Final Exam: Essay Questions

Outline the major points of the critical versus sensitive periods issue encompassing the field of child development today. Pg. 11

A critical period is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences. Critical periods occur when the presence of certain kinds of stimuli are necessary for development to proceed normally. In a sensitive period, organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in the environment. A sensitive period represents the optimal period for development, but consequences of absent stimuli are reversible.

How does gender bias operate in the college classroom?Chapter Section: Schooling and Cognitive Development Page(s): 400-404

A discussion of course and career choices that are selected in a gender biased way. The demographics of instructors and professors.•Unintentional classroom attention given to males rather than females. •Expectations about course performance in a variety of topics.•Stereotype threat and disidentification

What is the scientific method, and how does it help answer questions about child development? Pgs. 32-33

A good answer will include the following key points: Identify questions of interest. Formulate an explanation. Carry out research that either lends support to or refutes the explanation. The scientific method encourages the process of asking and answering questions. It encourages orderly, systematic observation and data collection.

How are twin, adoption, and family studies used to study the interaction between heredity and environment? Pgs. 64-64

A good answer would include the following key points: Role of the monozygotic twin studies—identical genetic backgrounds Dizygotic twin studies—some environmental similarities Other family and adoption studies—unique considerations that help to isolate either heredity or environment

14.5 What are some causes and effects of stress?Chapter Section: Stress and CopingPage(s): 370-373

A good answer would include the following key points:•Moderate, occasional stress is biologically healthy Produces physical reactions that facilitate body's defense against threats•Long exposure to stressors produces damaging physical and psychosomatic effectsHeadaches, back pain, rashes, indigestion, minor coldsUlcers, asthma, arthritis, high blood pressure

Through what stages does moral development progress during childhood and adolescence?Chapter Section: Moral DevelopmentPage(s): 391-394

According to Kohlberg, moral development emerges in a three-level sequence, which is further divided into six stages.Overall the focus of Kohlberg's theory is on justice.People move from a strict rule based moral judgment to a level of universal moral principles.People move through the periods in strict order and can potentially reach the highest level during adolescence.•According to Gilligan, moral behavior is viewed differently by males and females.Morality develops among females in a three-stage process.Girls move from an orientation toward individual survival to a morality of nonviolence.The focus of Gilligan's theory is on caring and relationships.

How do children's linguistic abilities develop in the preschool years, and what is the importance of early linguistic development? Pgs 237-238

Advances in sentence length•Increase in vocabulary•Syntax Use of plurals and possessives•Shift from private to social speech

What is the father's role in attachment? Pgs. 181-184

As society and research findings began to affirm that infants form attachments with fathers as well as mothers, more interest and attentionwas given the role of fathers in an attachment.Fathers' expressions of nurturance are important to children's emotional and social well-being.By 18 months, most infants from multiple attachment relationships.

What is an attachment in infancy, and how does it affect a person's future social competence? Pgs. 179-181

Attachment is the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular, special individual.Ainsworth Strange Situation is a sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between child and (typically) his or her mother.Assesses attachments 1) secure attachment, 2) avoidant attachment, 3) ambivalent attachment, or 4) disorganized-disoriented attachment Quality of attachment between infants and mothers has significant consequences for relationships at later stages of life Securely attached infants show less psychological issues and are viewed more socially and emotionally competent than other attachment patterns.Adult dating relationships are associated with theachment pattern developed during infancy.

If you were to give advice to a judge about maximizing the reliability of the eyewitness testimony of a preschooler, what would you suggest? Pgs. 230-232

Based on research from forensic developmental psychology, children's memories are susceptible to suggestions of adults asking questions•Preschoolers are more prone to make inaccurate inferences about the intentions of others•Preschoolers are less able to draw appropriate conclusions based on their knowledge of a situation•Error rates for memories are heightened when the same question is asked repeatedly•Mistakes are more common in response to suggestible questions•The amount of time between the event and the questioning should be minimized•More specific questions are answered more accurately than more generalized questions•Questioning a child in an environment that is less intimidating is preferable

Describe the different types of parenting. Is one type of parenting better than another type of parenting?Chapter Section: Friends and Family: Preschoolers' Social LivesPage(s): 263-264

Baumrind established four parenting styles based on the demandingness and responsiveness of the parents Authoritative parents are firm, set clear and consistent limitsHighly responsive and demandingRelatively strict, but loving and emotionally supportiveEncourage independence and communication Authoritarian parents are controlling, punitive, rigid, and coldLow responsiveness but high demandingTheir word is law; value strict, unquestioning obedience from childrenDo not tolerate expressions of disagreement Permissive parents are lax and provide inconsistent feedbackHighly responsive but undemandingRequire little of their children, don't see much parental responsibility for childrenPlace little or no limits or control on children's behaviors Uninvolved parents display indifferent, rejecting behaviorsLow responsiveness and undemandingDetached emotionallySee role as providing only essentials (food, clothing, shelter)Results in neglect, a form of child abuse Children of authoritative parents fare best overall.They are generally independent, friendly with peers, self-assertive, and cooperativeThey have strong motivation to achieve and are typically successful and likeableThey regulate their own behavior effectively While authoritative parenting may be the most effective overall, there are times and situations when another style of parenting may be more appropriate.

What is bilingualism? How does it benefit second language learners?Chapter Section: Cognitive and Language DevelopmentPage(s): 307-308

Bilingualism is the ability to speak two languages.Bilingualism can produce improvements in cognitive flexibility, metalinguistic awareness, and intelligence test performance.

What do the leading theorists have to say in regards to gender identity? Chapter Section: Forming a Sense of SelfPage(s): 255-258

BiologicalBrain differences and exposure to hormones may lead to gender differences PsychoanalyticalIdentification with the same-sex parent Social learningChildren learn gender related behaviors by observing others and by reinforcement of societally determined appropriate behaviors CognitiveThrough the use of gender schemas, children organize and establish rules for male and female behaviors and characteristics

How do children develop their sense of racial identity and gender? Chapter Section: Forming a Sense of SelfPage(s): 254-258

Both racial and gender identity develops during the preschool years Race dissonance is the phenomenon in which minority children indicate preferences for majority values or people Ethnic identity emerges after racial identity since ethnicity is not as conspicuous as raceBilingual children are more aware of their ethnic identity Differences between the way boys and girls are teated begin at birth Gender is well-established by preschool years (ability to identify male or female) Gender development moves through gender identity, development of gender schemas, angender constancyThere are many explanations for the process of gender development includingBiologicalPsychoanalyticSocial learningCognitive approaches

What are the advantages and disadvantages of prescribing antidepressants for use with children? Chapter Section: The Growing BodyPage(s): 287

Certain disorders, such as depression and anxiety disorders, can be treated successfully with drugs In some cases drugs provide the only relief for the child Little evidence for long-term effectiveness Impact on brain development is not known Inadequate testing for appropriate doses for children Some evidence links antidepressant medication with increased risk of suicide

What are the characteristics of bullies and their victims?Chapter Section: Relationships: Building Friendship in Middle ChildhoodPage(s): 343-344

Characteristics of a bully include:About 50% of bullies come from abusive homes.They tend to watch more television containing violence.They misbehave more at home and school.When they get into trouble, they will often try to lie their way out of the situation.They show little remorse for their victimization of others.They are more likely to break the law as an adult.•Characteristics of the victims of bullies include:Most often they are loners and fairly passive.They often cry easily.Tend to lack social skills that might otherwise defuse a bully situation.

What are child abuse and psychological maltreatment, what factors contribute to them, and can anything be done about them? Pgs. 210-213

Child abuse is the physical and psychological maltreatment or neglect of children. Physical abuse would include physical hitting or punishment Psychological maltreatment is more subtle forms of abuse and may include overt behaviors (i.e. belittling, intimidation) and/or neglect Factors that contribute to child abuse include Stressful environments History of violence between spouses Less adaptable, fussy, and resistant to control children are at higher risk as are children with frequent stomachaches, headaches, and bedwetting Two considerations in terms of child abuse in the United States is the question of permissible violence (spanking) and the cultural values of family responsibility for discipline versus collectivist cultures' shared responsibility Parents may have unrealistic expectations for the child in terms of developmentally appropriate behaviors Cycle-of-abuse hypothesis suggests that those abused will abuse their own children; research shows only about 33% of those abused will abuse their own children.

What is child development? Pg. 3

Child development: takes a scientific approach focuses on human development, specifically on the process from conception through childhood and adolescence studies change, growth, consistency, and continuity

What is the nature of group care in the 21st century?Chapter Section:The FamilyPage(s): 349-350

Children in group care often have been victims of neglect and abuse.•About 25% will spend their childhood years in group care.•The consequences can be positive or negative for children.•If workers are able to develop an effective, stable, and strong emotional bond, then the consequences will be positive.

Why is it that there is less stigma attached to girls who prefer to lay with stereotypical male toys than there is for boys who prefer to play with stereotypical female toys? Pgs. 189-190

Children's preferences for certain toys are reinforced by parents.Parents of boys tend to be more concerned about their child'schoices than parents of girls.Boys receive more reinforcement for playing with toys deemed appropriate by society than girls do, and this increases with age.Societal expectations and constraints are more rigid for boys than girls and this includes those traits labeled as feminine and masculine.

Define and provide an example of classical conditioning. Pg. 105

Classical conditioning 5 Stimulus substitution—pairing a previously neutral stimulus with a stimulus that does evoke response6 Involuntary behavior—the response to the original stimulus is involuntary; then pairing a new stimulus with that involuntary response7 Learning occurs when the formerly neutral stimulus now evokes the response formerly evoked by the original stimulus

Briefly describe the two different approaches to teaching reading.Chapter Section: Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle ChildhoodPage(s) : 311-313

Code-based approaches to readingReading is taught by presenting the basic skills that underlie reading.Emphasize components of reading, i.e., sounds of letters and their combinations.Whole-language approaches to readingViewed as a natural process, similar to oral language acquisition.Children learn to read by exposure to complete writing.Instead of sounding out words, children use a trial-and-error approach to learn words.

List three strategies for assessing information in the field of child development. Pg. 14

Consider the source of the advice. Evaluate the credentials of the person providing the advice. Understand the difference between anecdotal evidence and scientific evidence. Keep cultural context in mind.Do not assume that widely held beliefs are necessarily true. Scientific evidence has often found that even some of the most basic presumptions are invalid.

Define continuous change and discontinuous change. Pages 10-11

Continuous change is gradual, where achievements at one level building on the previous level. Continuous change is quantitative. Discontinuous change occurs in distinct steps or stages. Behavior and processes are qualitatively different at different stages.

What is the normal process of labor? Pgs. 86-87

Corticotropin-releasing hormone triggers the release of various hormones that begin the process of birth.• Three stages of birth First stage—uterine contractions known as labor Longest stage, varies significantly Transition ends the first stage Second stage—baby moves through the cervix and birth canal Lasts about 90 minutes Baby emerged completely ends second stage Third stage—umbilical cord and placenta are expelled Quickest and easiest stage

How does ethnicity affect friendships?Chapter Section: Relationships: Building Friendship in Middle ChildhoodPage(s): 343

Cross-race friendships diminish in frequency as children age.•Equal-status interactions among members of different racial groups can lead to improved understanding, mutual respect and acceptance, and a decreased tendency to stereotype.•The number of cross-race friendships decline as children age into high school.

How does culture support cognitive development? Pgs. 233-235

Culture and society shape the nature of specific cognitive advances Cultural-Societal institutions (i.e., preschool programs) provide opportunities for cognitive development •Cultural values and societal priorities will influence cognitive advances•Appropriate toys indicate priorities and values•Gender expectations are influenced by culture and society

Explain the significance of developmentally appropriate education? Pg. 244

Developmentally appropriate educational practice is education based on both typical development and the unique characteristics of a given child.•Research on cognitive development emphasizes the importance on stimuli that is at an appropriate level; too much or too little hinders cognitive development.•Developmentally appropriate activities allow the child to be challenged without the frustration of unrealistic expectations.

List and describe the warning signs that an adolescent may have a problem with drugs or alcohol.Chapter Section: Threats to Adolescents' Well-BeingPage(s): 377

Drug-related magazines or slogans on clothing•Conversation and jokes that are preoccupied with drugs•Hostility discussing drugs•Collection of beer cans•Signs of physical deterioration•Memory lapses, short attention span, difficulty concentrating•Poor physical coordination, slurred or incoherent speech•Unhealthy appearance, indifference to hygiene and grooming•Bloodshot eyes, dilated pupils•Dramatic changes in school performance•Marked downturn in grades•Increased absenteeism or tardiness•Changes in behavior•Chronic dishonesty•Changes in friends•Possession of large amounts of money•Increasing and inappropriate anger, hostility, irritability, secretiveness•Reduced motivation, energy, self-discipline, self-esteem•Diminished interest in extracurricular activities and hobbies•All of these are possible signs of drug and/or alcohol problems

What safety threats affect school-age children, and what can be done about them?Chapter Section: Motor Development and SafetyPage(s): 290-291

Due to increased independence, accidents are a serious threat affecting school-age children Children's increased access to cyberspace and unsupervised access also provides a threat

What is the major difference between Substage 2 (first habits and primary circular reactions) and Substage 3 (secondary circular reactions) of Piaget's sensorimotor period? Pgs. 146-148

During Substage 2, the infanteginsto coordinate separate actions into a single, integrated action. During Substage 3, infants take major strides in shifting heir cognitive horizons beyond themselves. The major difference between the two stages is whether the infant's activity is focused on the infant and involves his/her body, or involves actions related to the outside world.

In what ways do children grow during the school years, and what factors influence their growth? Chapter Section: The Growing BodyPage(s): 281-283

During middle childhood, height and weight increase gradually, and the body loses its baby fat. Differences in height and weight are related partly to affluence and poverty. Nutrition is important because it contributes to physical growth but also because it affects aspects of social, emotional, and cognitive learning.

How are boys who experience early maturation different from those who experience maturation later in adolescence?Chapter Section: Physical MaturationPage(s): 363-364

Early maturation for boys tends to be considered positivelyThey tend to be more successful at athletics, probably due to their larger sizeThey tend to be more popular and have a more positive self-conceptThey tend to be more responsible and cooperative in later life•There is also a downside to early maturation for boysThey are more apt to have difficulties in schoolThey are more likely to become involved in delinquency and substance abuseThey are more conforming and lacking in humor later in life

What is the difference in emotional expressions between newborns and older infants? Pgs. 172-173

Emergence of emotional expressions (birth through 25 months)Interest, distress, disgustSocial smileAnger, surprise, sadnessFearShame, shynessContempt, guiltBrain development that accounts for the wider array of emotional expressionCerebral cortexLimbic system

Describe the fertilization process. Pgs. 72-73

Fertilization is the process by which the sperm and ovum join to form a new cell. The ovum •Women are born with all of their ovum available to them. •Around puberty, the ovum mature and are released during ovulation. The sperm •Sperm is created in the testicles at a rapid rate, several hundred million sperms a day. When the sperm enters the vagina, they must move through the cervix and into the fallopian tube. Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube.

What are the differences between fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol effects (FAE)? Pg. 80

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) occurs when the mother's use of alcohol is substantial, while fetal alcohol effects (FAE) is the result of mothers who consume less alcohol during pregnancy. FAS has more serious consequences, including below-average intelligence, delayed growth, and facial deformities (mental retardation sometimes occurs). FAE will display some but not all of the consequences of FAS. Due to the risks associated even with minimal amounts of alcohol, women who are trying to become pregnant should already refrain from drinking.

What is the difference between a collectivistic versus an individualistic orientation? Chapter Section: Friends and Family: Preschoolers' Social LivesPage(s): 254

Individualistic orientation reflects the traditional Western cultural values of independence, self-reliance, and competition Collectivistic orientation reflects the traditional Eastern (Asian) cultural values of concern for the good of the group and cooperation The child's self-concept is directly influenced by the cultural orientation, either independent or interdependent These cultural orientations can be viewed in light of children's social interactions, gender and moral development, parenting styles, and educational priorities The values and priorities are embedded within each of these cultures and influence most aspects of child development

How don't process information according to the information-processing approach to cognitive development? Pgs. 151-152

Information-processing approaches seek to identify the way the individuals take in, use, and store information. According to this approach, the quantitative changes in infants' abilities to organize and manipulate information represent the hallmarks of cognitive growth. An infant's cognitive growth is characterized by increasing sophistication and speed in information processing. Infants are believed to have memory capabilities from their earliest days, although the accuracy is debated.

How do television and computers influence children's cognition? Pgs. 245-246

Initially the amount of time spent in front of television and computers needs to be considered, monitored, and limited.•Preschoolers have limits to their understanding of television Limits to their ability to separate fantasy and reality Unable to separate programming and commercial messages Unable to make inferences and understand the intentions of characters Inconsistent standards of programming for young children (not to mention children's exposure to programming intended for much older children and/or adults!)

How can intelligence be measured? What are some issues in intelligence testing? Chapter Section: Intelligence: Determining Individual StrengthsPage(s): 318-320

Intelligence testing has traditionally focused on factors that differentiate successful academic performers from unsuccessful ones.Intelligence quotient (IQ) reflects the ratio of a person's mental age to his or her chronological age.Other conceptualizations of intelligence focus on different types of intelligence or different aspects of information processing.There is some controversy over whether there are racial differences in IQ, and how to explain those differences.

What issues does the notion of sensitive periods raise in relation to development? Pgs. 120-121

It suggests that unless an infant receives a certain level of early environmental stimulation during a sensitive period, the infant may suffer damage or fail to develop potential capabilities. It reinforces the notion of the importance of an early, enriched environment. Cuddling, talking, playing and singing all help to enrich a child's environment. This helps ensure optimal development.

What are the six personality types Holland suggests are important in career choice? Describe the types of occupations that correspond to each type.Chapter Section: Choosing an OccupationPage(s): 397

John Holland studied the match between job seekers' personality types and career requirements. The result was six specific personality types including:•Realistic. These people are down-to-earth, practical problem solvers who are physically strong, but their social skills are mediocre.Careers: farmer, laborer, truck driver•Intellectual. Intellectual types are oriented toward the theoretical and the abstract. Not particularly good with people.Careers: math and science careers•Social. The traits associated with the social personality type are related to verbal skills and interpersonal relations. Social types are good at working with people.Careers: salespersons, teachers, counselors.•Conventional. Conventional individuals prefer highly structured tasks. Careers: clerks, secretaries, bank tellers•Enterprising. These individuals are risk-takers, take-charge types, and good leaders.Careers: managers, politicians•Artistic. Artistic types use art to express themselves, and they often prefer the world of art to interactions with people. Careers: art careers

What are some of the alternative birthing procedures? Pg. 90

Lamaze birth techniquesUse of breathing and relaxation techniques Childbirth attendants Midwives, doulas, coaches might be some examples.

How does language develop during the middle childhood period?Chapter Section: Cognitive and Language DevelopmentPage(s): 305-306

Language development is characterized by improvements in vocabularySyntax (the rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences)Pragmatics (the rules governing the use of language to communicate in a given social setting)Growth of metalinguistic awareness (an understanding of one's own use of language)Use of language as a self-control device

Compare the views of Locke and Rousseau in relationship to the "nature-versus-nurture" debate. Pages 9-12

Locke viewed children's development as entirely shaped by their experience. Therefore, Locke would subscribe to the notion that nurture, our environmental influences, shape and affect development. Alternatively, Rousseau viewed children as born with an innate sense of right and wrong and that growth occurred in stages and unfolded automatically. He is more closely aligned with the nature camp in this issue. Nature is defined as traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited.One additional note, Rousseau did believe that the environment could affect these stages, thus taking a contemporary approach to the notion that behavior and development are shaped by both nature and nurture. ​

What are the major research strategies and challenges regarding child development? Pgs. 43-44

Measuring development requires extensive commitments of time. special considerations for both researchers and participants Measuring individual change while considering group influences.Popular press interpretations of research may not accurately reflect the findings. Special ethical concerns for children and adolescents.

How can adolescents cope with stress?Chapter Section: Stress and CopingPage(s): 370-373

Moderate, occasional stress is biologically healthyProduces physical reactions that facilitate body's defense against threats•Long exposure to stressors produces damaging physical and psychosomatic effectsHeadaches, back pain, rashes, indigestion, minor coldsUlcers, asthma, arthritis, high blood pressure•People cope with stress in diverse waysProblem-focused coping - modify stressful situationEmotion-focused coping - regulate emotional response to stressDefensive coping - denial of situationSocial support

Some people have used the proven genetic basis of intelligence to argue against strenuous educational efforts on behalf of individuals with below average IQs. Does this viewpoint make sense based on what you have learned about heredity and environment? Why or why not? Pgs. 63-66

Multifactorial transmission of intelligence. Intelligence may be explained by a range of differing possible sources that represent the extent of nature-nurture continuum. Discussion of the value of environmental influences on intelligence.

What is the major difference between a nightmare and a night terror? Pg. 205-206

Nightmares are vivid bad dreams They occur toward morning Are usually occasional and not a matter of concern Repeated nightmares may indicate some other problem Night terrors are an intense physiological arousal Child wakes in a state of panic Child is not easily comforted Child cannot say why he or she is disturbed and cannot recall a "bad dream" In the morning, child does not remember the incident Much less frequent than nightmares

What is the relationship between the development of object permanence and social attachments? Pg. 148

Object permanence extends not only to inanimate objects but to the people in the child's life too. An infant understands that parents exist, even if they are out of sight. This awareness is a key element of social attachments and a feeling of security.

How does divorce affect children?Chapter Section:The FamilyPage(s): 347-348

Only about 50% of children in the United States spend their entire childhoods living in the same household with both their parents.•Immediately after divorce, the effects on children in the middle-childhood years can be serious.•Effects of divorce are dependent on the economic condition of the family and the hostility level of the spouses prior to the divorce.

What are the nutritional needs and concerns of adolescents?Chapter Section: Physical MaturationPage(s): 365-366

Overweight and obese adolescents suffer psychological and physical consequences•Excessive concern with body image may promote eating disordersSocietal, cultural, biological, and environmental influences promote these disorders

As a new parent, what will you look for when selecting child care? Pgs. 191-193

Parents should be seeking high-quality child-care first and foremost.Desirable ratio between staff and infantsSize of groupsLicensing of the centerStaff morale and behaviorsSafety and cleanlinessTraining of providersHappy and cheerful environment

Describe the different forms of child abuse. Pgs. 210-213

Physical abuse Most frequent in families living in stressful environments More likely in families with a history of violence between spouses Abused children are likely to be fussy, resistant to control, and not readily adaptable Abused children have more headaches and stomachaches and experience more bedwetting Consideration of permissible and impermissible physical punishment Psychological maltreatment Harm children's behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning Maybe overt behavior or neglect May include frightening, belittling, or humiliating children May include intimidation and harassment May cause negative consequences and permanent alteration of the brain structure

We now know that newborns are not as helpless as we once thought they were. What are some of the capabilities of a newborn? Pgs. 103-107

Physical capabilities Respiration, reflexes, nourishment, digestion• Sensory capabilities6 Ability to distinguish objects in visual field and colors Ability to hear and identify familiar sounds Sensitivity to touch, odors, and tastes

What physical changes do adolescents experience? Chapter Section: Physical MaturationPage(s): 360-362

Physical growth spurt that mirrors the rapid growth of infancy•Girls' growth spurt is about age 10; boys' growth spurt is about 2 years later•Onset of puberty during adolescence is major eventHormone levels are produced at adult levelsSex organs develop and changeMenstruation and ejaculation begin•Psychological changes accompany all of the physical changes of puberty

What are the two principles that underlie all cognitive growth according to Piaget? Pg. 146

Piaget suggested that two principles underlie growth in children's schemes, assimilation, and accommodation. Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. Accommodation refers to changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli.

Describe how preschoolers understand numbers. How does this compare to Piaget's assumptions about what preschoolers are able to understand? Pg. 229

Piaget underestimated the abilities for children to understand numbers.•Children count and do so fairly consistently. •Preschoolers follow a number of principles.Assign a single number to each item in a group.Even when they misname numbers they understand that the last number they say is the "total" Preschoolers are also able to carry out simple addition and subtraction by countingPreschoolers can compare different quantities quite successfully

Compare and contrast Piaget's and Vygotsky's view of cognitive development during the preschool years. Pgs. 225-229, 233

Piaget's theory is a comprehensive stage approach model that claims universality•Piaget viewed cognitive development as a result of child's acting on the environment•Piaget viewed children's individual performance—the little scientists—working by themselves to develop an independent understanding of the world•Piaget's theory is based on observations that provide a detailed portrait More recent research suggests that Piaget systematically underestimated children's abilities It has been suggested that Piaget's focus on deficiencies has biased his findings•Vygotsky viewed cognitive development as a result of social interactions•Vygotsky viewed the social and cultural world as a source of cognitive development Social expectations and cultural values influence cognitive development•Vygotsky viewed children as apprentices, in that they use others to gain an understanding of the world

How would you describe the influence of race and poverty on children's family life?Chapter Section:The FamilyPage(s): 350-351

Poor families have fewer basic resources.•There are more disruptions in children's lives.•Moving to find work may be common.•Living in unsafe neighborhoods or attending inferior schools.•This leads to higher rates of aggression and increased mental health problems.•Both African American and Hispanic families have a strong sense of family and extended family are often involved.•High proportion of African American families with grandmother headed households producing very well adjusted children.•Hispanic families tend to be larger. •Asian families focus on collectivist orientations and family needs superseded those of children.

What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of anesthetic drugs during birth? Pgs. 91-92

Positive: Reduce or eliminate painMinimal risk to fetus• Negative: Affect mother and fetusMay slow labor and decrease oxygen to fetus

What are the stages of prenatal development? Pgs. 72-74

Prenatal development is divided into three phases. The Germinal phase is from fertilization to 2 weeks. •This is the shortest phase, with rapid cell division. The Embryonic phase is from 2 weeks to 8 weeks. •Embryo develops major organs and anatomy. The Fetal phase is from 8 weeks to birth.•Fetus grows rapidly through birth

What are the nutritional needs of preschool children, and what causes obesity? Pgs. 206-207

Preschool children do not grow as quickly as they did previously, so as a result they need less food and may not eat as much. Parents should offer preschool children a variety of foods and healthy snacks. High-iron foods should be included to avoid iron-deficiency, one of the prevalent nutritional disorders in the U.S. Obesity is a body weight 20% above the average weight for a person of a given age and height. Encouraging preschool children to eat when not hungry may cause overheating or eating when not hungry and lead to obesity.

What changes in the body and the brain do children experience in the reschool years? Pgs. 201-205

Preschool is a time of rapid brain development More connections are formed Myelination increases the transmission speed Corpus callosum becomes considerably thicker, increasing communication between hemispheres Brain lateralization occurs with each hemisphere taking on specific strengths Changes in physical development Acquisition of gross and fine motor skills builds connections and promotes myelination Changes in cognitive development Brain growth spurts are linked with cognitive milestones (i.e., language development, attention)

What are the major reasons for infant mortality? Pgs. 99-101

Preterm infants and low-birthweight• Very-low-birthweight infants due to organ immaturity• Role of income and race in infant mortality rates• Availability of prenatal health care and education for mothers-to-be

In what ways might children use private speech? What functions does it serve? Pgs. 237-238

Private speech, speech that is spoken and directed to the person speaking, serves multiple purposes for children including As a guide for behavior and thought, i.e., trying out new ideas, calming oneself Social functions, such as problem solving and reflecting on a situation

What can a parent do to help prepare their child to succeed in school?Chapter Section: Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle ChildhoodPage(s): 311-313

Promote a literacy environment.Talk to children.Provide a place for children to work.Encourage children's problem-solving skills.

Define reflexes and provide an evolutionary explanation of reflexes and their gradual disappearance. Pages 125-126

Reflexes are defined as unlearned, involuntary, organized responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli. Evolutionary explanations of development attribute the gradual disappearance of reflexes to the increase in voluntary control over behavior. Reflexes may form the foundation of future behavior. It may be that reflexes stimulate parts of the brain responsible for more complex behaviors.

Does attachment differ across cultures? Pgs. 184-186

Research has demonstrated that attachments are not culturally universal.Particular attachment patterns may be culturally specific.Consideration should be given that the Ainsworth Strange Situation may not be the most appropriate method of assessing attachment patterns in non-Western cultures.Attachment is susceptible to cultural norms and expectations.

Why is it important for people to be aware of the role our expectations play in our behavior towards others? Chapter Section: Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle ChildhoodPage(s): 313-314

Research has shown that teachers treat children differently based on their expectations of the child. The teacher expectancy effect is when the teacher's expectations are transmitted to the students and the child behaves accordingly.Self-fulfilling prophecy is a broader concept in which any person's expectations are capable of bringing about an outcome.It is critical that we acknowledge our expectations because they may in fact stimulate specific behavioral responses.

Why is the number of children with asthma increasing? Chapter Section: The Growing BodyPage(s): 285-286

Research has suggested increasing air pollution Better diagnosis and identification of asthma may result in increasing cases Exposure to asthma triggers such as dust from new weatherproof buildings that restrict air flow

What was Vygotsky's major contribution to the field of child development? Pg. 29

Role of culture in individual child's development The importance of social interactions among members of a culture Emphasis on reciprocal transactions people in the child's environment influence the child as the child also influences the people in their environment

Identify and describe three reflexes that are present at birth. Pgs. 125-126

Rooting reflex: a neonate's tendency to turn its head toward things that touch its cheek. Sucking reflex: infant's tendency to suck at things that touch its lips. Gag reflex: an infant's reflex to clear its throat.

Provide an overview of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) and note the current recommendations to minimize the risk of SIDS. Pgs 123-124

SIDS is a disorder in which a seemingly healthy infant dies in his/ her sleep. The disorder is unexplained and occurs in 1 in 1,000 infants. Currently, the AAP recommends putting infants to sleep on their backs and to consider using a pacifier during naps and bedtime. Although the number of cases of SIDS has decreased since these guidelines were developed, SIDS is still the leading cause of death in children under the age of one year.

Why are there so many obese children in the United States? Chapter Section: The Growing BodyPage(s): 283-284

School-age children in the United States tend to engage in relatively little exercise and are not particularly fit. Many children engage in sedentary activities, i.e., watching television or working on a computer, that provides no exercise and, in addition, promote snacking while engaging in the activity.

Why is it important for children to learn how to utilize social referencing? Pgs. 175-176

Social referencing is the intentional search for information about others' feelings.Social referencing helps explain the meaning of uncertain circumstance and events.Social referencing may assist a child in understanding facial expressions that express emotions.

How might societal and environmental influences contribute to the emergence of an eating disorder?Chapter Section: Physical MaturationPage(s): 366-367

Societal influences include value of slender bodiesIndividuals feel pressure to be thinner and are reinforced for being thinMedia messages that there is nothing that is "too thin"Messages of control and success promote lifelong dieting•Girls who mature earlier have a higher level of body fatPressure to look younger, thinner•Control issues, need for perfection and success•Family dynamics may contributeHigh expectations on child may encourage eating disorder

4.2 What is the Apgar scale? Pg. 88

Standard measurement system for health of newborn• Five dimensions of evaluationAppearancePulseGrimaceActivityRespiration• Newborn receives a score from 0 to 2 on each dimension• Scores of 7 or above indicate good health; between 4 and 6 indicate need for some assistance; less than 4 indicates the need for life-saving intervention

What causes stranger anxiety and separation anxiety? Pgs. 177-178

Stranger anxiety is the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person.Separation anxiety is the distress displayed infants when a customary care provider departs.Brain development and cognitive abilitiesDevelopment of memoryAttempts to anticipate and predict eventsSocial developmentChildren who are frequently in contact with unfamiliar people experience less strange anxiety.

Should moral development be taught in schools? Use examples from Gilligan and Kohlberg to justify your reasoning. Chapter Section: Moral DevelopmentPage(s): 391-394

Students could build an argument on either side of this question, as long as supporting evidence is provided.•It should be noted that there is a relationship between moral and cognitive development.•Kohlberg's research indicates that higher levels of moral reasoning result in less antisocial behaviors in school and community.•There are some interesting questions raised about the level of moral judgment and moral behavior, particularly in terms of cheating. Knowing what is morally right does not always mean acting that way.•Presenting Kohlberg and Gilligan to students would encourage examination in diversity of moral decision making.•Finally, it may be stressed that practice in making these types of decisions can be productive and in fact may encourage brain development, critical during the adolescent years.

Describe the highlights of Substage 4 of the sensorimotor period. Pgs. 146-148

Substage 4 lasts from 8 months to 12 months. Infants begin to employ goal-directed behavior, in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem. Object permanence emerges in this stage as well. This is the realization that people and objects exist even when they can't be seen. The recognition of object permanence fosters the infant's growing assertiveness.

What are some ways that children can be kept safe in cyberspace? Chapter Section: Motor Development and SafetyPage(s): 291

Supervise child's time online Spend time with the child online Establish rules and guidelines for online behaviors Educate child not to give personal information online Encourage children to communicate to parents any unusual online behaviors Discourage children from arranging any meeting with someone they met online

Should all prospective parents consider genetic counseling? Why or why not? What are some of the ethical considerations with genetic counseling? Pgs. 60-62

The answer to the first question may be either affirmative or negative but should include support for the choice made by the student. Ethical considerations would include the following key points: Knowledge of genetic predictions can prevent catastrophic disorders, but it may also encourage genetic engineering. Parents have more diverse decisions to make with knowledge gained through genetic counseling.

Identify and describe the four major principles of growth. Pgs. 117-118

The cephalocaudal principle states growth follows a pattern that begins with the upper body parts and proceeds to the rest of the body. The proximodistal principle states that development proceeds from the center of the body outward.The principle of hierarchical integration states that simple skills develop separately and independently. Later they are integrated into more complex skills. The principle of the independence of systems suggests that different body systems grow at different rates.

Identify two advantages of taking a lifespan approach to development. Pgs 11-12

The entire period encompassing conception to adolescence is important. Growth and change continue over the entire lifespan that is reflected in current research. In order to understand social influences on children, we need to understand the people of different ages who make up the social environment. This allows us to understand the impact of various influences of individuals in the environment.

Identify three future trends likely to emerge in the field of child development. Pgs 12-13`

The field will become increasingly specialized and new areas of study will emerge. Information about genes and genetics will influence all spheres of child development. Research will be influenced by major public-interest issues, such as violence, poverty, childcare and family life. The increasing diversity of the population will lead to more focus on issues of diversity. A growing number of professionals from a variety of fields will draw from the field of child development to pursue their own work.

Describe the interactionist perspective of language development. Pg. 163

The interactionist approach to language development suggests that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach the language. The interactionist perspective accepts that innate factors shape he road outlines of language development. However, social factors also play a role in development.

What theories explain the origins of language development? Pgs. 162-163

The learning theory approach: the theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning. The nativist approach: the theory that a genetically determined mechanism directs language development. The interactionist approach: the theory that suggests that language is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances.

What is the scope of the child development field? Pgs. 3-8

The scope of child development encompasses three main topical areas: physical development cognitive development personality and social development held development typically examines specific age categories: prenatal development infant and toddlerhood (birth through age 3) preschool (age 3 through age 6) middle childhood (age 6 through 12) adolescence (age 12 through 20).In addition, child development must consider the cultural context: broad—such as individualistic and collectivist orientation specific—such as ethnic, racial, socioeconomic, and genderFinally, it is important to consider the influences on development: history-graded cohort influences age-graded cohort influences sociocultural graded cohort influences non-normative life events

Clues to the changing perspective of childhood are evident in the culture and the culture's artifacts. For example, during the medieval times, children were thought of as miniature adults, and this perspective was portrayed in the clothing they wore and their representations in art of that time. Consider the perspective of childhood today and give evidence from our society of that perspective. Pgs. 8-12

There are many answers that may be given, but primarily the student should identify the child-centered perspective of our society and then give evidence that may include (but not limited to): toys, television, and books targeted to specific ages of children laws that protect children from exploitation diversity of schools and preschool programs for children availability of diverse athletic, cultural, and recreational activities for children

What are the similarities and differences between children raised by heterosexual and gay and lesbian parents?Chapter Section:The FamilyPage(s): 349-350

There are no significant differences in terms of children's gender role, gender identity, cognitive development, sexual orientation, and social and emotional development.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of home schooling?Chapter Section: Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle ChildhoodPage(s): 316-317

There is an ability to provide more personalized one-on-one attention.The social interaction inherent in large classroom is missing.Learning at home does not encourage the diversity seen in larger society.Certain technology may not be available at home.

Explain how the mirror-and-rouge task demonstrates self-awareness. Pg. 175

Very young infants do not have a sense of themselves as individuals; they lack self-awareness.A bit of rouge is placed on the infant's nose, and the infant is placed so that she looks in a mirror.If the child is aware of herself, she will touch her nose because she recognizes herself in the mirror.If the child asks self-awareness, she will not touch her nose because she does not recognize herself in the mirror.

What type of research has influenced the notion of the brain's plasticity? Pgs. 120-121

Work with nonhumans has helped reveal the nature of the brain's plasticity. Studies have compared rats raised an unusually visually stimulating environment to those raised in more typical and less interesting cages. Results show that areas of the brain associated with vision are both thicker and heavier for the rats reared in the enriched environment. Thus, indicating the environmental influences on brain development, and the notion that a developing structure is modifiable due to experience.

Define and provide examples of scaffolding and the zone of proximal development.Chapter Section: Pgs. 234-235

Zone of proximal development is the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task without assistance. Examples are many but should include a child attempting something that is at a level where the child can almost complete the task independently. ZPD is that level that requires some assistance from an expert.•Scaffolding is support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth. Examples are many but should include a child attempting to solve a problem with the guidance of an expert. The expert frames the problem with supportive clues that are appropriate to the child's current level.

What are the five levels of the environment according to the bioecological approach? Provide an example of each. Pgs. 27-29

microsystem—everyday immediate environment examples may include family, friends, teachers, caregivers mesosystem—layer that links the structures within the microsystem examples may include connections between children's teachers and their parents exosystem—social institutions local government, churches, schools macrosystem—larger cultural influences (outermost level) cultural values, customs and laws chronosystem—dimension of time in relation to the child historical events, historical changes that impact development (for example, blended families)

What are the key issues and questions in the field of child development? Pgs. 10-12

whether developmental change is continuous or discontinuous whether development is largely governed by critical or sensitive periods during which certain influences or experiences must occur for development to be normal whether to focus on certain particularly important periods in human development or on the entire life span the nature-nurture question, which focuses on the relative importance of genetic versus environmental influences