Final Exam
gonadotropin secretion
*Controlled by both negative and positive feedback mechanisms *Positive feedback controls LH secretion -gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) causes the pituitary gland to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and leutenizing hormone (LH). LH increases testosterone secretion by interstitial/leydig cells.
cholera bacteria causes what disease in humans
cholera: bacterial infection of small intestine. large amounts of persistent watery diarrhea
what is the primary molecular component of gallstones
cholesterol
sex chromosomes
chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual
what is the term used to describe the partially digested contents of the stomach
chyme
what function may the appendix perform
contains numerous lymphatic nodules and houses beneficial bacteria so it may have an immune function
what is the functional unit of the liver
hepatic plates called liver lobules; in middle of each lobule there is a central vein and each lobule has a branch of the portal vein and branch of hepatic artery
fenestrated capillary
leaky capillaries which promote filtration cells comprising the glomerular capillaries have large pores called fenestrae therefore these capillaries are said to be fenestrated
what cells produces testosterone in men
leydig or "interstitial cells"
peristalsis
involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.
what are kupffer cells
macrophages in the liver
how does ADH secretion result in an increase in water reabsorption
makes the collecting duct more permeable to water; attracted to salt
general anatomy of digestive system
mouth: chews and mixes food w saliva esophagus: transports food to stomach stomach: mixes food w acid and digestive enzymes small intestine: absorption of nutrients large intestine: absorption of water and feces is formed accessory organs: liver: produces bile gallbladder: stores bile pancreas: makes and delivers digestive enzymes to small intestine
oxytocin during delivery
-increases the frequency and strength of uterine contractions
female reproductive system
-paired ovaries: produce egg cells/ovulate them -paired oviducts carry egg cells into uterus, fertilization takes place in oviducts -single uterus where embryo/fetus develops -cervix: entrance to vagina -vagina: birth canal/receives penis
primary functions of the stomach
-stores food -begins protein digestion -kills ingested bacteria -moves food into the small intestine for absorption
5 specifc functions of the kidneys/urinary system
1. eliminates wastes from the body 2. regulates blood volume and pressure 3. controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites 4. regulates blood pH. 5. produces hormones that regulate RBC production???
3 anatomical adaptation that increases the surface area of the small intestine
1. plicae circulares - slow down the movement of chyme 2. villi, covered in microvilli: contains blood & lymphatic vessels to help absorb nutrients tnd transport them 3. length of small intestine is super long
the 3-5 functions of the liver
1. stores vitamins 2. stores glucose as glycogen 3. detoxifies poisons such as alcohol 4. converts ammonia into urea 5. destroys worn out red blood cells and stores the iron
how many sperm cells are present in an average ejaculate
300 million
what is the purpose of the countercurrent multiplier system
99% of the water in the filtrate is reabsorbed by the time the filtrate reaches the distal convoluted tubule maintain a concentration gradient of salt in the renal medulla which allows for the reabsorption of water and the production of concentrated urine
reversible reaction equation
CO2 + H20 <=> H2CO3
what hormone triggers ovulation
LH 1 egg ovulated per menstrual cycle
complex carbohydrates monomers
glucose
under normal circumstances these two molecules are completely reabsorbed by the kidney nephron
glucose and amino acids
cycle of ovulation and menstruation
The LH surge midway through the menstrual cycle triggers ovulation, prepares and releases egg for fertilization --days 1-5: menstrual phase (sheds the endometrium: --days 6-14: proliferative phase (build endometrium) --day 15: ovulation occurs LH -days 15-28: secretory
glycosuria
glucose in the urine
female sex chromosomes
XX
male sex chromosomes are
XY
the "microbiota" describes what
a community of bacteria found in the colon
urea
a metabolic waste product resulting from protein metabolism
transdermal patch
a small patch with synthetic forms of estrogen and progesterone to inhibit release of LH and FSH
what is jaundice
a yellowing of the skin and eyes due to elevated levels of bilirubin in blood
what hormone promotes salt reabsoprtion and why would this be necessary
aldosterone; NaCl is an important electrolyte that helps regulate fluid balance in the body. when aldosterone levels are high, more sodium is reabsorbed from the filtrate back into the bloodstream that helps maintain proper fluid balance and blood pressure. also helps conserve sodium
protein monomers
amino acids
tubal ligation
an incision is made in a woman's belly, both oviducts are tied in two places and a section is then removed between the two ties. no effects on physiology, estrogen levels are maintained
autosomes
any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
what is the cause of the acid reflux disease
backflow or splashing of acidic stomach contents into esophagus
bicarbonate function
body's primary buffer system, helps neutralize the acidic contents of the stomach as they enter the small intestine allowing digestive enzymes to function
are ion concentrations regulated by reabsorption or secretion or both
both; reabsorption occurs when ions are transported from the filtrate in the nephron back into bloodstream whereas secretion occurs when ions are transported from the bloodstream into the filtrate. the balance helps to maintain the proper balance of ions in the body
lipase function
breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids
amylase function
breaks down starches and sugars
how is water drawn out of the proximal convoluted tubule
by osmosis, water is reabsorbed into the bloodstream due to the high concentration of the solutes in the interstitial fluid surrounding the tubule
trypsin function
digests proteins in the small intestine
lipids monomers
glycerol and fatty acids
secretion
elimination of waste products (urea) and excess water into urine inside
what is the function of bile
emulsifies fats
neck cells
found in: stomach lining, gastric glands of mucosa layer produce mucous to protect inner lining of stomach from acids
parietal cells
found in: stomach lining, gastric glands of mucosa layer secrete HCl
chief cells
found in: stomach lining, gastric glands of mucosa layer secrete pepsin which digests proteins
paneth cells
found in: tip of villi secrete enzymes that kill bacteria
goblet cells
found in: villi secrete mucus
what is insulin and what does it measure
hormone produced by pancreas that regulates the amount of glucose in the bloodstream. it helps move glucose from bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy or stored for later use the measurement of insulin in the blood can be used to diagnose and monitor diabetes.
what are the most internal microbes of the human body located
in the colon/gut essential for normal intestinal development and supply us with vitamins
opposing roles of insulin and glycogen
insulin lowers blood glucose levels. glycogen raises blood glucose levels and maintains normal blood sugar levels in the body
function unit of kidney
nephron. 1 million in each kidney in charge of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
where does fertilization occur
oviduct
LH
ovulation and egg release, maturation of egg, production of testosterone in males.
what stimulus promotes secretion of bile and pancreatic juices onto the small intestine
presence of food in duodenum; this stimulus leads to the secretion of CKK cholecystokinin
what does human chorionic gonadotropin hormone prevent
prevents a miscarriage as it helps. maintain the pregnancy and supports fetal development
male reproductive system
produces and delivers sperm -scrotum produces sperm cells -sperm matures in epididymis which empties into ductus deferens. -ductus deferens receives secretions from seminal vesicles and prostate gland to form semen
oogensis
production of eggs in females by the process of meiosis and maturation
prolactin
production of milk
reabsorption
re-uptake of nutrients such as glucose back into bloodstream in proximal tubule
oxytocin
releases milk
vasectomy
removes vas deferens so sperm does not come out in the ejaculate
two regions of the kidneys
renal cortex and renal medulla
3 functional roles of the placenta
respiratory, digestive, and urinary temporary organ of pregnancy
filtration
separation of filtrate from plasma in glomerulus
why are women more prone to UTIs than men
shorter urethra
what occurs during a vasectomy
small incisions are made in the scrotum, and each ductus deferens is tied in two places. then a section is removed between the two ties. there are no physiological effects. testosterone and ejaculate fluid still present
detrusor muscle
smooth muscle that makes up the wall of the urinary bladder
components of semen
sperm; seminal vesicles; fructose, prostatic fluid; alkaline fluid, bulbourethral fluid; secrets mucus -the testes and prostate gland primarily produce semen
what is the function of the gallbladder
stores and concentrates bile
type of receptor alerts the brain of a full urinary bladder
stretch receptor
oral contraceptives
synthetic hormones used to prevent pregnancy and treat menstrual disorders
FSH
targets the gonads. in females, FSH stimulates the ovaries to develop follicles (oogenesis) and secrete estrogen; in males, FSH stimulates sperm cell production.
what does the brush border describe
the appearance of the microvilli under high magnification enhances the surface area for absorption of nutrients and contains digestive enzymes
meiosis
the cell division process responsible for creating egg and sperm cells -results in 4 daughter cells that are genetically different and each has 23 chromosomes
what organ of the digestive system is capable of regeneration
the liver, can regrow or return to normal function regeneration capacity depends on severity and type of injury as well as overall health
what does the hepatic portal circulation describe
the movement of blood from the GI tract, pancreas and spleen to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. after blood has been processed by the liver, it leaves through the hepatic portal veins and rejoin the systemic circulation
what is amniocentesis
the sampling of amniotic fluid using a hollow needle inserted into the uterus, to screen for developmental abnormalities in a fetus.
menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines and there's a decrease in estrogen production
how do fats enter the lymphatics
they are digested, reassembled and repackaged then finally absorbed into lymphatic fluid
how do amino acids and simple sugars enter the bloodstream
they enter into intestinal epithelial cells are secreted into the interstitial fluid and then into capillaries which eventually drain into the hepatic portal vein and they are off to the liver
what is a chylomicron
triglycerides put back together and packaged within a shell - lipoprotein produced in small intestine responsible for transporting dietary lipids from the small intestine to other parts of the body
which pancreatic juice activates other juices
trypsin; by relaxing smooth m uscle
what does a condom prevent
unintended pregnancy and STIs
two sphincters control voluntary micturation
upper sphincter is composed of smooth muscle lower sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle
excretion
wastes or excess materials are removed from the body outside