of rules that enables us to communicate with one another. In a given language, semantics is a set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

What is *group polarization*?

The *enhancement* of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group -> This is the reason why Internet can be very, very bad but also very, very good as it connects and magnifies the inclinations of like-minded people very easily.

What is *deindividuation*?

The *loss of self-awareness and self-restraint* occurring in group situations that foster *arousal* and *anonymity*

What is stress?

The *process* by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called *stressors*, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

What is *self control*?

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards. They predicts good health, higher income, and better grades.

What is Creativity?

The ability to produce *new* and *valuable* ideas.

What is gender typing?

The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

What is cognitive learning? aka, observational learning?

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

What is priming?

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

What is "Priming"?

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular association in memory, referred by William James

You are organizing a meeting of fiercely competitive political candidates. To add to the fun, friends have suggested handing out masks of the candidates' faces for supporters to wear. What phenomenon might these masks engage?

The anonymity provided by the masks, combined with the arousal of the contentious setting, might cause *deindividuation* (lessened self-awareness and self-restraint)

How does the biopsychosocial approach explain our individual development?

The biopsychosocial approach considers all the factors that influence our individual development: biological factors, psychological factors, and social-cultural factors.

What is the primary sex characteristics? What are some examples?

The body structures that make sexual reproduction possible. Ovaries, testes, and external genitalia

What is *coronary heart disease*?

The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many *developed countries*.

What is genome?

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in the organism's chromosomes.

What is *learned helplessness*?

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when *unable to avoid* repeated aversive events. This makes us to give up even in situations where it is resolvable. In this state, we become more vulnerable to *ill health*

What is drive-reduction theory?

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

What is encoding specificity principle?

The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us to recall it.

What is social facilitation, and why is it more likely to occur with a well-learned task?

The improved performance in the presence of others is most likely to occur with a well-learned task, because the added arousal caused by an audience tends to strengthen the most likely response. This also predicts poorer performance on a difficult task in others' presence.

What is *Reciprocal determinism*?

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

What is interaction?

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

What is intelligence?

The mental potential to learn form experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

What is difference threshold?

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. It increases as the size of the stimulus increase.

What is the absolute threshold?

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

What is *groupthink*?

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. -> It is prevented when a leader welcomes various opinions, invites experts' critiques of developing plans, and assigns people to identify possible problems.

What is testosterone?

The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. The gene encoding testosterone is on the y chromosome

What is affiliation need?

The need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

What is memory consolidation?

The neural storage of a long-term memory. The memory moves out of hippocampus and moves somewhere else in the brain where the information can be stored for a longer time during sleep

What is the field of psychophysics?

The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experiences of them.

What is *external locus of control*?

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Basically people who believe something beyond them controls their fate. Defined by Julian Rotter

What is the *Relative deprivation*?

The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself. As an analogy: beggars don't envy millionaires, but they envy other beggars who are more successful

What is *Internal locus of control*?

The perception that we control our own fate. Basically people who believe they control their fate

What is puberty?

The period of sexual maturation, when a person becomes capable of reproducing

What is memory?

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

What is *minority influence*?

The power of one or two individuals to sway majorities

What is the Weber's law?

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

What is sensation?

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

What is "retrieval" stage of information processing model?

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

What is "storage" stage of information processing model?

The process of retaining encoded information over time.

What is "encoding" stage of information processing model?

The processing information into the memory system; for example, by extracting meaning.

What is parallel processing?

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions. This is connected to the idea of connectionism, where they view memories as products of interconnected neural networks.

What is heritability?

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

What is *Positive psychology*?

The scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. Studied by Seligman

What have psychologists learned about temperament?

The stability of temperament, a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, from the first weeks of life suggests a genetic predisposition. The genetic effect appears in physiological differences such as heart rate and nervous system reactivity.

What is epigenetics?

The study of environmental influences of gene expression that occur without a DNA change. - Usually through methyl molecules: methylation

What is *psycho-neuro-immunology*?

The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health. Your thoughts and feelings *(Psycho)* influence your brain *(neuro)*, which influences the endocrine hormones that affect your disease-fighting immune system *(immuno)*. This subfield is the study of *(ology)* those interactions.

What is molecular behavior genetics?

The study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior

What is *Fundamental attribution error*?

The tendency for observers, when analyzing other's behavior, to *underestimate* the impact of the situation and to *overestimate* the impact of personal disposition. -> basically means we overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the influence of situations. Meeting someone at a party versus at a classroom can be really different experience. Defined by *Ross*

What is *social loafing*?

The tendency for people in a group to exert *less effot* when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable - People in a group feel *less accountable*, Therefore sometimes take a *free ride*. -> Described by *Bibb Latane*

What is the *foot-in-the-door phenomenon*?

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a *small request* to comply later with a *larger request*. This can be used for good and for bad.

What is *behavior feedback effect*?

The tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions.

What is *facial feedback effect*?

The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

What is the *cognitive dissonance theory*?

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by *changing our attitudes*. -> Cruel acts shape the self; therefore, do acts of good will. Idea by *Leon Festinger*

What is *attribution theory*?

The theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition. Proposed by *Fritz Heider*

What is social learning theory?

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

What is framing?

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decision and judging"

What does theory of mind have to do with autism spectrum disorder?

Theory of mind ficuses on our ability to understand our own and others' mental states. Those with autism spectrum disorder struggle with this ability.

Have social networking sites made us more, or less, socially isolated?

There is decrease in face-to-face social interaction but increase in online social interactions, therefore the net is about the same.

What is a modified three-stage processing model of memory?

There is now working memory and automatic processing.

How have students reacted in studies where they were made to feel rejected and unwanted? What helps explain these results?

These students' basic need to belong seems to have been disrupted. They engaged in more self-defeating behaviors, underperformed on aptitude tests, and displayed less empathy and *more aggression.*

What are strengths about Sternberg's triarchic theory?

These three domains can be reliably measured.

How is Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson related?

They are both behaviorist Pavlov provided a basis for Watson's idea that human and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned response.

If your dog barks at a stranger at the front door, does this qualify as language? What if the dog yips in a telltale way to let you know she needs to go out?

They are communications, but language needs grammar and words, etc.

What was response when unacquainted male-female pairs were asked to gaze intently for 2 minutes at each other?

They felt a tingle of attraction and affection

What is law of effect?

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

What are chromosomes?

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

What is the evolutionary psychology's scientific goal?

To explain behaviors and mental traits by offering testable predictions using principles of natural selection.

(T/F) Most nations use same word for social pain and physical pain.

True

(T/F) Our expectations and attitudes can influence our perceptions and behaviors.

True

(T/F) We humans share an irresistible urge to organize our worlds into simple categories.

True

(T/F) Having some sugar gives you strengthened self-control, especially when you are self-control fatigue.

True, although don't use it to improve self control. Just quick rinse of your mouth with sugary liquid is enough to give you mental energy you need.

(T/F) Spatial visualization goes down as one ages.

True.

(T/F) Vocabulary knowledge goes up as one ages.

True.

(T/F) heritability differs among group.

True. South Korea vs. North Korea: difference in the environment causes difference between the average height of two countries.

(T/F) Twin rates vary by race

True. - The rate among caucasians is roughly twice that of Asians and half that of Africans - In African and Asia: most are identical, where as in Western countries: fraternal - Fraternal twins have increased with the use of fertility drugs

*(T/F)* Optimism and Pessimism "runs in our blood", as they are inheritable.

True. One genetic marker of optimism is a gene that enhances the social-bonding hormone *oxytocin*

*(T/F)* Physical attractiveness does not give you happier life.

True. So is age and gender (women are more often depressed but also more often joyful).

(T/F) Self-discipline is the most important factor in the success of a student at school.

True; self-discipline predict school performance, attendance, and graduation honors.

How does Type D personality differ from Type A?

Type D individuals experiences *distress* rather than *anger*, and they tend to *suppress* their negative emotions to avoid social disapproval.

What is automatic processing?

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, frequency, and of well-learned information, such as meanings. They produce implicit memory..

What is *Tend-and-befriend*?

Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to other *(Tend)* and bond with ans seek support from others *(befriend)*

Gestures *(vary/stay constant)* across cultures.

Vary

We *(Overestimate/Underestimate)* the duration of our emotions and *(Overestimate/Underestimate)* our resiliency and capacity to adapt.

We *Overestimate* the duration of our emotions and *Underestimate* our resiliency and capacity to adapt.

Mouth convey more emotion in *(Western/Eastern)* culture than in *(Western/Eastern)* culture

Western/Eastern. If you know hello kitty; hello kitty is from Asia (Japan?), and it doesn't even have mouth. Eyes convey more information in Eastern culture.

What is state dependent memory?

What we learn in one state, for example drunk vs. sober, may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state. This can also relates to *Mood Congruent memory*

In which situations can expressing anger be calming (temporarily)?

When it does not leave us feeling guilty or anxious, but catharsis usually fails to be actually effective

In which situations are we most likely to confirm?

When we - are made to feel incompetent or insecure - are in a group with at least three people - are in a group in which everyone else agrees - admire the group's status and attractiveness - have not made a prior commitment to any response. - know that others in the group will observe our behavior - are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards

Why are type A personality types more prone to getting coronary heart disease?

When we are harassed or challenged, our active sympathetic nervous system redistributes bloodflow to our muscles, pulling it away from our internal organs->Liver cannot do its job to remove cholesterol and fat->they continue circulating in boodstream and get deposited around the heart Further stress can alter heart rhythms

What is linguistic determinism?

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think. In a way that supports this: most bilingual individuals report that they have different sense of self

When the twins get older, do they keep the similar behaviors?

Yes

Does adoption help the children?

Yes - adopted children have less problems growing up compared to the children whose biological mothers initially registered them for adoption but then decided to raise the children themselves.

Do the temperament differences typically persist? Give examples.

Yes, they do. - Most emotionally reactive newborns tended also to be the most reactive 9-month-olds - Basically, those traits since toddler remains into adulthood

The first two weeks of prenatal development is the period of the ________________________. The period of the ________________________ lasts from 9 weeks after conception until birth. The time between those two prenatal periods is considered the period of the ________________________.

Zygote, fetus, embryo

What is general intelligence?

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. Often shortened to g

What is "recall"?

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

What is echoic memory?

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

What is motivation?

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

What is a definition of a *role*?

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. -> college student, begin a new job, etc

Which of the following factors do NOT predict self-reported happiness? which factors are better predictors?

a,d: not really predict happiness b,c,e,f: They do

What is a critical period?

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

What is teratogens?

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

What is *coping*?

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

How similar are the identical twin's intelligence test scores raised together?

as similar as those of the same person taking the same test twice

When about do the children develop self-concept?

at about age 12

Most people see themselves as *(better/worse)* than average.

better. -> group pride comes from here

When people act in a way that is not in keeping with their attitudes, and then change their attitudes to match those actions, ______________________ ______________________ theory attempts to explain why.

cognitive dissonance theory

What is ostracism?

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

What is *narcissism*?

excessive self-love and self-absorption

What is Satoshi Kanazawa's argument?

general intelligence evolved as a form of intelligence that helps people solve /novel/ (unfamiliar) problems

What is *normative social influence*?

influence resulting from a person's *desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval* -> we are sensitive to social norms because the price we pay for being different can be severe.

What is *informal social influence*?

influence resulting from one's *willingness to accept other's opinion about reality*.

Which information does retroactive interference not take place?

information taken in an hour before sleep. There were less memories for the retroactive interference to happen.

Do social networking profiles and posts reflect people's actual personalities?

it does; people who are famous on social media are famous face-to-face too.

What is the scientific meaning of bias?

it hinges on a test's validity; on whether it predicts future behavior only for *some groups* of test-takers.

What is associative learning?

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

How fast does first impressions happen?

one tenth of a second

What is *self-esteem*?

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

What is *self-efficacy*?

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

What is serial position effect?

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first (a primacy effect) items in a list.

People are often more *(under/over)*confident when most incompetent.

overconfident

Celebrity endorsements in advertising often lead consumers to purchase products through *(central/peripheral)* route persuasion

peripheral

What is the order of baby's motor development?

roll over -> sit unsupported 0> crawl -> walk

Musical expressions of emotions *(vary/stay constant)* across cultures.

stay constant

Facial expressions *(vary/stay constant)* across cultures.

stay constant. However, they vary how much emotions are expressed.

The stress response system: When alerted to a negative, uncontrollable event, our _____________________ nervous system arouses us. Heart rate and respiration *(Increase/decrease)*. Blood is diverted from digestion to the skeletal _____________________. The body releases sugar and fat. All this prepares the body for the _____________________-_____________________-_____________________ response.

sympathetic, increases, muscles, fight-or-flight

What is *biofeedback*?

system of recording, amplifying, and feeding back information about subtle physiological responses, many controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

What is perception?

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

What are the three levels of processing?

the depths of information coded; *Shallow processing* encodes on a very basic level, such as a word's letters or a word's sound. *Deep processing* encodes semantically, based on the meaning of the word. it yields to retention.

What are the best retrieval cues?

the ones that are formed from the associations at the time we encode the memory

The best means of predicting a person's future behavior is:

the person's past behavior patterns in similar situations

What is Yerkes-Dodson law?

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

What is learning?

the process of acquiring through experience a new information or behaviors.

What is misinformation effect?

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

*(men/women)* report experiencing emotions more deeply, and they tend to be more adept at reading nonverbal behavior. When does this characteristic seem to arise?

women; infant (even female infants are better at reading people's emotional cues than male infants)