final exam study guide

macrophages

"big eaters" microbes, larger particles, dead neutrophils, etc. take longer than neutrophils to reach an infection site, but arrive in larger numbers can be fixed or wandering comprise the reticuloendothelial system Can work with lymphocytes as part of the adaptive immune response.

The hypothalamus-pituitary complex can be thought of as the

"command center" of the endocrine system.

atrial premature contraction

"skipped" heartbeat followed by a more forceful heartbeat. originate in the atrial myocardium and are common in healthy individuals.

In 10% of cases, dry AMD progresses to

"wet" AMD -new blood vessels form in the choroid and leak plasma or blood under the retina. Vision loss can be slowed by using laser surgery to destroy the leaking blood vessels.

cardiac reserve

% increase in CO that can be achieved during maximum exercise usually 4-5x the resting value. elite endurance athletes can have may have a 7-8x their resting CO. People with severe heart disease may have little or no cardiac reserve

Endocrine glands release its hormone

'bursts' Little to no release in between 'bursts' Regulation of secretion is vital to homeostasis.

eicosanoids

'local hormones' (paracrine or autocrine) break down rapidly so they are not able to travel very far. Most eicosanoids are produced from arachidonic acid. a polyunsaturated fatty acid, specifically a type of omega-6 fatty acid. obtained through diet, mainly from animal fats.

monocytes

(2-8% of leukocytes) Macrophages = monocytes that have left the circulation: phagocytize debris, foreign pathogens, dead/worn out/damaged cells.

cardiac tamponade

(AKA pericardial tamponade) excess fluid accumulates in the pericardial space the excess fluid puts pressure on the heart decreases ventricular filling, cardiac output, venous return, and blood pressure breathing becomes difficult causes include chest trauma, pericarditis, cardiac surgery, cancer Can be fatal if untreated Treatment = draining excess fluid with a needle (pericardiocentesis)

hypertrophy of kidney

(enlargement) of the remaining kidney, which eventually is able to filter blood at 80% of the rate of two normal kidneys.

external respiration

(pulmonary gas exchange) each gas diffuses independently PO2 in alveolar air is 105 mmHg, in blood in pulmonary capillaries = 40 mmHg (at rest) PCO2 of deoxygenated blood = 45 mmHg (at rest), PCO2 of alveolar air is 40 mmHg.

Erythrocytes

(red blood cell, RBC) is the most common formed element ~25 percent of the total cells in the body. pick up oxygen from the lungs and transport it to the tissues, and to pick up some (about 24 percent) carbon dioxide waste at the tissues and transport it to the lungs for exhalation. Erythrocytes remain within the vascular network.

internal respiration

(systemic/tissue gas exchange) PO2 of blood pumped into systemic capillaries is higher (100 mmHg) than the PO2 in tissue cells (40 mmHg at rest) cells constantly use O2 to produce ATP. tissue cells are constantly producing CO2 PCO2 of cells (45 mmHg at rest) is higher than systemic capillary blood (40 mmHg). at rest, tissue cells need only 25% of the available O2 in oxygenated blood; deoxygenated blood retains 75% of its O2 content. Exhaled air is a mixture of alveolar air and inhaled air that was in the anatomic dead space. the volume of a breath that does not participate in gas exchange

preovulatory phase

(time between the end of menstruation and ovulation) in the Ovaries By about day 6, a single secondary follicle in one of the two ovaries has outgrown all of the others Estrogens and inhibin secreted by the dominant follicle decrease the secretion of FSH, which causes other, less well-developed follicles to stop growing and degenerate. Fraternal (nonidentical) twins or triplets result when two or three secondary follicles become codominant and later are ovulated and fertilized at about the same time. the one dominant follicle becomes the mature (graafian) follicle, which continues to enlarge until it is more than 20 mm in diameter and ready for ovulation . the mature follicle continues to increase its production of estrogens. in the Uterus Estrogens stimulate the repair of the endometrium cells of the stratum basale undergo mitosis and produce a new stratum functionalis. As the endometrium thickens, the short, straight endometrial glands develop, and the arterioles coil and lengthen as they penetrate the stratum functionalis.

how much of lipid soluble hormones are not bound to a transport protein?

0.1-10% "free fraction" diffuse out of capillaries and bind to their receptors As hormone molecules leave the blood transport proteins release new ones to replace them

haploid

1 set of chromosomes

myocardial conducting cells

1% of the cells AKA autorhythmic cells Specialized, "self-excitable" initiate and conduct the action potential (electrical impulse) that travels through the heart and triggers the contractions that propel the blood.

lymph nodes

1-25 mm (0.04-1 in.) long usually occur in groups. Large groups of lymph nodes are present near the mammary glands, axillae, groin. Lymph nodes function to remove debris and pathogens from the lymph "filters of the lymph". Dendritic cells and macrophages phagocytose many of the pathogens site of adaptive immune responses (T cells, B cells) covered by a capsule of dense connective tissue that extends into the node. trabeculae divide the node into compartments, provide support, and provide a route for blood vessels structural support of the lymph node is provided by a series of reticular fibers The capsule, trabeculae, reticular fibers, and fibroblasts constitute the stroma (supporting framework of connective tissue) of a lymph node. lymph flows through a node in one direction. enters afferent lymphatic vessels, which contain valves that open toward the center of the node From the afferent lymphatic vessels, lymph flows into the sinuses. foreign substances are trapped by the reticular fibers within the sinuses of the node. macrophages destroy foreign substances by phagocytosis, lymphocytes destroy others by immune responses. The medullary sinuses drain into one or two efferent lymphatic vessels, which are wider and fewer in number than afferent vessels. all lymph flows through multiple lymph nodes on its path through the lymph vessels. The parenchyma (functioning part) of a lymph node is divided into the: outer cortex egg-shaped aggregates of B cells called lymphatic nodules (follicles). inner cortex mainly T cells and dendritic cells medulla B cells, antibody-producing plasma cells that have migrated out of the medulla, macrophages

gustatory receptor cells life span

10 days

when does death occur when diagnosis of huntington's starts?

10-20 years after symptoms

Erythrocytes live up to

120 days in the circulation wear and tear their as they squeeze through capillaries. Without a nucleus or organelles, RBCs cannot replace damaged components

your heart pumps more than about

14,000 liters (3600 gal) of blood in a day, or 5 million liters (1.3 million gal) in a year.

what organs compose of the urinary system

2 kidneys two ureters one urinary bladder one urethra

diploid

2 sets of chromosomes

Esinophils

2-4% of leukocyte count granules stain best with the stain eosin, and have a distinct red to orange color. contain molecules toxic to parasitic worms High counts are typical of patients with allergies, parasitic worm infestations, and some autoimmune diseases

circulation to the brain

20% of blood flow goes to the brain When blood flow is interrupted, a transient ischemic attack (TIA), or mini-stroke occurs loss of consciousness Loss of blood flow 3-4 minutes causes irreversible brain damage Both the carotid and vertebral arteries branch once they enter the cranial cavity some of these branches form a structure called the circle of Willis) an anastomosis that is like a traffic circle that sends off arterial branches to the brain

lymphocytes

20-30% of leukocytes Leave the bone marrow to mature in the lymphatic tissue. Natural killer (NK) cells: recognize cancer cells, cells infected with a virus B cells and T cells are involved in adaptive immunity. A memory cell is a variety of both B and T cells that can live for many years.

lobule

200-300, internal compartments in testes

When you donate blood, your body typically replaces plasma within

24 hours, but it takes about 4 to 6 weeks to replace the blood cells.

phases of the female reproductive cycle

24 to 36 days four phases: menstrual phase (menstruation, menses) the first day of menstruation is day 1 of a new cycle. in the Ovaries: Under the influence of FSH, several primordial follicles develop into primary follicles and then into secondary follicles. This may take several months to occur. in the Uterus: Menstrual flow consists of 50-150 mL of blood, tissue fluid, mucus, and epithelial cells shed from the endometrium. declining levels of progesterone and estrogens stimulate release of prostaglandins that cause the uterine spiral arterioles to constrict. the cells they supply become oxygen-deprived and start to die and sloughs off preovulatory phase ovulation postovulatory phase.

when do symptoms appear for huntington's disease

30-40

temp of blood

38°C (100.4°F), about 1°C higher than oral or rectal body temperature

spermatids

4 resulting cells after separation

After bleaching, regeneration of half of the rhodopsin takes:

5 minutes; half of the cone photopigments regenerate in 90 seconds.

how many taste cells are found in a taste buds

50-100

hypothyroidism in adulthood

5x more often in females than in males. edema (accumulation of interstitial fluid) causes face to look puffy, slow heart rate, low body temperature, sensitivity to cold, dry hair and skin, weakness, lethargy, weight gain, reduced mental activity

when do symptoms of parkinson's disease start?

60

blood is how much of adult body weight?

8%, 5 to 6 liters (1.5 gal) in an average-sized adult male; 4 to 5 liters (1.2 gal) in an average-sized adult female.

iron

< 20% of the iron we consume is absorbed. When EPO stimulates RBC production, iron is released from storage in the spleen and liver

Blood group AB antigen

A and B

urinary incontinence

A lack of voluntary control over micturition

thermoreception

A physiological response to changes in temperature

chemoreception

A physiological response to chemical stimuli

photoreception

A physiological response to light

mechanoreception

A physiological response to mechanical forces; pressure, touch, vibration

ATP

A typical cell has about a billion molecules of ATP, each of which typically lasts for less than a minute before being used. When the terminal phosphate group is split off ATP, adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate group (symbolized as ℗) are formed.

blood groups that A can receive

A,O

Adrencorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

ACTH, corticotropin controls production and secretion of cortisol and other glucocorticoids by the cortex (outer portion) of the adrenal glands. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates secretion Promoted by stress-related stimuli (low blood glucose, physical trauma) Glucocorticoids inhibit CRH and ACTH release via negative feedback.

What hormone controls whether dilute or concentrated urine is formed?

ADH

krebs cycle

AKA tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle or citric acid cycle Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria The acetyl group combines with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid. Over a course of 8 steps (each step driven by specific enzymes), each cycle yields: 2 H, 2 CO2, 1 GTP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2

major hormone of the heart

ANP; atrial natriuretic peptide

Metabolism During Postabsorptive State

About 4 hours after a meal, absorption of nutrients from the small intestine is complete, and the blood glucose level starts to fall the main metabolic challenge is to maintain normal blood glucose levels (70-110 mg/100 mL) Glucagon Released by pancreatic alpha cells The primary target is the liver; the major effect is increased release of glucose due to gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. Epinephrine Low blood glucose activates the sympathetic nervous system stimulates glycogenolysis and lipolysis. Cortisol promotes gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, and protein catabolism.

acid-base imbalances

Acidosis = blood pH is below 7.35 Causes depression of the central nervous system through depression of synaptic transmission. If blood pH falls below 7, individual becomes disoriented, then comatose, and may die. alkalosis = blood pH is higher than 7.45. overexcitability in both the central nervous system and peripheral nerves. nervousness, muscle spasms, and even convulsions and death. A change in blood pH that leads to acidosis or alkalosis may be countered by compensation the physiological response to an acid-base imbalance that acts to normalize arterial blood pH. Compensation may be either complete (pH is brought within normal range) or partial respiratory compensation If a person has altered blood pH due to metabolic causes, hyperventilation or hypoventilation can help bring blood pH back toward the normal range If a person has altered blood pH due to respiratory causes, renal compensation can help reverse the change changes in secretion of H+ and reabsorption of HCO−3 by the kidney tubules Respiratory acidosis Any condition that decreases the movement of CO2 from the blood to the alveoli of the lungs to the atmosphere causes a buildup of CO2, H2CO3, and H+. emphysema, pulmonary edema, injury to the respiratory center of the medulla oblongata, airway obstruction, or disorders of the muscles involved in breathing. respiratory alkalosis, drop in PCO2 and the resulting increase in pH hyperventilation Metabolic Acidosis blood HCO−3 level drops, causes the blood pH to decrease. actual loss of HCO−3 such as may occur with severe diarrhea or renal dysfunction; accumulation of an acid, as may occur in ketosis; failure of the kidneys Treatment of metabolic acidosis consists of administering intravenous solutions of sodium bicarbonate and correcting the cause of the acidosis. Metabolic Alkalosis blood HCO−3 concentration high Excessive vomiting results in a substantial loss of hydrochloric acid, is probably the most frequent cause of metabolic alkalosis. Other causes include gastric suctioning, use of certain diuretics, endocrine disorders, excessive intake of alkaline drugs (antacids), and severe dehydration.

elimination of invaders

Activated cytotoxic T cells leave secondary lymphatic organs and tissues and migrate to seek their targets targets cells are self-cells that have been altered (infected, cancerous, transplanted) CTLs attaches to the target cell and releases a pore-forming protein, perforin. Granzymes, proteases that induce apoptosis, are then able to enter through the pore. Other granules in cytotoxic T cells: granulysin: creates holes in plasma membranes. Lymphotoxin: activates enzymes that cause the target cell's DNA to fragment, and the cell dies. T cells secrete gamma-interferon, which attracts and activates phagocytic cells, and macrophage migration inhibition factor, which prevents migration of phagocytes from the infection site.

Activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells

Activation of a precursor T cytotoxic cell (CTLp) requires sequential, complex signaling by an APC, T helper cell and costimulatory signals. combine with MHC-I molecules on the surface of body cells infected by microbes some tumor cells cells of a tissue transplant. costimulation by interleukin-2 or other cytokines produced by active helper T cells that have already become bound to copies of the same antigen.

abdominal aorta

After crossing through the diaphragm at the aortic hiatus, the thoracic aorta is called the abdominal aorta. to the left of the vertebral column, embedded in adipose tissue behind the peritoneal cavity. ends at L4, where it bifurcates into the common iliac arteries.

enzymes

All metabolic reactions are catalyzed by enzymes All enzymes are encoded by genes Enzymes -protein catalysts of biochemical reactions in living cells Not permanently affected or depleted in reactions (reusable) Decrease activation energy Activation energy - energy needed to get a reaction started Cellular reactions have a high activation energy

aorta and its branches

All systemic arteries branch from the aorta. largest artery in the body. The aorta consists of the: ascending aorta aortic arch descending aorta Thoracic aorta abdominal aorta

veins draining lower limbs

All veins of the lower limbs have valves, which are more numerous than in veins of the upper limbs. The fibular vein and anterior/posterior tibial veins join the popliteal vein. As the popliteal vein passes behind the knee, it becomes the femoral vein. As the femoral vein penetrates the body wall, it becomes the external iliac vein, a large vein that drains blood from the leg to the common iliac vein.

water soluble

Amine, peptide and protein hormones; eicosanoids

urinalysis

An analysis of the volume and physical, chemical, and microscopic properties of urine

antibody

An anti-antigen protein Binds to a specific antigen

immunoglobulins

An antibody (Ab) can combine specifically with the epitope on the antigen that triggered its production. The antibody's structure matches its antigen much as a lock accepts a specific key. Y-shaped protein molecules two identical light chains two identical heavy chains The chains are joined by disulfide links and other bonds flexible (can assume a T shape) hinge region. Beyond the hinge region, parts of the two heavy chains form the stem region. Constant Region binds to cellular receptors and complement There are five major types of C regions, which account for the five major classes of immunoglobulins Each class has a distinct chemical structure and a specific biological role. Variable Region binds antigen Because most antibodies have two antigen-binding sites, they are said to be bivalent.

regulation of body water gain

An area in the hypothalamus known as the thirst center governs the urge to drink. Dehydration = water loss is greater than water gain decrease in volume and an increase in osmolarity signals that stimulate the thirst center Increased activity from osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus volume receptors in the atria baroreceptors in blood vessels angiotensin II neurons in the mouth that detect dryness due to a decreased flow of saliva.

Olfactory transduction consists of 4 steps:

An odorant binds to an olfactory receptor protein The activated receptor stimulates a G protein. G proteins (AKA guanine nucleotide-binding proteins) are "molecular switches" inside cells, transmitting outside signals into a cell The G protein activates an enzyme called adenylyl cyclase produces a substance called cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) cAMP cause the opening of cation channels, which leads to depolarization If the depolarization reaches threshold, an action potential is generated.

humoral immunity

Antibody-mediated immunity Since antibodies bind to antigens in body humors or fluids (such as blood and lymph), it is also referred to as humoral immunity. works against extracellular pathogens B cells transform into plasma cells, which synthesize and secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins (Igs))

nitrogenous waste

Any metabolic waste product that contains nitrogen

other components that activate RAS

Arousal (awakening from sleep) also involves increased activity in the RAS. Once the RAS is activated, the cerebral cortex is also activated, and arousal occurs resulting in wakefulness (consciousness) Many sensory stimuli can activate the RAS pain, touch, pressure, movement of the limbs, bright light, noise

arteries, arterioles, veins, venules

Arteries and arterioles have thicker walls than veins and venules because they are closer to the heart blood at highter pressure. Arteries have smaller, more rounded lumens than veins helps maintain blood pressure through the system. Thinner walls of venules and veins and larger lumen diameter allowing more blood to flow with less resistance many veins, particularly in the limbs, contain valves

proprioceptor stimulation of breathing

As soon as you start exercising, your rate and depth of breathing increase, even before changes in PO2, PCO2, or H+ level occur. The main stimulus for these quick changes in respiratory effort is input from proprioceptors, which monitor movement of joints and muscles. Nerve impulses from the proprioceptors stimulate the DRG of the medulla. axon collaterals (branches) of upper motor neurons that originate in the primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus) also feed excitatory impulses into the DRG.

subclavian arteries

As the subclavian artery exits the thorax into the axillary region, renamed the axillary artery. branches to supply blood to the region near the head of the humerus (humeral circumflex arteries), majority of the vessel becomes the brachial artery. the brachial artery bifurcates into the radial and ulnar arteries At the wrist, they fuse to form the superficial and deep palmar arches that supply blood to the hand, as well as the digital arteries that supply blood to the fingers

hyperbaric oxygenation

As the total air pressure increases, the partial pressures of all of its gases increase. The opposite is also true A person undergoing hyperbaric oxygenation is placed in a hyperbaric chamber, which contains O2 at a pressure greater than 1 atmosphere (760 mmHg). A major clinical application of Henry's law is hyperbaric oxygenation, the use of pressure to cause more O2 to dissolve in the blood. It is an effective technique in treating patients infected by anaerobic bacteria, such as those that cause tetanus and gangrene. Anaerobic bacteria cannot live in the presence of free O2. may also be used for treating carbon monoxide poisoning, smoke inhalation, near-drowning, asphyxia, and burns.

dalton's law

Atmospheric air is a mixture of gases—nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), argon (Ar), carbon dioxide (CO2), variable amounts of water vapor (H2O), plus other gases 78.6% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.093% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and 0.06% other gases The amount of water varies from practically 0% over a desert to 4% over the ocean Each gas diffuses across a permeable membrane from the area where its partial pressure is greater to the area where its partial pressure is less. The greater the difference in partial pressure, the faster the rate of diffusion. Compared with inhaled air, alveolar air has less O2 (13.6% versus 20.9%) and more CO2 (5.2% versus 0.04%) gas exchange in the alveoli increases CO2 and decreases the O2 inhaled air becomes humidified as it passes along mucosal linings. As water vapor content of the air increases, the relative percentage of O2 decreases.

stapes

Attached to the oval window.

auditory pathway step 5

Axons from the superior olivary nuclei then ascend to the inferior colliculus in the midbrain

ganglion cell layer

Axons of these cells form an optic nerve

blood group B antigen

B

b and t cells

B cells and T cells are identical morphologically distinguished from each other by their surface protein markers and the molecules they secrete. B cells produce antibodies. Once activated by binding to antigen, B cells differentiate into cells that secrete a soluble form of their surface antibodies. These activated B cells are known as plasma cells. T cells do not secrete antibody Different T cell types have the ability to: secrete soluble factors that communicate with other cells (cytokines) destroy cells infected with intracellular pathogens.

Blood group B can receive blood from

B,O

blood pressure

BP is highest in the aorta and large arteries and falls progressively as the distance from the left ventricle increases. blood pressure reaches 0 mmHg as blood flows into the right ventricle.

innate immune responses

Barrier defenses Ex: skin and mucous membranes innate immune response rapid but nonspecific variety of specialized cells and soluble factors adaptive immune response slower but more specific and effective primarily driven by lymphocytes hematopoietic stem cells allow for the continuous differentiation of blood cells to replace those lost to age or function.

exhalation of co2

Because H2CO3 can be eliminated by exhaling CO2, it is called a volatile acid. An increase in CO2 in body fluids lowers the pH When CO2 levels increase, the reaction is driven to the right, the H+ concentration increases, and blood pH decreases. a decrease in the CO2 concentration of body fluids raises the pH. When CO2 levels decrease, the reaction is driven to the left, H+ concentration falls, and blood pH increases. The pH of body fluids and the rate and depth of breathing interact via a negative feedback loop

diabetic ketoacidosis

Because insulin is not present to trigger entry of glucose into body cells, most cells use fatty acids to produce ATP. The by-products of fatty acid breakdown (ketones or ketone bodies) accumulate. Buildup of ketones causes blood pH to fall (ketoacidosis) Unless treated quickly, ketoacidosis can cause death.

cortical influences on breathing

Because the cerebral cortex has connections with the respiratory center, we can voluntarily alter our pattern of breathing. enables us to prevent water or irritating gases from entering the lungs. ability limited by the buildup of CO2 and H+ in the body. When PCO2 and H+ concentrations increase to a certain level, the DRG neurons of the medullary respiratory center are strongly stimulated, nerve impulses are sent along the phrenic and intercostal nerves to inspiratory muscles, and breathing resumes, whether the person wants it to or not. If breath is held long enough to cause fainting, breathing resumes when consciousness is lost. Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus and limbic system also stimulate the respiratory center, allowing emotional stimuli to alter breathing Ex: laughing, crying. emotional anxiety may stimulate the limbic system, which increases the rate and depth of breathing.

maturation of b and t cells

Before T cells leave the thymus or B cells leave red bone marrow, they develop immunocompetence the ability to carry out adaptive immune responses. B cells and T cells begin to make several distinctive proteins that are inserted into their plasma membranes. There are two major types of mature T cells that exit the thymus: helper T cells also known as CD4 T cells in addition to antigen receptors, their plasma membranes include a protein called CD4. cytotoxic T cells. Also called CD8 T cells plasma membranes contain not only antigen receptors but also a protein known as CD8.

lens

Behind the iris helps focus images on the retina Refracts light proteins called crystallins inside the cells of the lens compose the refractive media normally transparent/lacks blood vessels. enclosed by a clear connective tissue capsule and held in position suspensory ligaments

interventricular spetum

Between the two ventricles thicker than the interatrial septum

mesocolon

Binds transverse colon and sigmoid colon to posterior abdominal wall, holds intestines loosely in place

defense in blood

Blood can clot (become gel-like), to protect against blood loss white blood cells and some blood proteins (antibodies, interferons, complement) help protect against infectious disease

checking blood pressure

Blood pressure is usually measured in the brachial artery The device used to measure blood pressure is a sphygmomanometer The normal blood pressure of an adult male is less than 120/80 mmHg In young adult females, the pressures are 8 to 10 mmHg less.

hemodialysis

Blood removed from the body is delivered to a hemodialyzer (artificial kidney). the blood flows through a dialysis membrane

pulmonary circulation

Blood returning from the systemic circuit enters the right atrium The single vessel exiting the right ventricle is the pulmonary trunk. the pulmonary trunk bifurcates into the left and a right pulmonary artery. the pulmonary arteries are the only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood The pulmonary capillaries surround lung alveoli that are the sites of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange. Four pulmonary veins, two on the left and two on the right, return blood to the left atrium, completing the pulmonary circuit pulmonary veins are the only veins that carry oxygenated blood.

three types of cones

Blue, green, and red cones are sensitive to blue, green and red light; respectively Color vision results from the stimulation of various combinations of these three types of cones.

acidity (ph)

Bohr effect: As pH decreases, the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 decreases, and O2 dissociates more readily from hemoglobin. The main acids produced by metabolically active tissues are lactic acid and carbonic acid. hemoglobin can act as a buffer for hydrogen ions (H+). when H+ ions bind to hemoglobin, the structure changes; decreasing its oxygen-carrying capacity.

veins of upper limbs

Both superficial and deep veins return blood from the upper limbs to the heart. Superficial veins larger than deep veins return most of the blood from the upper limbs. Deep veins usually accompany arteries have the same names as the corresponding arteries. The digital veins in the fingers come together in the hand to form the palmar venous arches. From the palmar venous arches, the veins come together to form the: radial vein ulnar vein median antebrachial vein joins the basilic vein in the forearm. As the basilic vein reaches the antecubital region, it gives off a branch called the median cubital vein most common site for drawing venous blood in humans. As the axillary vein enters the thorax it becomes the subclavian vein.

blood supply

Branches of the internal iliac artery called uterine arteries supply blood to the uterus. Uterine arteries give off branches called arcuate arteries that are arranged in a circular fashion in the myometrium. These arteries branch into radial arteries that penetrate deeply into the myometrium. Just before the branches enter the endometrium, they divide into two kinds of arterioles: Straight arterioles supply the stratum basalis with the materials needed to regenerate the stratum functionalis spiral arterioles supply the stratum functionalis and change markedly during the menstrual cycle. Blood leaving the uterus is drained by the uterine veins into the internal iliac veins. The extensive blood supply of the uterus is essential: to support regrowth of a new stratum functionalis after menstruation implantation of a fertilized ovum development of the placenta.

digestion

Breaking down food by mechanical and enzymatic action

actions of buffer systems

Buffers prevent rapid, drastic changes in the pH of body fluids by converting strong acids and bases into weak acids and weak bases within fractions of a second. The principal buffer systems of the body fluids are the: protein buffer system, most abundant buffer can buffer both acids and bases The carboxyl group at one end of acts like an acid by releasing H+ when pH rises The amino group at the other end can act as a base by combining with H+ when pH falls carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system bicarbonate (HCO−3) can act as a weak base carbonic acid (H2CO3) can act as a weak acid. HCO−3 is a significant anion in both intracellular and extracellular fluids this buffer system cannot protect against pH changes due to respiratory problems in which there is an excess or shortage of CO2. Phosphate Buffer System dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO−4 ) as a weak acid monohydrogen phosphate (HPO2−4) acts as a weak base

partial pressure of co2

CO2 also can bind to hemoglobin, and the effect is similar to that of H+ (shifting the curve to the right). As PCO2 rises, hemoglobin releases O2 more readily PCO2 and pH are related factors because low blood pH (acidity) results from high PCO2. As CO2 enters the blood, much of it is temporarily converted to carbonic acid (H2CO3), a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme in red blood cells called carbonic anhydrase (CA) Decreased PCO2 (and elevated pH) shifts the saturation curve to the left.

CO2 transport

CO2 is transported in three ways: Dissolved CO2 (7%) in blood plasma. On reaching the lungs, it diffuses into alveolar air and is exhaled. Carbamino compounds (23%) Because the most prevalent protein in blood is hemoglobin, most of the CO2 transported this way is bound to hemoglobin. called carbaminohemoglobin (Hb-CO2): greatly influenced by PCO2. Bicarbonate ions. (70%) bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) are transported in blood plasma CO2 reacts with water in the presence of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into H+ and HCO3- as blood picks up CO2, HCO−3 accumulates inside RBCs. Some HCO3- moves out into the blood plasma, down its concentration gradient. As blood passes through pulmonary capillaries in the lungs, all of these reactions reverse and CO2 is exhaled. The amount of CO2 that can be transported in the blood is influenced by the percent saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen. The lower the amount of oxyhemoglobin (Hb-O2), the higher the CO2-carrying capacity of the blood, a relationship known as the Haldane effect.

referring pain

Can be referred to other parts of the body (pain is not felt at the site of the affected organ)

radiating pain

Can radiate from the affected organ to other sites

hypophyseal portal system

Capillary bridge within the infundibulum connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary. Hypothalamic hormones travel through a primary capillary plexus to the portal veins, which carry them into the anterior pituitary. Hormones produced by the anterior pituitary enter a secondary capillary plexus and drain into the circulation.

carbon monoxide poisoning

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless and odorless gas found in exhaust fumes from automobiles, gas furnaces, space heaters, and tobacco smoke. a by-product of the combustion of carbon-containing materials such as coal, gas, and wood. CO binds to hemoglobin 200 times stronger than O2 at a concentration as small as 0.1% (PCO = 0.5 mmHg), CO will combine with half the available hemoglobin molecules and reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood by 50%. carbon monoxide poisoning can cause the lips and oral mucosa to appear bright, cherry-red (the color of hemoglobin with carbon monoxide bound to it). Without prompt treatment, carbon monoxide poisoning is fatal. It is possible to rescue a victim of CO poisoning by administering pure oxygen, which speeds up the separation of carbon monoxide from hemoglobin.

signs and symptoms of shock

Cardiovascular: Systolic blood pressure is lower than 90 mmHg. Pulse is weak and rapid (thread) due to reduced cardiac output and fast heart rate. Skin is cool, pale, clammy due to sympathetic constriction of skin blood vessels and stimulation of sweating. Mental state is altered due to reduced oxygen supply to the brain. Metabolic Reduced urine formation increased levels of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). GI The person may have nausea due to impaired blood flow to the digestive organs from sympathetic vasoconstriction.

carbohydrate mechanism

Cells degrade highly reduced compounds (with many hydrogen atoms) to highly oxidized compounds. Most organisms use carbohydrates as their primary energy source Glucose is the most commonly used carbohydrate energy source preferred source for synthesizing ATP

cellular respiration

Cellular respiration: a set of metabolic reactions to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP respiration of glucose occurs involves four sets of reactions: glycolysis formation of acetyl coenzyme A Krebs cycle electron transport chain (oxidative phosphorylation) 2 types of respiration Aerobic uses oxygen as final electron acceptor aerobe Anaerobic does not use oxygen

movement of water between body fluid compartments

Changes in osmolarity most often result from changes in the concentrations of Na+ and Cl− (the major contributors to osmolarity of extracellular fluid). High osmolarity causes net movement of water from cells into extracellular fluid. Such water movement shrinks the cells of the body. If neurons of the brain remain in this state for a significant period of time, mental confusion, convulsions, coma, and even death can occur. A decrease in the osmolarity of extracellular fluid can occur, for example, after drinking a large volume of water. movement of water from extracellular fluid into cells, which causes the cells to swell. swelling of the brain's neurons can result in mental confusion, seizures, coma, and possibly death. solutions given for intravenous or oral rehydration therapy include small amounts of NaCl

compliance of lungs

Compliance = how much effort is required to stretch the lungs and chest wall. High compliance means that the lungs and chest wall expand easily; low compliance means that they resist expansion. related to elasticity and surface tension. The lungs normally have high compliance and expand easily when elastic fibers in lung tissue are easily stretched and surfactant in alveolar fluid reduces surface tension. Causes of decreased compliance include: scar tissue, pulmonary edema, deficiency in surfactant, paralysis of the intercostal muscles

vascular resistance

Compliance: ability of a compartment to expand stiffening of arteries = increased resistance Blood Volume Low blood volume (hypovolemia) bleeding, dehydration, severe burns individual may be asymptomatic until 10-20% of blood volume is lost. excessive fluid volume (hypervolemia) retention of water and sodium heart failure, cirrhosis, some kidney disease Blood Viscosity any condition affecting erythropoiesis (polycythemia or anemia) any condition affecting liver function (most plasma proteins are produced by the liver) Vessel Length One lb of fat contains ~ 200 miles of vessels, skeletal muscle contains more than twice that. Gaining about 10 pounds adds from 2000 to 4000 miles of vessels, depending the gained tissue. Vessel diameter (lumen) vasoconstriction /vasodilation

organ of corti

Composed for specialized epithelial cells, including supporting cells and about 16,000 hair cells

filiform papillae

Contain tactile receptors but no taste buds.

endolymph

Contains a high level of potassium ions, which plays a role in auditory signal transduction

vascular spasm

Contraction of smooth muscle in the vessel walls probably caused by chemicals released by vessel lining cells, substances released from activated platelets, and by reflexes initiated by pain receptors. Lasts for several minutes to several hours

Posterior Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the Cortex

Conveys impulses for touch, pressure, vibration, and conscious proprioception from the limbs, trunk, neck, and posterior head The name of the pathway comes from two white-matter tracts that convey the impulses: posterior column of the spinal cord medial lemniscus of the brainstem.

The hormone-receptor complex binds

DNA and alters gene expression (turns genes on or off) Causes the responses

flaccid paralysis

Damage or disease of lower motor neurons of muscles on the same side of the body. neither voluntary nor reflex action of the innervated muscle fibers, muscle tone is decreased or lost, muscle is limp (flaccid)

phototransduction step 7

Decreased number of open Ca2+ channles decreases the release of inhibitory neurotransmitter, allowing signal to flow to ganglion cells and fire action potentials

gas exchange and transport

Deoxygenated blood returning to the lungs contains dissolved CO2, carbaminohemoglobin, and HCO3- The RBCs have also picked up H+ As blood passes through the pulmonary capillaries, molecules of CO2 dissolved in blood plasma and CO2 that dissociates from the hemoglobin diffuse into alveoli and are exhaled. Carbon dioxide also is released from HCO3- when it combines with H+ inside RBCs. The H2CO3 formed from this reaction then splits into CO2 and H2O.

endocrine system functions

Directs growth and development Regulates body functions Alters metabolism and energy balance Participates in circadian rhythms established by the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus Reproduction

functions of lymphatic system

Drains excess interstitial fluid. When the lymphatic system is damaged/blocked in some way, interstitial fluid accumulates = lymphedema Transports dietary lipids from the gastrointestinal tract to the blood. Protects against pathogens Transports immune cells Immune cells use lymph nodes as "staging areas" for the development of immune responses. lymph node= small, bean-shaped organs located throughout the lymphatic system.

what occasionally occurs during NRem sleep?

Dreaming, but the dreams are usually less vivid, less emotional, and more logical

female reproductive cycle

During reproductive years, nonpregnant females normally exhibit cyclical changes in the ovaries and uterus. Each cycle takes about a month and involves both oogenesis and preparation of the uterus Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and ovaries control these events. ovarian cycle: events in the ovaries that occur during and after the maturation of an oocyte. uterine (menstrual) cycle: a concurrent series of changes in the endometrium of the uterus to prepare it for the arrival of a fertilized ovum. If fertilization does not occur, ovarian hormones wane, which causes the stratum functionalis of the endometrium to slough off. female reproductive cycle: encompasses the ovarian and uterine cycles, the hormonal changes that regulate them, and the related cyclical changes in the breasts and cervix.

30. ADH acts on the _____ to regulate facultative water reabsorption. a) proximal convoluted tubules b) descending portions of the nephron loop c) thick and thin segments of the ascending nephron loop d) early and late distal convoluted tubules e) late distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts

E

39.Urine moves from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder due to1. peristalsis 2. gravity 3. hydrostatic pressure a) 1 only b) 2 only c) 3 only d) 1 and 2 are correct. e) 1, 2, and 3 are correct.

E

in rem sleep, what is similar to a person that's awake

EEG waves, brain blood flow and oxygen use are actually higher than during intense mental or physical activity while awake! heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure increase

mammary glands

Each breast is anterior to the pectoralis major and serratus anterior muscles attached to them by a layer of fascia composed of dense irregular connective tissue. Each nipple has a series of closely spaced openings of ducts called lactiferous ducts, where milk emerges. The circular pigmented area of skin surrounding the nipple is called the areola it appears rough because it contains modified sebaceous (oil) glands. suspensory ligaments of the breast (Cooper's ligaments) run between the skin and fascia and support the breast. Within each breast is a mammary gland, a modified sudoriferous (sweat) gland that produces milk. A mammary gland consists of 15 to 20 lobes, separated by adipose tissue. In each lobe are several smaller lobules, composed of grapelike clusters of milk-secreting glands termed alveoli. Contraction of myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli helps propel milk toward the nipples. milk passes from the alveoli into a series of secondary tubules and then into the mammary ducts. Near the nipple, the mammary ducts expand to form lactiferous sinuses, where some milk may be stored before draining into a lactiferous duct. The functions of the mammary glands are the synthesis, secretion, and ejection of milk (lactation)

lobules

Each bronchopulmonary segment has many small compartments called lobules each lobule is wrapped in elastic connective tissue and contains a lymphatic vessel, an arteriole, a venule, and a branch from a terminal bronchiole. Respiratory bronchioles in turn subdivide into several (2-11) alveolar ducts, which consist of simple squamous epithelium. Terminal bronchioles have alveoli budding from their walls. Alveoli participate in gas exchange, and thus respiratory bronchioles begin the respiratory zone of the respiratory system.

ejaculatory ducts

Each ejaculatory duct is about 2 cm (1 in.) long and is formed by the union of the duct from the seminal vesicle and the ampulla of the vas deferens. form just superior to the base of the prostate and pass inferiorly and anteriorly through the prostate. terminate in the prostatic urethra

right ventricle

Each flap of the valve is attached to strands of connective tissue (chordae tendineae) connect each flap to a papillary muscle

lungs

Each lung is enclosed and protected by a double-layered serous membrane called the pleural membrane (pleura) parietal pleura: lines the wall of the thoracic cavity visceral pleura: covers the lungs Between the visceral and parietal pleurae is a small space, the pleural cavity, which contains a small amount of lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes. pleural fluid reduces friction between the membranes, allowing them to slide easily over one another during breathing. Separate pleural cavities surround the left and right lungs. if trauma causes one lung to collapse, the other may remain expanded. The lungs extend from the diaphragm to slightly superior to the clavicles and lie against the ribs the base is concave and fits over the diaphragm. The narrow superior portion of the lung is the apex. The surface of the lung lying against the ribs, the costal surface, matches the rounded curvature of the ribs. The mediastinal (medial) surface of each lung contains a region, the hilum, through which bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and exit. These structures are held together by the pleura and connective tissue and constitute the root of the lung. the left lung also contains a concavity, the cardiac notch, in which the apex of the heart lies. Due to the space occupied by the heart, the left lung is about 10% smaller than the right lung. Although the right lung is thicker and broader, it is also somewhat shorter than the left lung because the diaphragm is higher on the right side, accommodating the liver that lies inferior to it.

follicular development

Each month after puberty until menopause, gonadotropins (FSH and LH) secreted stimulate the development of several primordial follicles only one will typically reach the maturity needed for ovulation. A few primordial follicles start to grow, developing into primary follicles. Each primary follicle consists of a primary oocyte that is surrounded several layers of cuboidal and low-columnar cells called granulosa cells. As the primary follicle grows, it forms a clear glycoprotein layer called the zona pellucida between the primary oocyte and the granulosa cells. stromal cells surrounding the basement membrane begin to form an organized layer called the theca folliculi. With continuing maturation, a primary follicle develops into a secondary follicle. the theca differentiates into two layers: the theca interna, a highly vascularized internal layer of cuboidal secretory cells that secrete androgens the theca externa, an outer layer of stromal cells and collagen fibers. the granulosa cells begin to secrete follicular fluid, which builds up in a cavity called the antrum in the center of the secondary follicle. The innermost layer of granulosa cells becomes firmly attached to the zona pellucida and is now called the corona radiata. The secondary follicle eventually becomes larger, turning into a mature (graafian) follicle. the diploid primary oocyte completes meiosis I, producing two haploid (n) cells of unequal size—each with 23 chromosomes. The smaller cell produced by meiosis I, called the first polar body, is essentially a packet of discarded nuclear material. The larger cell, known as the secondary oocyte, receives most of the cytoplasm. a secondary oocyte begins meiosis II but then stops in metaphase. The mature (graafian) follicle soon ruptures and releases its secondary oocyte, a process known as ovulation. At ovulation, the secondary oocyte is expelled into the pelvic cavity together with the first polar body and corona radiata. Normally these cells are swept into the uterine tube. If fertilization does not occur, the cells degenerate. If sperm are present in the uterine tube and one penetrates the secondary oocyte, meiosis II resumes. The secondary oocyte splits into two haploid cells, again of unequal size. The larger cell is the ovum, or mature egg the smaller one is the second polar body. Thus, one primary oocyte gives rise to a single gamete (an ovum). The nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum then unite, forming a diploid zygote. a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes

histology of ovary

Each ovary consists of the following parts: ovarian mesothelium (surface epithelium) simple epithelium (low cuboidal or squamous) tunica albuginea a whitish capsule of dense irregular connective tissue located immediately deep to the mesothelium. cortex deep to the tunica albuginea. consists of ovarian follicles surrounded by dense irregular connective tissue that contains collagen fibers and fibroblast-like cells called stromal cells. medulla deep to the cortex loosely arranged connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. Ovarian follicles consist of oocytes in various stages of development, plus the cells surrounding them. The surrounding cells: nourish the developing oocyte secrete estrogens as the follicle grows larger.

receptor selectivity

Each sensory modality has its own sensory receptor, which responds to one particular stimulus

disorders of clotting

Either an insufficient or an excessive production of platelets can lead to severe disease or death.

tunica interna in the heart

Endothelium is continuous with the endocardial lining of the heart. secretes mediators that influence the vessel's smooth muscle/capillary permeability reduces surface friction. internal elastic lamina = elastic fibers with a variable number of openings allows diffusion of materials through the intima to the tunica media.

contrast of epinephrine and norepinephrine

Epinephrine is produced in greater quantities (~ 4 to 1) than norepinephrine, and is the more powerful hormone.

factors influencing heart rate

Exercise/fitness level Age Newborn resting HRs may be 120 bpm. HR gradually decreases until young adulthood and then gradually increases again with age. Maximum HR decreases with age estimated by subtracting the person's age from 220 bpm Adjustments in heart rate Innervation by the the cardiovascular center (in the medulla oblongata) hormones Epinephrine and norepinephrine (from the adrenal medullae and cardiac accelerator nerves) Exercise, stress, excitement Thyroid hormones electrolytes (calcium, potassium, sodium) Elevated blood K+ or Na+ decrease heart rate and contractility. increased Ca2+ level increases heart rate and contractility pH acidosis (low pH) and alkalosis (high pH) decrease cardiac activity Hypoxia depresses cardiac activity

exhalation

Exhalation starts when the inspiratory muscles relax. a passive process because no muscular contractions are involved. elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs, both of which have a natural tendency to spring back after they have been stretched. pressure in the lungs is greater than the pressure of the atmosphere. alveolar pressure increases to about 762 mmHg. Exhalation becomes active only during forceful breathing Contraction of the abdominal muscles moves the inferior ribs downward and compresses the abdominal viscera, thereby forcing the diaphragm superiorly. Contraction of the internal intercostals pulls the ribs inferiorly.

major hormones in skeleton

FGF23, osteoclacin

the axons of the mitral cells

FORM the olfactory tract.

endocrine system: site of action

Far from site of release; binds to receptors on or in target cells

other forms of catabolism

Fat Metabolism Microbes that produce lipases can break fat into fatty acid and glycerol Protein Metabolism proteolytic enzymes (proteases) Amino acids are deaminated (amino groups

uterine tubes

Females have two uterine tubes (fallopian tubes, oviducts) that extend laterally from the uterus. The tubes are about 10 cm (4 in.) long, lie within the folds of the broad ligaments of the uterus. provide a route for sperm to reach an ovum and transport secondary oocytes and fertilized ova from the ovaries to the uterus. The funnel-shaped portion of each tube, called the infundibulum, is close to the ovary but is open to the pelvic cavity. It ends in a fringe of fingerlike projections called fimbriae, one of which is attached to the lateral end of the ovary. From the infundibulum, the uterine tube extends and attaches to the superior lateral angle of the uterus. uterine tubes are composed of mucosa, muscularis, and serosa. Mucosa: consists of epithelium and lamina propria ciliated simple columnar cells: function as a "ciliary conveyor belt" to help move a fertilized ovum (or secondary oocyte) toward the uterus nonciliated cells (peg cells) which have microvilli and secrete a fluid that provides nutrition for the ovum. muscularis consists of smooth muscle. Peristaltic contractions and the ciliary action of the mucosa help move the oocyte or fertilized ovum toward the uterus. The outer layer of the uterine tubes is a serous membrane (serosa) After ovulation, currents are produced by movements of the fimbriae, which surround the surface of the mature follicle just before ovulation occurs. The currents sweep the secondary oocyte from the peritoneal cavity into the uterine tube. sperm usually encounters and fertilizes the oocyte in the ampulla of the uterine tube, although fertilization in the peritoneal cavity is not uncommon. Fertilization can occur up to about 24 hours after ovulation. Some hours after fertilization, the haploid ovum and sperm unite. The zygote begins to undergo cell divisions while moving toward the uterus. arrives in the uterus 6 to 7 days after ovulation. Unfertilized secondary oocytes disintegrate.

secondary hemostasis

Fibrin strands form an insoluble mesh of fibers that trap blood cells at the site of damage

bulk flow

Filtration: Pressure-driven movement from capillaries into interstitial fluid blood hydrostatic pressure (BHP), generated by the heart pumping Reabsorption: blood colloidal osmotic pressure (BCOP) driven movement from interstitial fluid into capillaries plasma proteins do not dissolve, forming a colloid plasma proteins don't move across the capillary cell membrane blood has a higher colloidal concentration and lower water concentration, attracts water. net filtration pressure (NFP): The balance of these pressures Directs movement of fluid NFP changes at different points in a capillary bed. 85% of the fluid filtered out of capillaries is reabsorbed. excess enters lymphatic capillaries.

villi

Fingerlike extensions of the intestinal mucosa that increase the surface area for absorption

Formation, Storage, and Release of Thyroid Hormones

Follicular cells actively transport I from the blood. - the thyroid contains most of the iodide in the body. Follicular cells synthesize thyroglobulin (TGB) - trapped iodine binds TBG Iodide is oxidized to Iodine - iodide cannot bind to tyrosine until oxidized (removal of electrons). Iodine reacts with tyrosine in the thyroglobulin molecules. - Binding of one iodine = monoiodotyrosine (T1), binding of two iodines = diiodotyrosine (T2). - TGB with attached iodine atoms = colloid. Coupling of T1 and T2. - two T2 molecules join to form T4, or one T1 and one T2 join to form T3. TSH stimulates endocytosis of colloid back into the follicle cells - colloid merges with lysosomes, and T3 and T4 are cleaved from TGB Secretion of thyroid hormones. Transport in the blood. - Unbound hormone called free T3 and T4

chemical digestion in the mouth

Food molecules begin to dissolve in the water in saliva

t helper cells/cd4+t cells

For a T helper cell to become activated, needs two signals T cell receptor recognizes antigen complexed with MHC class II on an APC surface a costimulatory signal that comes from either the APC or T helper cell Of the more than 20 known costimulators, some are cytokines, such as interleukin-2 (IL-2). The need for costimulation may prevent immune responses from occurring accidentally. The activated T helper cell begins to proliferate and secrete cytokines. causes the proliferating T helper cells to differentiate into population subsets subsets act on different immune cells interleukin-2 (IL-2) is needed for virtually all immune responses and is the prime trigger of T cell proliferation. example of a beneficial positive feedback system. Works in an autocrine and paracrine manner form memory cells

inhalation

For air to flow into the lungs, the pressure inside the alveoli must become lower than the atmospheric pressure. This condition is achieved by increasing the size of the lungs. The pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container. Boyle's law if the thoracic cavity increases in size, the lungs also expand; if the thoracic cavity decreases in size, the lungs recoil The first step in normal (quiet) inhalation involves contraction of the diaphragm Contraction of the diaphragm causes it to flatten, lowering its "dome" During normal inhalation, the diaphragm descends about 1 cm (0.4 in.), producing an inhalation of about 500 mL of air. In strenuous breathing, the diaphragm may descend 10 cm (4 in.), which produces an inhalation of 2-3 liters of air. responsible for about 75% of the air that enters the lungs during quiet breathing. Contraction of the external intercostals are responsible for about 25% of the air that enters the lungs during normal quiet breathing. elevate the ribs, which increases the anteroposterior and lateral diameters of the chest cavity. Intrapleural pressure: pressure within the pleural cavity. always a negative pressure (lower than atmospheric pressure) essentially functions as a vacuum. attaches the visceral pleura to the chest wall. As the volume of the lungs increases, the pressure in the alveoli of the lungs, called the alveolar (intrapulmonic) pressure, drops Because air always flows from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure, inhalation takes place. During deep, forceful inhalations: accessory muscles also participate sternocleidomastoid muscles: elevate the sternum scalene muscles: elevate the first two ribs pectoralis minor muscles: elevate the third through fifth ribs

Pathways of Antigen Processing

For an immune response to occur, B cells and T cells must recognize that a foreign antigen is present. B cells recognize and bind to antigens in lymph, interstitial fluid, or blood plasma. T cells only recognize fragments of antigenic proteins that are processed and presented In antigen processing, antigenic proteins are broken down into peptide fragments that then associate with MHC molecules. the antigen-MHC complex is inserted into the plasma membrane of a body cell. The insertion of the complex into the plasma membrane is called antigen presentation. When a peptide fragment comes from a self-protein, T cells (usually) ignore it If the peptide fragment comes from a foreign protein, an immune response takes place. Antigen processing and presentation occur in two ways, depending on whether the antigen is located outside or inside body cells.

GH levels are controlled by the release of

GHRH and GHIH (AKA somatostatin) from the hypothalamus.

All of the following are considered organs of the G.I. tract except: - pharynx - small intestine - gallbladder - stomach - esophagus

Gallbladder

duration of immunity

Genetic lifetime Actively acquired adaptive months to lifetime Passively acquired adaptive days to weeks

glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion

Glomerular filtration. Anything smaller than proteins gets filtered and moves into the glomerular capsule and then into the renal tubule. Tubular reabsorption. tubule cells reabsorb about 99% of the water and many solutes into peritubular capillaries Tubular secretion. tubule and duct cells secrete wastes into the fluid. drugs, medications, excess ions removes substances from the blood.

hormones of zona fasiculata

Glucocorticoids: role in glucose metabolism. The most important of these is cortisol, some of which the liver converts to cortisone. Produced in response to stressors (physical and emotional) exercise, fasting, fright, temperature extremes, high altitude, bleeding, infection, surgery, trauma, and disease. Functions: Resistance to stress. inhibit tissue building while stimulating the breakdown of stored nutrients to maintain adequate fuel supplies makes blood vessels more sensitive to other hormones that cause vasoconstriction (raise blood pressure) Anti-inflammatory/depression of the immune system inhibit white blood cells that participate in inflammatory responses. Controlled via a negative feedback system.

glycolysis

Glyco (sugar) lysis (splitting) AKA Embden-Meyerhof pathway Part I in carbohydrate catabolism Does not require oxygen (anaerobic) Over a course of 10 steps glucose is oxidized to pyruvic acid each step driven by specific enzymes 1 glucose molecules yields : 2 H, 2 H20, 2 ATP, 2NADH, 2 pyruvate

glucose metabolism

Glycogenesis = glycogen synthesis. Hepatocytes and muscle fibers storage capacity of glycogen is about 125 g in the liver and 375 g in skeletal muscles. If glucose is not needed immediately for ATP production, it combines with other molecules of glucose to form glycogen the only stored form of carbohydrate in the body. Stimulated insulin Glycogenolysis = stored glycogen is broken down into glucose and released into the blood.

hormone regulation of female reproductive cycle

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secreted by the hypothalamus controls the ovarian and uterine cycles. stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary. both FSH and LH stimulate the ovarian follicles to secrete estrogens. FSH initiates follicular growth, LH stimulates development of the ovarian follicles. At midcycle, triggers ovulation and then promotes formation of the corpus luteum, Stimulates the corpus luteum to produce and secrete estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin. Estrogens (β-estradiol, estrone, estriol) secreted by ovarian follicles Promote and maintain eproductive structures, secondary sex characteristics, and the breasts. Increase protein anabolism, including the building of strong bones. Lower blood cholesterol level stimulates the stratum basalis to form a new stratum functionalis Progesterone secreted mainly by cells of the corpus luteum cooperates with estrogens Prepares/maintains the endometrium for implantation prepares the mammary glands for milk secretion. relaxin produced by the corpus luteum relaxes the uterus by inhibiting contractions of the myometrium. implantation may occur more readily At the end of pregnancy, relaxin also increases the flexibility of the pubic symphysis and may help dilate the uterine cervix Inhibin secreted by granulosa cells and the corpus luteum Inhibits secretion of FSH and LH.

most common form of hyperthyroidism is

Graves disease 7-10 times more often in females than in males, usually before age 40. autoimmune disorder, person produces antibodies that mimic TSH. enlarged thyroid (goiter), edema behind the eyes (exophthalmos) which causes the eyes to protrude, excessive body heat and sweating, weight loss, tremors, increased heart rate.

taste bud: gustatory receptor cells

Have gustatory hairs which project to the surface through a taste pore

hemodynamics

Hemodynamics = forces involved in circulating blood through the body. Blood flow = the volume of blood that flows through a tissue in a given time period (mL/min). Total blood flow = cardiac output (CO, the volume of blood that circulates through systemic (or pulmonary) blood vessels each minute How cardiac output is distributed depends on: pressure differences drives blood flow Contraction of the ventricles generates blood pressure BP, the hydrostatic pressure exerted by blood on the walls of a blood vessel) the resistance to blood flow in blood vessels vascular resistance = friction between blood and the walls of blood vessels. the higher the resistance, the smaller the blood flow.

lipolysis

Hormone control Enhance lipolysis Epinephrine /norepinephrine, cortisol, thyroid hormones, insulinlike growth factors. inhibit lipolysis. insulin Fatty acids are catabolized differently than glycerol and yield more ATP. A 16-carbon fatty acid can yield as many as 129 ATPs on its complete oxidation via beta oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain! beta oxidation Enzymes remove two carbon atoms at a time and attach them to coenzyme A, forming acetyl CoA. As part of normal fatty acid catabolism, hepatocytes can take two acetyl CoA molecules at a time and condense them to form acetoacetic acid Some acetoacetic acid is converted into beta-hydroxybutyric acid and acetone. The formation of these three substances, collectively known as ketone bodies, is called ketogenesis. ketone bodies leave hepatocytes and enter the bloodstream.

antibody mediated immunity

Humoral immunity = antibody (immunoglobulin (Ig)) mediated immune actions taking place extracellularly involves B lymphocytes (B cells) Immunoglobulins corresponding to specific antigens coat the surfaces of B cells. Activated B cells (plasma cells) secrete the same specific immunoglobulin In the presence of a foreign antigen, a specific B cell in a lymph node, the spleen, or mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue becomes activated. "B cells stay put" Plasma (the effector cells of a B cell clone) secrete antibodies, which circulate in the lymph and blood to reach the site of invasion.

acromelagy

Hypersecretion of GH during adulthood after the epiphyseal plates are closed the hands, feet, cheeks, jaws, eyelids, lips, tongue, and nose enlarge the skin thickens and develops furrows, especially on the forehead and soles.

giantism

Hypersecretion of GH during childhood The person grows to be very tall, but body proportions are about normal.

cushing's syndrome

Hypersecretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex The condition is characterized by: spindly arms and legs accompanied by a rounded "moon face," "buffalo hump" on the back, and pendulous (hanging) abdomen. Facial skin is flushed. Easy bruising, poor wound healing hyperglycemia, osteoporosis, weakness, hypertension, increased susceptibility to infection, decreased resistance to stress, mood swings. People who need long-term glucocorticoid therapy may develop a cushingoid appearance.

hypertension

Hypertension = chronically elevated blood pressure 140/90 mm Hg or above. About 68 million Americans currently suffer from hypertension. known as the "silent killer" because it can damage blood vessels, heart, brain, and kidneys before it causes pain or other symptoms.

pituitary dwarfism

Hyposecretion of GH before epiphyseal plates close and before normal height is reached. organs also fail to grow, and body proportions are childlike.

TH17 cells produce IL-17

IL-17 acts as a chemokine to recruit neutrophils. May stimulate epithelial cells to produce antimicrobial proteins

down regulation

If a hormone is present in excess, the number of target-cell receptors may decrease makes a target cell less sensitive to a hormone.

transfusion

If a patient receives red blood cells with a different blood type during a blood transfusion, IgM antibodies react foreign red blood cells are agglutinated (clumped), complement is activated hemolysis (rupture of blood cells) occurs within the blood vessels. Causes release of hemoglobin into the blood plasma. the load of hemoglobin released can easily overwhelm the kidney's capacity to clear it, and the patient can quickly develop kidney failure. Usually during or within 24h of transfusion

edma

If filtration exceeds reabsorption, result is edema abnormal increase in interstitial fluid volume. Edema is not apparent until interstitial fluid volume has risen by 30%! excess filtration Increased capillary blood pressure Increased permeability of capillaries chemical, bacterial, thermal, or mechanical agents on capillary walls. inadequate reabsorption Decreased plasma proteins lowers the blood colloid osmotic pressure. liver disease, burns, malnutrition, kidney disease.

what happens when one side of the heart fails first than the other?

If the left ventricle fails first, blood backs up in the lungs (pulmonary edema) If the right ventricle fails first, blood backs up in the systemic veins over time, the kidneys increase in blood volume. results in peripheral edema, usually most noticeable in the feet and ankles.

how can the large Igm antibodies have effect pregnant women?

IgM-type antibodies that do not cross the placenta, ABO incompatibility between a mother and her fetus RARELY causes problems, therefore the effect isn't negative

myocardial infection symptoms

In addition to chest pain, patients may present with difficulty breathing/shortness of breath (dyspnea), irregular heartbeat (palpations), nausea/vomiting, sweating (diaphoresis), anxiety, and/or fainting (syncope) some MIs present without any symptoms. If an infarction disrupts the conduction system of the heart, can cause sudden death

FSH

In females, FSH stimulates the ovaries to develop follicles (oogenesis) and secrete estrogen; in males, FSH stimulates spermatogenesis.

actions of thyroid hormones

Increase basal metabolic rate. basal metabolic rate = the amount of energy used by the body at rest Heat production Enhance actions of catechlolamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) by up-regulating receptors. excess thyroid hormone can cause increased heart rate, more forceful heartbeats, and increased blood pressure. Regulate development and growth of nervous tissue and bones. promote synapse formation, myelin production, and growth of dendrites. support neurological function in adults promote formation of ossification centers bones, synthesis of bone proteins, and secretion of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factors (IGFs). Deficiency of thyroid hormones during fetal development, infancy, or childhood causes severe mental retardation and stunted bone growth. deficiencies can influence libido and fertility

reg aerobic exercise can

Increase cardiac output Increase HDL Decrease triglycerides Improve lung function Decrease blood pressure Assist in weight control reduce anxiety and depression increase the body's ability to dissolve blood clots tends to bring resting heart rate down in both sexes

sty

Infection of these glands, usually by bacteria

pericarditis

Inflammation of the pericardium chest pain, pericardial friction rub (a scratchy or creaking sound heard through a stethoscope) Can be chronic or acute

ingestion/digestion

Ingestion cell membrane extensions (pseudopodia) surround the captured microbe the pseudopods meet they fuse, surrounding the microorganism in a sac (phagosome) Digestion The phagosome merges with lysosomes (phagolysosome) Lysosomes contain: digestive enzymes (ex: proteases) enzymes that can produce toxic oxygen products (oxidative burst) ex: superoxide radical (O2−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radical (OH-) lysozyme chemical onslaught quickly kills many types of microbes. Any materials not degraded remain in structures called residual bodies. The residual bodies are then either secreted by exocytosis or they remain stored in the cell the contents of the vacuole are released via fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane

calcitonin can decrease calcium levels by

Inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts bone cells that release calcium into the circulation by degrading bone matrix Increasing osteoblastic activity Decreasing calcium absorption in the intestines Increasing calcium loss in the urine

basal nuclei neurons function in movement

Initiation of movements. Suppression of unwanted movements. Regulation of muscle tone. Sends signals to the reticular formation that reduce muscle tone

spastic paralysis

Injury or disease of upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex removes inhibitory influences on lower motor neurons of muscles on the opposite side of the body. muscle tone is increased, reflexes are exaggerated, and pathological reflexes such as the Babinski sign appear.

aphasia

Injury to language areas

regulation of respiratory center

Input form other brain regions Receptors in the peripheral nervous system

Metabolism during Absorptive State

Insulin Stimulated by glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP), rising blood levels of glucose and certain amino acids Released by pancreatic beta cells increases the activity of enzymes for anabolism decreases the activity of enzymes for catabolism promotes entry of glucose and amino acids into cells stimulates glycogenesis in both liver and muscle cells. Stimulates lipogenesis in liver and adipose tissue stimulates protein synthesis. Insulin-like growth factors and thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) stimulate protein synthesis.

protein anabolism

Insulinlike growth factors, thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), insulin, estrogen, and testosterone all stimulate protein synthesis. Because proteins are a main component of most cell structures, adequate dietary protein is especially essential during the growth years, during pregnancy, and when tissue has been damaged by disease or injury. Once dietary intake of protein is adequate, eating more protein will not increase bone or muscle mass; only a regular forceful, weight-bearing muscular activity accomplishes that goal. Of the 20 amino acids in the human body, 10 are essential Humans are unable to synthesize eight amino acids isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine synthesize two others (arginine and histidine) in inadequate amounts, especially in childhood.

overview of cellular immunity

Involves T lymphocytes (T cells) Recognizes intracellular antigens virus, certain bacteria, some parasites not exposed to antibodies recognizes abnormal cells (especially cancer) T cells have T cell receptors (TCRs) that recognize a specific antigenic peptide attached to a MHC molecule Activated T cells can: destroy target cells (CTLs) proliferate and secrete cytokines, inducing other cells to perform a function (TH cells) form memory cells

phototransduction step 1

Isomerization of cis-retinal to trans-retinal

smoking affects

Laryngitis and cancer of the larynx Laryngitis: inflammation of the larynx most often caused by a respiratory infection or irritants such as cigarette smoke. Inflammation of the vocal folds causes hoarseness or loss of voice by interfering with the contraction of the folds or by causing them to swell to the point where they cannot vibrate freely. Many long-term smokers acquire a permanent hoarseness from the damage done by chronic inflammation. Cancer of the larynx is found almost exclusively in individuals who smoke. The condition is characterized by hoarseness, pain on swallowing, or pain radiating to an ear. Treatment consists of radiation therapy and/or surgery. Smoking may cause a person to become easily "winded" during even moderate exercise: Nicotine constricts terminal bronchioles, which decreases airflow into and out of the lungs. Carbon monoxide in smoke binds to hemoglobin and reduces its oxygen-carrying capability. Irritants in smoke cause increased mucus secretion by the mucosa of the bronchial tree and swelling of the mucosal lining Irritants in smoke also inhibit the movement of cilia and destroy cilia in the lining of the respiratory system. The irritants can also convert the normal respiratory epithelium into stratified squamous epithelium, which lacks cilia and goblet cells. With time, smoking leads to destruction of elastic fibers in the lungs and is the prime cause of emphysema. These changes cause collapse of small bronchioles and trapping of air in alveoli at the end of

protein

Long chains (50-200) of amino acids (ex: growth hormone).

lymphatic capillaries

Lymphatic vessels begin as lymphatic capillaries. located in the spaces between cells greater permeability allows absorption of large molecules proteins, lipids structure permits interstitial fluid to flow in but not out. The ends of endothelial cells overlap. When pressure is greater in the interstitial fluid, the cells separate allowing fluid to enter When pressure is greater in the capillary, the cells adhere more closely, trapping the lymph Attached to the lymphatic capillaries are anchoring filaments When there's swelling, these filaments are pulled, making the openings between cells larger In the small intestine, specialized lymphatic capillaries called lacteals carry dietary lipids Chyle = lymph carrying these lipids Lipids cause the lymph to look milky lymph is usually a clear, pale-yellow

self tolerance

Lymphocyte receptor sequences are randomly generated Due to the random nature of their creation, some receptors would recognize healthy tissue The process of eliminating lymphocytes that might attack the cells of one's own body is referred to as self tolerance. Two mechanisms to check for self reactive receptors central tolerance - occurs at site of maturation T-cell = thymus T-cell binds self antigens = apoptosis (Clonal deletion) B-cell = bone marrow B-cell binds self antigens = receptor editing (rearrangement) If editing is unsuccessful - apoptosis (Clonal deletion) peripheral tolerance - occurs outside site of maturation Regulatory T cells suppress auto-reactive T-Cells anergy (functionally inactive) B-cells require signaling from Helper T-cells to work anergy

muscular arteries

Medium-sized arteries femoral/axillary arteries (pencil sized) arteries that enter organs (string-sized) more smooth muscle, fewer elastic fibers Vasoconstriction/vasodilation do not recoil maintains a state of partial contraction = vascular tone important for vessel pressure/efficient blood flow.

secondary spermatocyte

Meiosis II

light touch

Meissner's corpuscles Merkel discs

kidney excretion of h+

Metabolic reactions produce nonvolatile acids The only way to eliminate this huge acid load is to excrete H+ in the urine. renal failure can quickly cause death. cells in both the proximal convoluted tubules (PCT) and the collecting ducts of the kidneys secrete hydrogen ions into the tubular fluid. intercalated cells of the collecting duct can secrete H+ against a concentration gradient urine can be up to 1000 times (3 pH units) more acidic than blood. a second type of intercalated cell secrete HCO−3 and reabsorb H+. Some H+ secreted into the tubular fluid of the collecting duct is buffered, The most plentiful buffer in the tubular fluid of the collecting duct is monohydrogen phosphate ion a small amount of NH3 (ammonia) also is present. these ions cannot diffuse back into tubule cells, they are excreted in the urine.

hormones released by zona glomerlosa

Mineralocorticoids: effect body minerals, especially sodium and potassium. essential for fluid and electrolyte balance. Aldosterone = major mineralocorticoid. regulates of the concentration of sodium and potassium ions in urine, sweat, and saliva. released in response to elevated blood K+, low blood Na+, low blood pressure, or low blood volume. increases the excretion of K+ and the retention of Na+, which increases blood volume and blood pressure. Controlled by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)

location of taste buds

Most are on the tongue, but some taste buds are found on the soft palate, pharynx, and epiglottis.

lipid metabolism

Most lipids are hydrophobic To be transported in blood, lipids must be made more water-soluble by combining them with proteins produced by the liver and intestine. Lipoproteins: spherical particles with an outer shell of proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol surrounding an inner core of triglycerides and other lipids. The proteins in the outer shell are called apoproteins (apo) designated by the letters A, B, C, D, and E plus a number.

vitamin and mineral supplements

Most nutritionists recommend getting vitamins and minerals from food, except in special circumstances. iron women who have excessive menstrual bleeding iron and calcium for women who are pregnant or breast-feeding folic acid (folate) for all women who may become pregnant (reduces the risk of fetal neural tube defects) calcium for most adults B12 for strict vegetarians who eat no meat. Hypovitaminosis = vitamin deficiency larger doses of vitamins or minerals can be very harmful. Hypervitaminosis = refers to dietary intake of a vitamin that exceeds the ability of the body to utilize, store, or excrete the vitamin. because lipid-soluble vitamins are stored in the body, excessive consumption may cause problems.

transcellular reabsorption

Move through a tubule cell

ducts of testis

Myoid cells and fluid secreted by Sertoli cells pushes sperm along the lumen of seminiferous tubules into short ducts called straight tubules. straight tubules lead to a network of ducts called the rete testis. From the rete testis, sperm move into a series of coiled ducts in the epididymis that empty into a single tube called the ductus epididymis.

cGMP opens cation channels, which allows

Na+ ions to enter the cell.

Trigeminothalamic Pathway

Nerve impulses for most somatic sensations (tactile, thermal, and pain) from the face, nasal cavity, oral cavity, teeth

Anterolateral (Spinothalamic) Pathway to the Cortex:

Nerve impulses for pain, temperature, itch, and tickle from the limbs, trunk, neck, and posterior head

autonomic regulation of heart rate

Nervous system regulation of the heart originates in the cardiovascular (CV) center in the medulla oblongata. receives input from the limbic system and cerebral cortex Sympathetic neurons extend from the medulla oblongata into the spinal cord. From the thoracic spinal cord, sympathetic cardiac accelerator nerves extend to the SA node, AV node, and most of the myocardium. release norepinephrine, increasing heart rate and contractility Parasympathetic nerve impulses reach the heart via the vagus (X) nerve. Vagal axons terminate in the SA node, AV node, and atrial myocardium. releases acetylcholine, decreasing heart rate by slowing the rate of spontaneous depolarization in autorhythmic fibers. At rest, parasympathetic stimulation predominates. The resting heart rate (about 75 beats/min) is usually lower than the autorhythmic rate of the SA node

antibody actions

Neutralization The antibody blocks bacterial toxins or prevents attachment of viruses to body cells. Immobilizing bacteria. antibodies against the cilia or flagella Agglutinating and precipitating antigen. Because antibodies have two or more binding sites, the antibody may cross-link pathogens to one another, causing agglutination (clumping together). Phagocytic cells ingest agglutinated microbes more readily. antigens may come out of solution and form a precipitate Activating complement. Enhancing phagocytosis. The antibody acts as a flag that attracts phagocytes Antibodies coat microbes so that they are more susceptible to phagocytosis.

neutrophils in lymphatic system

Neutrophils (polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs)) Guard skin and mucosa granulocytes. cytoplasmic granules contain vasoactive mediators Ex: Histamine highly phagocytic and motile Can leave the blood, enter infected tissues An adult has 50 billion circulating neutrophils at all times! short lived (don't divide) 1 - 2 day lifespan Usually 'first on the scene' killed in the process of killing microbes, forming pus

guidelines for healthy eating

No single food contains all of the required vitamins one of the best reasons to eat a varied diet. We do not know with certainty what levels and types of carbohydrate, fat, and protein are optimal in the diet. Different populations around the world eat radically different diets that are adapted to their particular lifestyles. emphasis on proportionality, variety, moderation, and nutrient density in a healthy diet. Proportionality simply means eating more of some types of foods than others. Ex: vegetables and whole represent the largest portions. Variety is important for a healthy diet because no one food or food group provides all of the nutrients and food types that the body needs. Beans and peas are good sources of the nutrients found in both vegetables and protein foods. Choosing nutrient-dense foods helps individuals practice moderation to balance calories consumed with calories expended.

arterioles and capillary beds

Normally, the precapillary sphincters are closed. When tissues need oxygen and have excess waste, the precapillary sphincters open If all of the precapillary sphincters are closed, blood will flow into a thoroughfare channel and into the venous circulation blood flow through a capillary bed moves with an irregular, pulsating flow (vasomotion) due to contraction/relaxation of metarterioles and precapillary sphincters

respiratory system consists of

Nose pharynx (throat) larynx (voice box) trachea (windpipe) bronchi lungs

nutrition

Nutrients = chemical substances in food that body cells use for growth, maintenance, and repair. The six main types of nutrients are: water 2-3 liters per day carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins provide the energy for metabolic reactions and serve as building blocks to make body structures. Vitamins and minerals Some minerals and many vitamins are components of the enzyme systems that catalyze metabolic reactions.

What two things does the body get from Food

Nutrients and energy

Blood group O can receive blood from

O

Blood group AB can receive blood from

O, A, B, AB

molecular defenses: complement activated

Once activated, C3 begins a cascade that leads to phagocytosis, cytolysis, and inflammation Functions of the complement system: (1) enhance phagocytosis Opsonization (2) lyse microbes directly (immune cytolysis) Membrane Attack Complexes protein complex is hydrophobic and inserts into the microbial cell membrane. (3) inflammation stimulating chemotaxis Three complement proteins (C3a, C4a, and C5a) cause basophils and mast cells to release histamine Proteins in blood and on body cells break down activated C3. damage to body cells is minimized.

common pathway

Once factor X is activated, it combines with factor V in the presence of Ca2+ to form the active enzyme prothrombinase prothrombinase converts factor II (inactive prothrombin) into the active enzyme thrombin. thrombin, in the presence of Ca2+, converts fibrinogen (soluble) to fibrin threads (insoluble).

There are four types of photopigments:

One for each type of cone (green, red, and blue) one type in rods (called rhodopsin)

auditory pathway step 4

Other axons from the medulla extend to the superior olivary nucleus of the pons. differences in the timing of action potentials arriving from the two ears at the superior olivary nuclei allow us to locate the source of a sound.

oxygen transport

Oxygen does not dissolve easily in water only about 1.5% of inhaled O2 is dissolved in blood plasma 98.5% of blood O2 is bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells. The heme portion of hemoglobin contains four atoms of iron, each capable of binding a molecule of O2. Oxygen and hemoglobin bind in an easily reversible reaction to form oxyhemoglobin The 98.5% of the O2 that is bound to hemoglobin is trapped inside RBCs, so only the dissolved O2 (1.5%) can diffuse out of tissue capillaries into tissue cells.

EKG waves

P wave: atrial depolarization The atria begin contracting approximately 25 ms after the P wave starts The repolarization of the atria occurs during the QRS complex, which masks it on an ECG. QRS complex: ventricular depolarization stronger electrical signal because of the larger size of the muscle. ventricles begin to contract at the peak of the R wave and continues during the S-T segment. T wave: ventricular repolarization During the plateau period, the ECG tracing is flat.

Where does the majority of water and solute reabsorption occur?

PCT

deep pressure and vibration

Pacinian corpuscles

seminal vesicles

Paired, convoluted pouchlike structures about 2 in. in length posterior to the base of the urinary bladder and anterior to the rectum. secrete an alkaline, viscous fluid that contains fructose, prostaglandins, and clotting proteins (different from those in blood). alkaline fluid helps neutralize the acidic environment of the urethra and female reproductive tract that otherwise would inactivate and kill sperm. The fructose is used for ATP production by sperm. Prostaglandins contribute to sperm motility/viability and may stimulate smooth muscle contractions in the female reproductive tract. clotting proteins help semen coagulate after ejaculation. Fluid secreted by the seminal vesicles normally constitutes about 60% of the volume of semen.

ovaries

Paired, female gonads resemble unshelled almonds in size and shape The ovaries produce: gametes, secondary oocytes that develop into mature ova (eggs) after fertilization Hormones A series of ligaments holds them in position. broad ligament of the uterus a fold of the parietal peritoneum which attaches to the ovaries by a double layered fold called the mesovarium ovarian ligament anchors the ovaries to the uterus suspensory ligament attaches them to the pelvic wall. Each ovary contains a hilum the point of entrance and exit for blood vessels and nerves along which the mesovarium is attached.

scala vestibuli

Part of bony labyrinth Sound from the oval window moves up the cochlea

scala tympani

Part of bony labyrinth Sound moves down the cochlea to the round window Separated from the cochlear duct by the basilar membrane

cochlear duct

Part of membranous labyrinth

serous pericardium

Part of the heart wall protect the heart and reduces friction by secreting serous fluid (pericardial fluid) reduces friction between the layers of the serous pericardium as the heart moves. consists of two layers (the only true difference is the portion of the cavity that they line and what they connect to) parietal pericardium: fused to the fibrous pericardium visceral pericardium: part of the heart wall (epicardium).

cardiac cycle phases

Passive Ventricular Filling both the atria and ventricles are in diastole Blood passively flows into the atria and ventricles 70-80 % of ventricular filling occurs this way Atrial Contraction pumps the remaining 20-30% to fill the ventricles the ventricles contain ~ 130 mL blood (end diastolic volume) Isovolumetric Ventricular Contraction (Ventricular Systole: Part I) the pressure of the blood within the chamber rises, but not enough to open the semilunar valves enough to close the AV valves Ventricular Ejection (Ventricular Systole: Part II) contraction raised enough pressure to open the semilunar valves The amount of blood ejected from the ventricles is called stroke volume. normally 70-80 mL, meaning 50-60 mL of blood remains (end systolic volume) Isovolumetric Ventricular Relaxation The semilunar valves close to prevent backflow into the heart. AV valves are still closed, so there is no change in volume of blood in the ventricle As the ventricle continues to relax, pressure in the ventricle drops below that of the atria. The AV valves open, and phase 1 begins again

Rh factor

People whose RBCs have Rh antigens are designated Rh+ (Rh positive); those who lack Rh antigens are designated Rh− (Rh negative). Normally, blood plasma does not contain anti-Rh antibodies.

sickle cell disease

People with two sickle cell genes have severe anemia; those with only one defective gene have the sickle cell trait. Sickle cell disease is inherited. a person with sickle cell trait has a higher-than-average resistance to malaria. abnormal hemoglobin (hemoglobin S) delivers less oxygen, causes erythrocytes to assume a sickle (crescent) shape, especially at low oxygen concentrations. sickled cells can become lodged in capillaries, blocking blood flow sickled cells rupture easily (die in 10 to 20 days) anemia, rapid breakdown of RBCs may cause jaundice, fever, rapid heart rate, swelling and inflammation of the hands/feet, leg ulcers, eye damage, excessive thirst, frequent urination Any activity that reduces the amount of oxygen in the blood (ex: exercise) may produce a sickle cell crisis

phagocytes

Phagocytes are specialized cells that perform phagocytosis the ingestion of microbes/particles/cell debris "cell eating", a form of endocytosis Phagocytes include: Dendritic Cells Neutrophils Macrophages Phagocytosis occurs in 4 steps: chemotaxis adherence ingestion Digestion phagocytosis also plays a vital role in adaptive immunity

adherence

Phagocytes have receptors called toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) When the TLRs bind PAMPs, cell releases cytokines regulates the intensity/duration of response recruits other WBCs activates T cells and B cells Some microbes are hard to adhere to (capsules, interfering proteins) Ospsonization = coating the bacterium with proteins called opsonins antibodies, complement promotes attachment

chemotaxis

Phagocytosis begins with chemotaxis, a chemically stimulated movement of phagocytes to a site of damage. chemotactic chemicals (Chemokines) include: microbial products components of white blood cells and damaged tissue cells cytokines signaling proteins secreted by cells complement a system of host defense proteins

mechanisms of ATP generation

Phosphorylation = the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule Organisms use three mechanisms of phosphorylation to generate ATP: Substrate-level phosphorylation: generates ATP by transferring a high-energy phosphate group from a substrate directly to ADP. occurs in the cytosol. Oxidative phosphorylation: removes electrons from organic compounds and passes them through a series of electron acceptors (the electron transport chain) to oxygen occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane of cells. Photophosphorylation: occurs in chlorophyll-containing plant cells or in certain bacteria

photoreceptor layer

Photoreceptors (rods and cones) convert light into electrical signals.

primary hemostasis

Platelets undergo a structural change when activated to form a sticky plug at the damaged region

inflammation pt. 2

Pro-Inflammatory Chemicals released due to Tissue Injury. mast cells release histamine, leukotrienes, prostaglandins Histamine: Vasodilation/Increased permeability of local capillaries basophils and platelets also release histamine. Leukotrienes: increased permeability; chemotaxis Produced by basophils and mast cells, Prostaglandins: intensify pain/effects of histamine/kinins. released by damaged cells Kinins: vasodilation/increased permeability/chemotaxis example bradykinin. Complement: histamine release, chemotaxis, promote phagocytosis; some can destroy bacteria. Vasodilation. helps remove microbial toxins and dead cells. Heat, redness Increased Vascular Permeability. permits proteins like antibodies and clotting factors to enter the injured area Edema Recruitment of Phagocytes by chemotaxis Neutrophils and macrophages also stimulate the release of histamine macrophages clean up the debris left over at the site.

prolactin

Produced by lactotropic cells in the anterior pituitary promotes lactation (milk production) in women. During pregnancy, contributes to development of the mammary glands after birth, stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk. depends heavily upon the permissive effects of estrogens, progesterone, and other hormones. In a non-pregnant woman, prolactin secretion is inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) released from the hypothalamus. during pregnancy prolactin levels rise in response to prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) from the hypothalamus. The function of prolactin in males in unknown.

pentose phosphate pathway

Produces five-carbon sugars (pentoses) used to make nucleic acids and certain amino acids

Long Term Potentiation

Prolonged, enhanced (potentiated) synaptic transmission that occurs within the hippocampus Lasts for hours or weeks after stimulation. believed to underlie aspects of memory

extrinsic eye muscles

Protects and stabilizes the eyeballs anchors the extrinsic eye muscles needed for eye movements some of the fastest and most precise skeletal muscles in the body.

gonadotropins

Puberty is initiated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Produced/secreted by the hypothalamus. GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete gonadotropins—hormones that regulate the function of the gonads. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) gonadotropins regulate reproductive function throughout life The levels of GnRH are regulated through a negative feedback loop; high levels of reproductive hormones (estrogens and testosterone) inhibit the release of GnRH.

aging and reproductive system

Puberty: the period when secondary sexual characteristics begin to develop and the potential for sexual reproduction is reached. The onset of puberty is marked by pulses or bursts of LH and FSH secretion, each triggered by a pulse of GnRH. Most pulses occur during sleep. As puberty advances, the hormone pulses occur during the day as well as at night. The pulses increase in frequency during a 3- to 4-year period until the adult pattern is established. In females, the reproductive cycle normally occurs once each month from menarche, the first menses, to menopause, the permanent cessation of menses. Some atrophy of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, and breasts occurs in postmenopausal women. Healthy men often retain reproductive capacity into their eighties or nineties. At about age 55 a decline in testosterone synthesis leads to reduced muscle strength, fewer viable sperm, and decreased sexual desire. Although sperm production decreases 50-70% between ages 60 and 80, abundant sperm may still be present even in old age. Enlargement of the prostate to two to four times its normal size occurs in most males over age 60. This condition, called benign prostatic hyperplasia, decreases the size of the prostatic urethra

checking pulse

Pulse = a traveling pressure wave created by the expansion/recoil of elastic arteries after each ventricular contraction. strongest in arteries closest to the heart and disappears altogether in the capillaries. felt in any artery that lies near the surface and can be compressed against a bone or other firm structure. Resting pulse rate: normally 70 - 80 beats per minute Both the rate and the strength of the pulse are important clinically. If the pulse is weak, systolic pressure has fallen

Eryhtropoietin

RBC productions secreted by the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels. With renal failure RBC production is inadequate. Can be used to treat anemia, renal failure, or during cancer treatment

hair root plexus

Rapidly adapting free nerve endings wrapped around hair follicles. detect movements on the skin surface that disturb hairs

functions of large intestine

Reabsorption of water Compaction of intestinal contents into feces Absorption of important vitamins produced by bacteria Storage of fecal material prior to defecation

sensory receptors: specialized receptor cell

Receptors for hearing, equilibrium (balance), taste, and vision. the receptor potential triggers release of neurotransmitter which produces a postsynaptic potential (a type of graded potential) in the sensory neuron. if the postsynaptic potential is large enough to reach threshold, it triggers an action potential in the axon.

sensory receptors: free nerve endings

Receptors for pain, temperature, tickle, itch, and some touch sensations if the receptor potential is large enough to reach threshold, it triggers an action potential.

sensory receptors: encapsulated nerve endings

Receptors for pressure, vibration, and some touch sensations. if the receptor potential is large enough to reach threshold, it triggers an action potential in the axon.

metabolic adaptations

Regulation of metabolic reactions depends on: environment within body cells, such as the levels of ATP and oxygen signals from the nervous and endocrine systems. absorptive state: ingested nutrients are entering the bloodstream, and glucose is readily available. postabsorptive state: absorption of nutrients from the GI tract is complete, energy needs must be met by fuels already in the body. Hormones are the major regulators of metabolism in each state.

Spinocerebellular pathway

Relays information from proprioceptors up the spinal cord to the cerebellum Somatosensory information involved with proprioception and posture critical for posture, balance, and coordination of skilled movements. proprioception can be improved with practice, and impaired by disease or disuse

hormone regulation of blood pressure: atrial natriuretic peptide

Released by cells in the atria of the heart Promotes vasodilation promotes the loss of salt and water in the urine, which reduces blood volume. suppresses renin, aldosterone, and ADH

hormone regulation of blood pressure: epinephrine and norepinephrine

Released by the adrenal medulla in response to sympathetic stimulation increase cardiac output by increasing the rate and force of heart contractions. causes vasoconstriction of arterioles and veins in the skin and abdominal organs and vasodilation of arterioles in cardiac and skeletal muscles "fight-or-flight" response.

hormone regulation of blood pressure: RAA system

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAA) system. Renen secreted by the kidneys when blood flow to the kidneys decreases Renin converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II in the lungs by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). angiotensin II raises blood pressure stimulates the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone stimulates the thirst center in the hypothalamus

eyelashes

Sebaceous glands at the base of the hair follicles of the eyelashes release a lubricating fluid into the follicles.

adaptive immunity: memory

Secondary response = prompt response due to "recall" Memory cells can remain for years or decades

semen

Semen is a mixture of sperm and seminal fluid, a liquid that consists of the secretions of the seminiferous tubules, seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands. The volume of semen in a typical ejaculation is 2.5-5 milliliters (mL), with 50-150 million sperm per mL. When the number falls below 20 million/mL, the male is likely to be infertile. only a tiny fraction of sperm ever reaches the secondary oocyte too many sperm without sufficient dilution from seminal fluid results in infertility because the sperm tails tangle and lose mobility. After passing through the uterus and uterine tube, the sperm are affected by secretions of the uterine tube in a process called capacitation. physiological changes spermatozoa must undergo in order to have the ability to penetrate and fertilize an egg

exteroception

Sensory information arising primarily from outside the body

stimulation of sensory receptor

Sensory neurons are called first order neurons AKA primary afferent axons

Shock and Homeostasis

Shock = failure of the cardiovascular system to deliver enough O2 and nutrients to meet the body's cellular needs. inadequate blood flow to body tissues. With inadequate oxygen, cells switch from aerobic to anaerobic respiration, and lactic acid accumulates in body fluids. If shock persists, cells begin to die and organs become damaged Types of shock hypovolemic shock: decreased blood volume Hemorrhage, Dehydration cardiogenic shock: poor heart function myocardial infarction, heart ischemia, heart valve problems, arrhythmias. vascular shock: inappropriate vasodilation anaphylactic shock: a severe allergic reaction histamine and other mediators cause vasodilation. neurogenic shock: trauma to the head malfunction of the cardiovascular center Septic shock: from bacterial toxins that produce vasodilation obstructive shock: obstruction of blood flow.

inhalation reflex

Similar to those in the blood vessels, stretch receptors are located in the walls of bronchi and bronchioles. When these receptors become stretched during overinflation of the lungs, nerve impulses are sent along the vagus (X) nerves to the dorsal respiratory group (DRG In response, the DRG is inhibited and the diaphragm and external intercostals relax. As air leaves the lungs during exhalation, the lungs deflate and the stretch receptors are no longer stimulated. Thus, the DRG is no longer inhibited, and a new inhalation begins. In infants, the reflex appears to function in normal breathing. the reflex in adults is a protective mechanism that prevents excessive inflation of the lungs, for example, during exercise

first line of defense: skin and mucous membranes

Skin layers of packed, keratinized cells shedding of cells helps remove microbes Sweat/skin secretions lower pH, contain toxic lipids, and physically wash microbes away. mucous membranes traps many microbes and foreign substances. The mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract contains cilia propels trapped dust/microbes toward the throat. Swallowing sends pathogens to the stomach Gastric juice is a mixture of hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and mucus. pH 1.2-3.0 destroys many bacteria and most bacterial toxins. "Flushing" Vomiting/Diarrhea Coughing/sneezing lacrimal apparatus Tears also contain lysozyme lysozyme also present in saliva, perspiration, nasal secretions, and tissue fluids. The cleansing of the urethra by the flow of urine

electrolytes

Sodium 90% of the extracellular cations. accounts for almost half of the osmolarity of extracellular fluid generation and conduction of action potentials in neurons and muscle fibers. Chloride the most prevalent anion in extracellular fluid. helps balance the level of anions in different fluid compartments. part of the hydrochloric acid secreted into gastric juice. Potassium most abundant cation in intracellular fluid . key role in establishing the resting membrane potential and in the repolarization phase of action potentials in neurons and muscle fibers abnormal K+ levels can be lethal (can cause death due to ventricular fibrillation) helps maintain normal intracellular fluid volume. helps regulate the pH of body fluids. controlled mainly by aldosterone. Bicarbonate second most prevalent extracellular anion. acid-base balance. Calcium most abundant mineral in the body. hardness of bones and teeth, blood clotting, neurotransmitter release, maintenance of muscle tone, and excitability of nervous and muscle tissue. Phosphate About 85% of the phosphate in adults is present as calcium phosphate salts, which are structural components of bone and teeth. The remaining 15% is ionized. an important buffer of H+, both in body fluids and in the urine Magnesium 54% of the total body magnesium is part of bone matrix as magnesium salts. The remaining 46% occurs as magnesium ions (Mg2+) Mg2+ is the second most common intracellular cation. a cofactor for certain enzymes and for the sodium-potassium pump. essential for normal neuromuscular activity, synaptic transmission, and myocardial functioning.

obligatory water reabsorption

Solute reabsorption drives water reabsorption because all water reabsorption occurs via osmosis.

general senses

Somatic sensations: From skin, body wall (encloses a body cavity) and limbs tactile (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle) thermal pain proprioception also visceral sensations

carrier molecules

Some cofactors and cytochromes (heme-containing proteins) Carry hydrogen atoms or electrons in oxidative reactions electrons and protons (hydrogen ions, H+) are often removed at the same time

auditory pathway step 3

Some of these axons decussate and go to the inferior colliculus of the midbrain. principal midbrain nucleus of the auditory pathway

RAAS

Specialized cells in the kidneys secrete the enzyme renin in response to low blood volume or low blood pressure. Renin converts the blood protein angiotensinogen (produced by the liver) to the hormone angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is converted in the lungs to angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone. Angiotensin II also stimulates contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of arterioles. helps raise blood pressure to normal.

effect of thymosin

Stimulates T lymphocytes as part of the immune response

clot retraction

Strengthening/stabilizing the fibrin clot. depends on platelets in the clot releasing factor XIII (fibrin stabilizing factor) Permanent repair of the blood vessel can then take place.

capillary exchange

Substances enter and leave capillaries by three mechanisms: Diffusion: molecules travel along concentration gradients Small molecules (gases, lipids, lipid-soluble molecules) can diffuse through the capillary wall. Glucose, amino acids, and ions use facilitated diffusion or through clefts/fenestrations. Larger molecules pass through fenestrations or gaps in the sinusoids. transcytosis endocytosis/exocytosis. large proteins Bulk flow a passive process, from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure a large numbers of ions, molecules, or particles move together in the same direction.

antigen

Substances that are recognized as foreign and provoke immune responses, antibody generators Pathogens can have multiple antigenic sites

fever

Systemic increase in body temperature Fever can be caused by pathogens, immunological processes, tissue injury most frequently caused by bacteria (and their toxins) or viruses The brain's hypothalamus (the body's thermostat) is normally set at 37°C (98.6°F). Pyrogens are substances affect that "set" the hypothalamus to a higher temperature. Exogenous pyrogens Exotoxins, endotoxins Endogenous pyrogen cytokine called interleukin1 (IL1) TNF-α. Elevated body temperature intensifies the effects of interferons, inhibits the growth of some microbes, and speeds up body reactions that aid repair. The body will continue to maintain the higher temperature until the cytokines are eliminated.

classes of t cells

T helper cells (TH cells) CD4+ help B cells in the production of antibodies, mainly through cytokine signaling. bind to MHC class II molecules on B cells and other APCs function by secreting cytokines that act to enhance other immune responses. Cytotoxic T cells T (CD8+) bind to MHC class I molecules kill target cells by inducing apoptosis using the same mechanism as NK cells. Regulatory T Cells (Treg) Also called suppressor T cells In addition to CD4, they bear the molecules CD25 and FOXP3. suppress other T cell immune responses. Regulates the immune response and maintains self-tolerance combat autoimmune reactions by suppressing T cells that escape deletion in the thymus protects the resident microbiota Protects the fetus from rejection during pregnancy

four modalities of somatic sensation

Tactile (touch) Pressure, vibration, itch, tickle temperature pain proprioceptive

bipolar cells

Take impulses from the photoreceptors and pass them to the ganglion cells

mechanical digestion

Teeth cut and grind food, smooth muscles of the stomach and small intestine churn food

other influences on breathing

Temperature. An increase in body temperature increases the rate of breathing. A decrease in body temperature decreases breathing rate. A sudden cold stimulus (such as plunging into cold water) causes temporary apnea, an absence of breathing. Pain. A sudden, severe pain brings about brief apnea, but a prolonged somatic pain increases breathing rate. Visceral pain may slow the rate of breathing. Irritation of airways. Physical or chemical irritation of the pharynx or larynx brings about an immediate cessation of breathing followed by coughing or sneezing. Blood pressure. A sudden rise in blood pressure decreases the rate of breathing, and a drop in blood pressure increases the breathing rate.

proprioception

The ability to sense stimuli arising within the body regarding position, motion, and equilibrium

adrenal glands

The adrenal glands adhere to the top of the kidneys glandular and neuroendocrine (both neural and endocrine in structure or function) tissue Covered by a fibrous capsule. The adrenal glands have a very rich blood supply the adrenal glands have two structurally and functionally distinct regions: a large, peripherally located adrenal cortex 80-90% of the gland a small, centrally located adrenal medulla.

GFR

The amount of filtrate formed in all renal corpuscles of both kidneys each minute is the In adults, the GFR averages 125 mL/min in males and 105 mL/min in females. renal autoregulation neural regulation hormonal regulation

carbohydrate loading

The amount of glycogen stored in the liver and skeletal muscles varies and can be completely exhausted during long-term athletic endeavors. Many endurance athletes follow a precise exercise and dietary regimen that includes eating large amounts of complex carbohydrates (ex: pasta, potatoes) in the 3 days before an event. practice called carbohydrate loading helps maximize the amount of glycogen available for ATP production in muscles. For athletic events lasting more than an hour, carbohydrate loading has been shown to increase an athlete's endurance. due to increased glycogenolysis, which results in more glucose that can be catabolized for energy

ascending aorta

The ascending aorta is about 5 cm (2 in.) in length and begins at the aortic valve. It ends at the level of the sternal angle, where it becomes the arch of the aorta. At its origin, the ascending aorta contains three dilations called aortic sinuses. the right and left sinuses, give rise to the right and left coronary arteries first vessels that branch from the aorta These sinuses contain the aortic baroreceptors and chemoreceptors

step 1 of hearing

The auricle directs sound waves into the external auditory canal.

auditory pathway step 1

The axons of the first-order auditory neurons form the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve.

auditory pathway step 2

The axons of the vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve synapse with neurons in the medulla

cardiovascular center

The cardiovascular center receives input from: higher brain regions (cerebral cortex, limbic system, hypothalamus) sensory receptors (proprioceptors, baroreceptors, chemoreceptors) the cardiovascular center responds to changes in: blood pressure blood concentrations of oxygen/carbon dioxide, and blood pH Cardiovascular center response (output): cardioaccelerator centers sympathetic stimulation Increased heart rate/stroke volume The cardioinhibitor centers parasympathetic stimulation decreased heart rate/stroke volume The vasomotor centers control vessel tone

melanocyte stimulating hormone

The cells in the zone between the pituitary lobes secrete a hormone known as melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) responsible for melanin production by melanocytes

concentrations of electrolytes in body fluids

The chief difference blood plasma and interstitial fluid is that plasma contains many protein anions This difference in protein concentration is largely responsible for the blood colloid osmotic pressure exerted by blood plasma.

carotid arteries

The common carotid artery divides into internal and external carotid arteries. The right common carotid artery arises from the brachiocephalic artery and the left common carotid artery arises directly from the aortic arch. The external carotid artery supplies blood to the face, lower jaw, neck, esophagus, and larynx. The internal carotid arteries supply blood to the brain. The internal carotid artery contains the carotid sinus carotid baroreceptors and chemoreceptors.

iliac arteries

The common iliac arteries provide blood to the pelvic region and ultimately to the lower limbs. branch into external and internal iliac arteries at the level of the lumbar-sacral articulation Each internal iliac artery sends branches to the: urinary bladder walls of the pelvis external genitalia In females, they also provide blood to the uterus and vagina. medial portion of the femoral region.

molecular defenses: complement

The complement system = over 30 proteins produced by the liver circulate in blood serum in an inactive form activated by immune reactions Most complement proteins are designated by an uppercase C, numbered C1 through C9 activated when split by enzymes into active fragments, which are indicated by lowercase letters a and b. Other complement proteins are referred to as factors B, D, and P (properdin). works as a cascade (domino reaction) one reaction triggers another, which triggers another, etc

phototransduction step 6

The decreased Na+ inflow causes a hyperpolarizing receptor potential, which decreases the number of open Ca2+ channels.

synthesizing ATP

The electron transport chain and chemiosmosis make up oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase like a turbine in a hydroelectric power plant. Instead of being turned by water, uses H+ ions moving down their electrochemical gradient. As ATP synthase turns, it catalyzes the addition of a phosphate to ADP to ATP

intercalated discs

The ends of cells connect to neighboring cells via transverse thickenings of the sarcolemma called intercalated discs unique to cardiac muscle fibers. The discs contain: desmosomes: strengthen tissue and hold fibers together during vigorous contractions. gap junctions: electrically connect neighboring fibers allow the atria or the ventricles to contract as a single, coordinated unit.

exchange of oxygen and co2

The exchange of gases between alveolar air and pulmonary blood occurs via passive diffusion governed by the behavior of gases as described by Dalton's law and Henry's law. Dalton's law: each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases were present. The pressure is called its partial pressure (Px) important for understanding how gases move down their pressure gradients by diffusion Henry's law helps explain how the solubility of a gas relates to its diffusion.

regulation of water and solute loss

The extent of urinary salt (NaCl) loss is the main factor that determines body fluid volume. "water follows solutes" in osmosis the two main solutes in extracellular fluid are Na+ and Cl−. The major hormone that regulates water loss is antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin). produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland. High osmolarity increase the synthesis and release of ADH. results in a decrease in blood osmolarity, increase in blood volume/pressure, and the production of a small volume of concentrated urine. Because our daily diet contains a highly variable amount of NaCl, urinary excretion of Na+ and Cl− must also vary to maintain homeostasis. The two most important hormones that regulate the extent of renal reabsorption (and thus how much is lost in the urine) are aldosterone and atrial natriuretic peptide. Aldosterone. When there is a decrease in blood pressure, which occurs in response to a decrease in blood volume, or when there is a deficiency of Na+ in the plasma, the kidneys release renin, which activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway. Once aldosterone is formed, it increases Na+ reabsorption Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Triggered by an increase in blood volume ANP promotes natriuresis, elevated excretion of Na+ into the urine. The osmotic consequence of excreting more Na+ is loss of more water in urine, which decreases blood volume and blood pressure.

Axons from these first order neurons travel to the brain via one of three cranial nerves:

The facial (VII) nerve the glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve the vagus (X) nerve (part dedicated to the gag reflex)

fate of pyruvic acid

The fate of pyruvic acid produced during glycolysis depends on the availability of oxygen Fermentation = The anaerobic metabolism of the pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis. lactic acid fermentation ex: in skeletal muscle fibers during strenuous exercise lactic acid diffuses out of the cell and enters the blood. Hepatocytes convert lactic acid back to pyruvic acid. buildup of lactic acid is one factor that contributes to muscle fatigue. uses an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor much of the energy remains in the chemical bonds of the organic end-products Fermentation is inefficient Large amount of sugar must be fermented to meet requirements anaerobically Large amounts of waste (organic acids and alcohols) are produced Does not form ATP Oxidizes NADH to NAD

stress and immunity

The field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) deals with communication pathways that link the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. Cortisol, a hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex in association with the stress response, inhibits immune system activity. When work and stress pile up, health habits can change. people are less likely to eat well or exercise regularly, two habits that enhance immunity. Adequate sleep and relaxation are especially important for a healthy immune system. stress can cause insomnia.

tubular fluid

The filtered fluid becomes tubular fluid once it enters the proximal convoluted tubule. The fluid that drains from papillary ducts into the renal pelvis is urine.

adrenal medulla

The inner region of the adrenal gland a modified sympathetic ganglion of the autonomic nervous system. respond to acute, short-term stress

electrolytes in body fluids

The ions formed when electrolytes dissolve and dissociate serve four general functions in the body. control the osmosis of water between fluid compartments. help maintain the acid-base balance required for normal cellular activities. allows production of action potentials and graded potentials. serve as cofactors needed for optimal activity of enzymes.

ketosis

The level of ketone bodies in the blood normally is very low because other tissues use them for ATP production as fast as they are generated from the breakdown of fatty acids in the liver. During periods of excessive beta oxidation the production of ketone bodies exceeds their uptake and use by body cells. might occur after a meal rich in triglycerides, during fasting or starvation, because few carbohydrates are available Excessive beta oxidation may also occur in poorly controlled or untreated diabetes mellitus for two reasons: Because adequate glucose cannot get into cells, triglycerides are used for ATP production, and because insulin normally inhibits lipolysis, a lack of insulin accelerates the pace of lipolysis. When the concentration of ketone bodies in the blood rises above normal—a condition called ketosis—the ketone bodies, most of which are acids, must be buffered. If too many accumulate can lead to acidosis (ketoacidosis), an abnormally low blood pH. The decreased blood pH in turn causes depression of the central nervous system, which can result in disorientation, coma, and even death if the condition is not treated

phototransduction step 5

The lower cGMP concentration reduces Na+ inflow

step 3 of hearing

The mechanical energy transmits from the tympanic membrane to the malleus, incus, and stapes,

medulla respiratory center

The medullary respiratory center is made up of two collections of neurons: dorsal respiratory group (DRG) During normal quiet breathing, generates impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostal muscles via the intercostal nerves the DRG becomes inactive after two seconds, the diaphragm and external intercostals relax for about three seconds, allowing the passive recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall. Then, the cycle repeats itself. During forceful exhalation, the DRG is inactive ventral respiratory group (VRG) Contains a cluster of neurons with a rhythm generator that sets the basic rhythm of breathing. analogous to the one in the heart, composed of pacemaker cells provides input to the DRG, driving the rate at which DRG neurons fire action potentials. The remaining neurons of the VRG become activated when forceful breathing is required nerve impulses from the DRG activate neurons of the VRG involved in forceful inhalation to send impulses to the accessory muscles neurons of the VRG involved in forceful exhalation

incus

The middle bone, articulates with the malleus and the stapes

left ventricle

The mitral valve is connected to papillary muscles via chordae tendineae.

voice production

The mucous membrane of the larynx forms two pairs of folds: superior pair = vestibular folds (false vocal cords) When the vestibular folds are brought together, they function in holding the breath inferior pair = vocal folds (true vocal cords). Deep to the mucous membrane of the vocal folds, are bands of elastic ligaments stretched between the laryngeal cartilages like the strings Intrinsic laryngeal muscles attach to both the rigid cartilages and the vocal folds. Contracting and relaxing the muscles varies the tension in the vocal folds, much like loosening or tightening a guitar string. Air passing through the larynx vibrates the folds and produces sound (phonation) The variation in the pitch is related to the tension in the vocal folds. pulled taut = higher pitch . Due to androgens, vocal folds are usually thicker and longer in males, and therefore they vibrate more slowly. The greater the pressure of air, the louder the sound other structures are necessary for speech. pharynx, mouth, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses: resonance that gives the voice an individual quality. Muscles in the pharynx also produce vowel sounds face, tongue, lips: enunciation rima glottides: closing of the posterior portion allows whispering

pontine respiratory group

The neurons in the PRG are active during inhalation and exhalation. transmits nerve impulses to the DRG in the medulla. modifying the basic rhythm of breathing generated by the VRG, Ex: when exercising, speaking, sleeping, etc

metabolic rate

The overall rate at which metabolic reactions use energy Influenced by several factors: Hormones. Thyroid hormones (thyroxine and triiodothyronine) main regulators of basal metabolic rate (BMR), the metabolic rate under basal conditions. increases as levels of thyroid hormones rise. stimulates cellular respiration. Testosterone, insulin, and growth hormone can increase metabolic rate by 5-15%. Exercise. During strenuous exercise, the metabolic rate may increase to as much as 15 times the basal rate. Nervous system. epinephrine and norepinephrine increase the metabolic rate. Body temperature. Each 1°C rise in core temperature increases the rate of biochemical reactions by about 10%. Ingestion of food. raises the metabolic rate 10-20% due to the energy "costs" of digesting, absorbing, and storing nutrients. Age. The metabolic rate of a child is about double that of an elderly person due to growth. Other factors. gender (lower in females, except during pregnancy and lactation) climate (lower in tropical regions) sleeping (lower) malnutrition (lower).

cardiac cycle

The period of time that begins with contraction of the atria and ends with ventricular relaxation

pharynx

The pharynx can be divided into three anatomical regions: nasopharynx, posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the soft palate There are five openings in its wall: two internal nares two openings that lead into the auditory tubes (eustachian tubes) exchanges air with the auditory tubes to equalize pressure in the middle ear opening into the oropharynx. posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) oropharynx posterior to the oral cavity, extends from the soft palate to the hyoid bone. only one opening, the mouth. subject to abrasion by food particles lined with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Contains the palatine and lingual tonsils laryngopharynx. begins at the level of the hyoid bone. opens into the esophagus posteriorly and the larynx anteriorly. lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

gas exchange

The rate of pulmonary ad systemic gas exchange depends on: Partial Pressure Ex: altitude sickness With increasing altitude, the total atmospheric pressure decreases, as does the partial pressure of O2—from 159 mmHg at sea level, to 110 mmHg at 10,000 ft, to 73 mmHg at 20,000 ft. Although O2 still is 20.9% of the total, the PO2 of inhaled air decreases with increasing altitude and O2 diffuses into the blood more slowly. Surface area available for gas exchange Ex: emphysema Alveolar walls disintegrate Diffusion distance Ex: pulmonary edema Build-up of interstitial fluid between alveoli increases the diffusion distance and so slows the rate of gas exchange Molecular weight and solubility of the gases. solubility of CO2 in the fluid portions of the respiratory membrane is about 24 times greater than that of O2. when diffusion is slower than normal—for example, in emphysema or pulmonary edema—O2 insufficiency (hypoxia) typically occurs before there is significant retention of CO2 (hypercapnia).

repolarization in contractile cells

The recovery of the resting membrane potential additional voltage-gated K+ channels open calcium channels are closing

primary lymphoid organs: bone marrow

The red bone marrow is a loose collection of cells where hematopoiesis occurs yellow bone marrow is a site of energy storage, which consists largely of fat cells. B cells undergo nearly all of its development in the red bone marrow immature T cells (thymocytes/pre-T cells) leaves the bone marrow and matures largely in the thymus gland.

respiratory pump

The respiratory pump aids blood flow through the veins of the thorax and abdomen. During inhalation, air pressure in the thorax decreases blood pressure in the thoracic veins also decreases, falling below the pressure in the abdominal veins. During exhalation, air pressure in the thorax increases pressure in the thoracic veins increases, speeding blood flow into the heart valves in the veins prevent backflow

chemoreceptor regulation on breathing

The respiratory system functions to maintain proper levels of CO2 and O2 and is very responsive to changes in the levels of these gases in body fluids. Chemoreceptors in two locations monitor levels of CO2, H+, and O2 and provide input to the respiratory center. Central chemoreceptors are located in or near the medulla oblongata monitor cerebrospinal fluid. Peripheral chemoreceptors are in the aortic bodies and carotid bodies monitor blood. If even a slight increase in PCO2 occurs (hypercapnia), the central and peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated and respond vigorously to the resulting increase in H+ level. peripheral chemoreceptors (but not central) also respond low O2. Severe deficiency of O2 depresses activity of the central chemoreceptors and DRG, which then do not respond well to any inputs and send fewer impulses to the muscles of inhalation. establishes a possibly fatal positive feedback loop central and peripheral chemoreceptors causes the DRG to become highly active, and the rate and depth of breathing increase. Rapid and deep breathing, called hyperventilation, allows the inhalation of more O2 and exhalation of more CO2 until PCO2 and H+ are lowered to normal. DRG neurons are more strongly stimulated when PCO2 is rising above normal than when PO2 is falling below normal. If arterial PCO2 is lower than 40 mmHg—a condition called hypocapnia or hypocarbia—the central and peripheral chemoreceptors are not stimulated, and stimulatory impulses are not sent to the DRG. people who hyperventilate voluntarily and cause hypocapnia can hold their breath for an unusually long period.

cervical mucus

The secretory cells of the mucosa of the cervix produce a secretion called cervical mucus, a mixture of water, glycoproteins, lipids, enzymes, and inorganic salts. Cervical mucus is more hospitable to sperm at or near the time of ovulation because it is then less viscous and more alkaline (pH 8.5). At other times, a more viscous mucus forms a cervical plug that physically impedes sperm penetration. Cervical mucus supplements the energy needs of sperm, and both the cervix and cervical mucus protect sperm from phagocytes and the hostile environment of the vagina and uterus. Cervical mucus may also play a role in capacitation —a series of functional changes that sperm undergo in the female reproductive tract before they are able to fertilize a secondary oocyte.

dynamic equlibrium

The semicircular canals are (mostly) responsible for dynamic equilibrium. Stereocilia are housed in crista Crista are found in the ampulla at the base of each semicircular canal Covering the crista is a mass of gelatinous material called the cupula. When the head rotates in a plane parallel to the semicircular canal, the fluid in the canal does not move as quickly as the head is moving. This pushes the cupula in the opposite direction, moving the stereocilia and creating a nerve impulse.

filtration slit

The spaces between pedicels

spermatic cord

The spermatic cord is a supporting structure of the male reproductive system that ascends out of the scrotum. Each spermatic cord consists of: a vas deferens the testicular artery veins that drain the testis and carry testosterone into circulation (the pampiniform plexus) autonomic nerves lymphatic vessels the cremaster muscle The spermatic cord and ilioinguinal nerve pass through the inguinal canal The canal is about 2 in. long

hepatic portal circulation

The superior mesenteric and splenic veins unite to form the hepatic portal vein. superior mesenteric vein drains blood from the small intestine, portions of the large intestine, stomach, and pancreas splenic vein drains blood from the stomach, pancreas, portions of the large intestine The gastric veins (drains the stomach) and cystic vein (drains the gallbladder) open directly into the hepatic portal vein The hepatic portal vein sends blood to the sinusoids of the liver. The liver processes the blood to remove wastes and excess nutrients blood leaves the sinusoids of the liver through the hepatic veins, which drain into the inferior vena cava.

alveolar sacs and alveoli

The terminal dilation of an alveolar duct is called an alveolar sac and is analogous to a cluster of grapes. Each alveolar sac is composed of outpouchings called alveoli, analogous to individual grapes. The hundreds of millions of alveoli account for the spongy texture of the lungs. Gas exchange takes place by diffusion across the alveolar and capillary walls, which together form the respiratory membrane. the respiratory membrane consists of four layers: alveolar wall : composed of type I and type II alveolar cells and associated alveolar macrophages capillary and epithelial basement membranes (often fused together) capillary endothelium The wall of each alveolus (singular) consists of two types of alveolar epithelial cells: type I alveolar cells more numerous form a lining of the alveolar wall. main sites of gas exchange Type II alveolar cells found between type I alveolar cells. secrete alveolar fluid keeps the surface between the cells and the air moist. contains surfactant, a complex mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins. Surfactant lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid, which reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse and thus maintains their patency

uterus

The uterus (womb) serves as part of the pathway for sperm deposited in the vagina to reach the uterine tubes. It is also the site of implantation of a fertilized ovum, development of the fetus during pregnancy, and labor. During reproductive cycles when implantation does not occur, the uterus is the source of menstrual flow. Situated between the urinary bladder and the rectum, the uterus is the size and shape of an inverted pear. In females who have never been pregnant, it is about 7.5 cm (3 in.) long, 5 cm (2 in.) wide, and 2.5 cm (1 in.) thick. The uterus is larger in females who have recently been pregnant, and smaller (atrophied) when sex hormone levels are low, as occurs after menopause. Anatomical subdivisions of the uterus include: a dome-shaped portion superior to the uterine tubes called the fundus a tapering central portion called the body The interior of the body of the uterus is called the uterine cavity an inferior narrow portion called the cervix that opens into the vagina. the interior of the cervix is called the cervical canal. The cervical canal opens into the uterine cavity at the internal os and into the vagina at the external os. Normally, the body of the uterus projects anteriorly and superiorly over the urinary bladder in a position called anteflexion. The cervix projects inferiorly and posteriorly and enters the anterior wall of the vagina at nearly a right angle. Several ligaments that are either extensions of the parietal peritoneum or fibromuscular cords maintain the position of the uterus.

airway resistance

The walls of the airways, especially the bronchioles, offer some resistance to the normal flow of air into and out of the lungs. Airway diameter is also regulated by the degree of contraction or relaxation of smooth muscle in the walls of the airways. Any condition that narrows or obstructs the airways increases resistance, so that more pressure is required to maintain the same airflow. The hallmark of asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is increased airway resistance due to obstruction or collapse of airways.

step 7 of hearing

The waves in the endolymph cause the basilar membrane to vibrate, which moves the hair cells of the spiral organ against the tectorial membrane.

aortic arch

There are three branches of the aortic arch: brachiocephalic artery branches into the right subclavian artery and the right common carotid artery. left common carotid artery left subclavian artery. each of these vessels is an elastic artery.

types of capillaries

There are three major types of capillaries, which differ in their degree of "leakiness" continuous: endothelial cells form a continuous tube Majority of capillaries tight junctions between endothelial cells often incomplete intercellular clefts fenestrated: endothelial cell membranes have "pores" capillary permeable to larger molecules found in the kidneys, villi of the small intestine, choroid plexuses in the brain, ciliary processes of the eyes, most endocrine glands. Sinusoids: endothelial cells have large fenestrations, incomplete/absent basement membrane, large intercellular clefts allow proteins and blood cells to pass Ex: newly formed blood cells in red bone marrow. least common type found in the liver, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, endocrine glands.

sources and significance of blood cholesterol

There are two sources of cholesterol in the body: Fatty foods high intake of dietary fats causes reabsorption of cholesterol-containing bile into the blood hepatocytes use some of the breakdown products of saturated fat to make cholesterol. synthesized by hepatocytes. Too much LDL cholesterol can increase your chance of heart disease, stroke therapies to reduce blood cholesterol: exercise Regular aerobic activity raises HDL diet reducing the intake of total fat, saturated fats, cholesterol increase soluble fiber. reduces the absorption of cholesterol oatmeal, kidney beans, Brussels sprouts, apples, pears. medications promote excretion of bile in the feces: Questran, Colestid block the key enzyme (HMG-CoA reductase) needed for cholesterol synthesis: "statin" (Lipitor, Zocor)

Surrounded by a wall of epithelial follicle cells, which produce the two thyroid hormones:

Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine, T4) because it contains four iodine atoms triiodothyronine (T3), contains three iodine atoms.

parathyroid glands

Tiny, round structures embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. A thick connective tissue capsule separates them from the thyroid tissue. Most people have four parathyroid glands.

phtotransduction step 2

Trans-retinal activates of a protein called transducin

phototransduction step 3

Transducin activates an enzyme called cGMP phosphodiesterase

vitreous humor

Transparent, jellylike substance that holds the retina flat against the choroid, giving the retina an even surface for the reception of images.

intrinsic pathway

Triggered by damage inside (intrinsic to) the wall of a vessel most often initiated when factor XII (Hageman factor) begins a sequence of reactions that eventually activates clotting factor X completed in a few minutes.

GI tract

Tube containing Eaten, digested and Eliminated food

utricle and saccule

Two 'sacs' in the membranous labyrinth in the vestibule, which are connected by a small duct. Called otolithic organs

extrinsic pathway

Upon contact with blood plasma, the damaged extravascular cells (which are extrinsic to the bloodstream) release factor III (tissue factor). Tissue factor is activated and sets off the cascade Ca2+ (factor VII) is added, forming an enzyme complex. The enzyme complex activates factor X Quicker than the intrinsic pathway (less steps). completed in seconds.

blood distribution

Veins also function as blood reservoirs contain ~64% of the blood volume at rest due to their capacity to distend (expand) ~ 21% is located in venous networks in the liver, bone marrow, and integument (referred to as venous reserve) blood can be diverted quickly from veins if needed cardiovascular center sends sympathetic impulses to veins resulting in venoconstriction prevents the veins from distending lumen becomes rounded. The more rounded the lumen, the less resistance

venous pump

Venous return = blood flowing back to the heart through the veins occurs due to: the pressure generated by the heart pressure gradient drives blood back toward the heart. the skeletal muscle pump the respiratory pump.

vitamins

Vitamins= organic nutrients required in small amounts to maintain growth and normal metabolism Most vitamins with known functions are coenzymes. Most vitamins cannot be synthesized by the body and must be ingested in food. vitamin K, are produced by bacteria in the GI tract and then absorbed. The body can assemble some vitamins if the raw materials, called provitamins, are provided. vitamin A is produced from the provitamin beta-carotene Vitamins are divided into two main groups: fat-soluble and water-soluble. fat-soluble vitamins = vitamins A, D, E, and K cannot be absorbed in adequate quantity unless they are ingested with other lipids. may be stored in cells, particularly hepatocytes. water-soluble vitamins = several B vitamins, vitamin C Excess quantities are not stored but excreted in the urine. Vitamins C, E, and beta-carotene (a provitamin) are antioxidant vitamins inactivate oxygen free radicals. Free radicals damage cell membranes, DNA, and other cellular structures and contribute to the formation of artery-narrowing atherosclerotic plaques.

cytokines

WBC formation/maturation secreted by a variety of cells (red bone marrow, leukocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts, endothelial cells) Autocrine/paracrine factors There are two major subtypes of cytokines: Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) Interleukins Roles in producing immunity and inflammation

maintenance of homeostasis in blood

Water content of cells: blood osmotic pressure Core body temperature: As blood passes through the vessels of the skin, heat would dissipates; on a cold day blood is diverted away from the skin to maintain a warmer body core. chemical balance of the body: Proteins and other compounds in blood act as buffers, which help regulate the pH of tissues.

what body functions does the endocrine system regulate?

Water/nutrient/electrolyte content of blood Some immune functions activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and some glands

The cerebral cortex contains two language areas

Wernicke's area and Broca's area.

generation of nerve impulses

When a graded potential reaches threshold it triggers action potentials, which propagate toward the CNS

up regulation

When a hormone is deficient, the number of receptors may increase makes a target cell more sensitive to a hormone.

depolarization in contractile cells

When brought to threshold by an action potential, voltage-gated Na+ channels open the fast Na+ channels automatically close Plateau: a period of maintained depolarization) voltage-gated slow Ca2+ channels open, triggering contraction. some voltage gated K+ channels open Ca2+ inflow just balances K+ outflow.

oxyhemoglobin

When hemoglobin is carrying oxygen, bright red travels to the body tissues, where it releases some of the oxygen molecules, becoming darker red deoxyhemoglobin

second line of defense: internal defenses

When pathogens penetrate the physical and chemical barriers of the skin and mucous membranes internal antimicrobial substances, phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation, and fever.

platelet adhesion

When platelets encounter exposed connective tissue they clump together, become spiked and sticky, and bind to the exposed collagen

glucosoria

When the blood concentration of glucose is above 200 mg/mL, the renal symporters cannot work fast enough to reabsorb all the glucose. sign of diabetes

trigylceride storage

When the glycogen storage areas are full, hepatocytes turn glucose to glycerol and fatty acids can be used for lipogenesis (the synthesis of triglycerides) deposited in adipose tissue, which has virtually unlimited storage capacity. Triglycerides stored in adipose tissue constitute 98% of all body energy reserves. Adipocytes in the subcutaneous layer contain about 50% of the stored triglycerides. Adipose tissue also insulates and protects various parts of the body.

sound transduction

When vibration of the basilar membrane causes the stereocilia to bend toward the tallest stereocilium, the tip link proteins are stretched and tug on the cation channels, opening them. The open channels allows cations (primarily K+) in the endolymph to enter the hair cell depolarizing receptor potential The depolarization opens Ca2+ channels in the base of the cell, triggering exocytosis of neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter generates an action potential in the first-order auditory neuron.

anastomoses

Where two or more arteries supply the same region, they can connect.

skeletal muscle pump

While standing at rest, both the venous valve closer to the heart (proximal valve) and farther from the heart (distal valve) are open blood flows toward the heart. Contraction of leg muscles compresses the vein. pushes blood through the proximal valve the distal valve closes as blood is pushes against it. after muscle relaxation, pressure falls, closing the proximal valve The distal valve opens because pressure in the foot is higher than in the leg Counteracts the force of gravity to move blood back to the heart.

aging and immune system

With advancing age, most people become more susceptible to all types of infections and malignancies. This loss of immune function with age is called immunosenescence. immune system exhibits lowered levels of function response to vaccines is decreased tend to produce more autoantibodies (antibodies against their body's own molecules). T cells become less responsive to antigens, and fewer T cells respond to infections. One major cause of age-related immune deficiencies is thymic involution, the shrinking of the thymus gland begins at birth, at a rate of about three percent tissue loss per year, and continues until 35-45 years of age, when the rate declines to about one percent loss per year for the rest of one's life. Because the T cell population decreases with age, B cells are also less responsive.

Aging and the respiratory system

With advancing age, the airways and tissues of the respiratory tract, including the alveoli, become less elastic and more rigid; the chest wall becomes more rigid as well. vital capacity (the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation) can decrease as much as 35% by age 70. A decrease in blood level of O2, decreased activity of alveolar macrophages, and diminished ciliary action of the epithelium lining the respiratory tract occur. Because of these age-related factors, elderly people are more susceptible to pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema, and other pulmonary disorders.

how temp affects hemoglobin and oxygen partial pressure

Within limits, as temperature increases, so does the amount of O2 released from hemoglobin. during hypothermia (lowered body temperature) the opposite is true Muscle contractions, fever

veins of head and neck

Within the cranial cavity, all veins drain into dural venous sinuses and then into the internal jugular vein Dural venous sinuses are endothelial-lined venous channels between layers of the cranial dura mater. Most blood draining from the head passes into three pairs of veins: internal jugular Blood from the brain and superficial facial vein flows parallel to the common carotid artery empties into the brachiocephalic vein external jugular Blood from superficial portions of the head, scalp empties into the subclavian vein. vertebral veins Blood from cervical vertebrae, posterior skull, occipital sinus parallel the vertebral arteries empties into the brachiocephalic veins

vas deferens

Within the tail of the epididymis, the ductus epididymis becomes less convoluted, and its diameter increases. Beyond this point, the duct is known as the vas deferens. ascends along the posterior border of the epididymis through the spermatic cord and then enters the pelvic cavity. loops over the ureter and passes over the side and down the posterior surface of the urinary bladder. The dilated terminal portion of the ductus deferens is the ampulla. the vas deferens conveys sperm during arousal from the epididymis toward the urethra by peristaltic contractions Like the epididymis, the ductus deferens also can store sperm for several months. Any stored sperm that are not ejaculated by that time are reabsorbed.

Blood group A antigens

a

Clotting results from

a cascade of enzymatic reactions in which each activates the next in a fixed sequence. The cascade results in the rapid conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin (an enzyme)

copper

a component of two plasma proteins, hephaestin (enables iron to be absorbed by intestinal cells) and ceruloplasmin (plays a role in iron metabolism)

red bone marrow

a connective tissue within the spaces of spongy bone tissue.

optic chaism

a crossing point of the optic nerves Some axons cross to the opposite side, but others remain uncrossed.

retinal

a derivative of vitamin A, the light-absorbing part of all visual photopigments

diabetes mellitus

a disease resulting in abnormal metabolism of carbohydrates and elevated levels of glucose in the blood and urine. Dysfunction of insulin production and secretion target cells' responsiveness to insulin

tectorial membrane

a flexible gelatinous membrane, covers the hair cells of the spiral organ.

basal ganglia

a group of nuclei in the forebrain

protein c system

a group of proteins that inactivates clotting factors involved in the intrinsic pathway.

leukemia

a group of red bone marrow cancers, abnormal WBCs multiply uncontrollably. the cells do not function properly from either the myeloid line (myelocytic leukemia) or the lymphoid line (lymphocytic leukemia). interferes with the production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. anemia (fatigue, intolerance to cold, and pale skin), weight loss, fever, night sweats, excessive bleeding, recurrent infections cancerous WBCs can spread to the lymph nodes, liver, and spleen, causing them to enlarge.

lacrimal apparatus

a group of structures that produce and drain lacrimal fluid in a process called lacrimation.

tunic

a layer or covering

thromboxane

a modified prostaglandin that constricts blood vessels and promotes platelet activation.

hormone

a molecule that is released in one part of the body but regulates cell activity in another part of the body.

If the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood falls:

a negative feedback system steps up RBC production.

cardiac conduction system

a network of autorhytmic fibers that provide a path for each electrical potential to progress through the heart. ensures that contractions are coordinated, making the heart an effective pump.

interneurons

a neuron that transmits impulses between other neurons receives input from somatic sensory receptors and from brain Reflex arcs coordinates rhythmic activity

inflammation

a nonspecific, defensive response to tissue damage. pathogens, abrasions, chemical irritations, distortion or disturbances of cells, and extreme temperatures. a vascular and cellular response that helps eliminate microbes, foreign material, and dying tissue in preparation for repair. an attempt to dispose of microbes, toxins, or foreign material at the site of injury prevent their spread to other tissues prepare the site for tissue repair Signs/symptoms associated with inflammation P : pain results from injury to neurons, chemicals released by microbes, pressure from edema, chemicals released by your body Kinins, Prostaglandins R : redness I : immobility S : swelling H : heat

lysozome

a protective bactericidal enzyme

hormone receptor

a protein located either inside the cell or on the cell membrane.

ADH secretion is stimulated by

a rise in blood osmolarity detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus a decrease in blood volume. detected by baroreceptors

hemostasis

a sequence of responses that stops bleeding. rupture of larger vessels usually requires medical intervention

membraneous labyrinth

a series of epithelial tubes/sacs that house the receptors for hearing/equilibrium, contains endolymph

prostate

a single, doughnut-shaped gland about the size of a golf ball. inferior to the urinary bladder and surrounds the prostatic urethra. The prostate slowly increases in size from birth to puberty. expands rapidly until about age 30 size typically remains stable until about age 45, when further enlargement may occur, constricting the urethra and interfering with urine flow. secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid (pH about 6.5) that contains several substances. Citric acid used by sperm for ATP production via the Krebs cycle. proteolytic enzymes (prostate-specific antigen (PSA), pepsinogen, lysozyme, amylase, and hyaluronidase) eventually break down the clotting proteins from the seminal vesicles. acid phosphatase function unknown. Seminalplasmin may help decrease the number of naturally occurring bacteria in semen and lower female reproductive tract. Secretions of the prostate enter the prostatic urethra through many prostatic ducts. make up about 25% of the volume of semen and contribute to sperm motility and viability

internal nose functions

a space in the skull inferior to the nasal bone and superior to the oral cavity lined with muscle and mucous membrane. Anteriorly, the nasal cavity merges with the external nose; posteriorly it communicates with the pharynx through two openings called the internal nares the nasal septum divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides. Anteriorly, consists mainly of hyaline cartilage remainder is formed by the vomer, perpendicular plate of the ethmoid, maxillae, palatine Ducts from the paranasal sinuses (which drain mucus) and the nasolacrimal ducts (which drain tears) open into the nasal cavity. Besides producing mucus, the paranasal sinuses serve as resonating chambers for sound as we speak or sing. paranasal sinuses= cavities in certain cranial and facial bones lined with mucous membrane frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillae. lateral walls ethmoid also forms the roof. maxillae lacrimal palatine inferior nasal conchae Floor palatine bones and palatine processes of the maxillae constitute the hard palate The bony and cartilaginous framework of the nose help to keep the vestibule and nasal cavity patent (open/unobstructed) divided into a larger, inferior respiratory region and a smaller, superior olfactory region. The respiratory region is lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with numerous goblet cells, which is frequently called the respiratory epithelium Olfactory region contains olfactory epithelium cilia but no goblet cells. When air enters the nostrils, through the vestibule, which filters large dust particles.

As the Na+/H+ concentration becomes high outside the taste cells:

a strong concentration gradient drives their diffusion into the cells. This depolarizes the cells, leading them to release neurotransmitter.

heart auricle

a superficial leaf-like extension of the atria increases the collecting & pumping capacity of the atria

surface tension of alveolar fluid

a thin layer of alveolar fluid coats the luminal surface of alveoli and exerts a force known as surface tension. Surface tension arises at all air-water interfaces because the polar water molecules are more strongly attracted to each other than they are to gas molecules in the air. When liquid surrounds a sphere of air, as in an alveolus or a soap bubble, surface tension produces an inwardly directed force. In the lungs, surface tension causes the alveoli to assume the smallest possible diameter. Surface tension also accounts for two-thirds of lung elastic recoil, which decreases the size of alveoli during exhalation. During breathing, surface tension must be overcome to expand the lungs during each inhalation. The surfactant present in alveolar fluid reduces its surface tension A deficiency of surfactant in premature infants causes respiratory distress syndrome many alveoli collapse at the end of each exhalation. Great effort is then needed at the next inhalation to reopen the collapsed alveoli.

conjunctiva

a thin, protective mucous membrane

cornea

a transparent coat that covers the colored iris.

aqeous humor

a transparent watery fluid that nourishes the lens and cornea.

vagina

a tubular, 10-cm (4-in.) long, fibromuscular canal lined with mucous membrane extends from the exterior of the body to the uterine cervix. The mucosa of the vagina is continuous with that of the uterus. nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue that lies in a series of transverse folds called rugae. contains large stores of glycogen, the metabolism of which produces organic acids. The resulting acidic environment retards microbial growth, but it also is harmful to sperm. Alkaline components of semen, mainly from the seminal vesicles, raise the pH of fluid in the vagina and increase viability of the sperm. The muscularis is composed of smooth muscle that can stretch to accommodate intercourse and childbirth. The adventitia consists of areolar connective tissue. anchors the vagina to adjacent organs such as the urethra, urinary bladder, rectum, anal canal A thin fold of vascularized mucous membrane, called the hymen (= membrane), forms a border around and partially closes the inferior end of the vaginal opening to the exterior, the vaginal orifice. After its rupture, usually following the first sexual intercourse, only remnants of the hymen remain.

lacrimal fluid

a watery solution containing salts, some mucus, and lysozyme, protects, cleans, lubricates, and moistens the eyeball.

sensation

ability to detect (sense) the internal and external physical environment Can be conscious (perceived) or subconscious

Autorhythmicity

ability to initiate an electrical potential at a fixed rate that spreads rapidly from cell to cell to trigger the contractile mechanism.

external auditory canal

about 2.5 cm (1 in.) long, lies in the temporal bone and leads to the eardrum. contains hairs and specialized sweat glands called ceruminous glands that secrete earwax (cerumen) Protects the ear against dust, water, bugs

lacteal

absorb digestive fats

photopigment in the outer segment of both rods and cones:

absorb light

absorptive

absorb nutrients through body wall by diffusion

dynamic equilibrium

acceleration of the head in rotation, horizontal, and vertical movements.

type 2 diabetes

acquired, lifestyle factors such as poor diet, inactivity, and the presence of pre-diabetes greatly increase a person's risk. cells become resistant to insulin. In response, the pancreas increases its insulin secretion, but over time, the beta cells become exhausted. Possible to reverse type 2 diabetes by weight loss, regular physical activity, and a healthy diet

electrocardiogram

action potentials generate electrical currents as they travel through the heart, which can be detected/ recorded by an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) The EKG amplifies the heart's electrical signals and produces 12 different tracings from different combinations of limb and chest leads. Each electrode records slightly different activity because of the difference in position By comparing these records with one another and with normal records, it is possible to determine if the conducting pathway is abnormal if the heart is enlarged if certain regions of the heart are damaged the cause of chest pain.

Both body tissues and blood contain substances that can

activate plasminogen to plasmin Ex: tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) synthesized in endothelial cells of most tissues

pepsin activation, inactive form of pepsin

activated when it's with HCl, secreted by parietal cells

Different tastes arise from

activation of different combinations of gustatory receptor cells. Ex: tastants in chocolate activate a combination of taste cells, and the resultant pattern of activity in the brain is interpreted as the flavor chocolate.

TH1

activation of macrophages and NK cells stimulate the production of antibodies that promote phagocytosis Enhances the activity of complement Activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes

tonic

active, slow to adapt

Due to adhesion, platelets release the contents of their vesicles:

adenosine diphosphate (ADP): helps additional platelets to adhere Serotonin: maintains vasoconstriction Thromboxane (a prostaglandin): maintains vasoconstriction, activates nearby platelets

formation of acetyl coenzyme A

aerobic conditions: most cells convert pyruvic acid to acetyl coenzyme A. Pyruvic acid cannot enter the Krebs cycle directly. The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coA yields: 1 CO2, 1 NADH

asthma

affects 3-5% of the U.S. population chronic airway inflammation, airway hypersensitivity, and airway obstruction. smooth muscle spasms in the walls of smaller bronchi and bronchioles edema of the mucosa/ increased mucus secretion leukotrienes, prostaglandins, thromboxane, platelet-activating factor, histamine take part. Symptoms include difficult breathing, coughing, wheezing, chest tightness Treatment options: Albuterol causes bronchodilation suppress underlying inflammation. inhaled corticosteroids (glucocorticoids), leukotriene blockers (Accolate®).

when and where does slow pain start?

after fast pain in the skin

the number of taste buds decline with

age

presbyopia

age related loss of elasticity in the lens, loss of ability to focus on close objects. usually begins in the mid-40s. Reading glasses/bifocals

MALT

aggregates of lymphoid follicles directly associated with the mucous membrane epithelia. dome-shaped structures found underlying the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract, breast tissue, lungs, eyes etc. Peyer's patches = a type of MALT in the small intestine especially important for immune responses against ingested substances. contain specialized endothelial cells called M (or microfold) cells that sample material from the intestinal lumen and transport it to nearby follicles so that an immune responses to potential pathogens can begin. Tonsils Usually five tonsils single pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) posterior wall of the nasopharynx two palatine tonsils posterior region of the oral cavity two lingual tonsils base of the tongue Tonsils are strategically positioned to participate in immune responses against inhaled or ingested substances. the epithelial layer invaginates deeply to form tonsillar crypts. These structures accumulate materials taken into the body through eating and breathing "encourage" pathogens to penetrate into the tonsillar tissues where they are acted upon by numerous lymphoid follicles and eliminated.

effect of gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin

aid digestion of food and buffering of stomach acids

bile

aids in digestion and absorption of fats

effect of calcitriol

aids in the absorption of of Ca2+

pulmonary ventilation (breathing)

air flows in/out of the lungs because of pressure differences created by contraction/relaxation of respiratory muscles. Air moves in when the pressure inside the lungs is less than the pressure in the atmosphere. Air moves out when the pressure in the lungs is greater than the air pressure in the atmosphere. The rate of airflow and the amount of effort needed for breathing are also influenced by: alveolar surface tension compliance of the lungs airway resistance.

three stages of stress response

alarm: short-term stress fight-or-flight response Once this stress is relieved, the body quickly returns to normal. resistance: If the stress is not soon relieved, the body adapts to the stress Cortisol: gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, catabolism of proteins into amino acids, reduces inflammation. Growth hormone: lipolysis and glycogenolysis. thyroid hormones: increased use of glucose exhaustion: If the stress continues long term resources of the body become depleted depression, immune suppression, severe fatigue, wasting of muscle, gastritis, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, hypertension, headaches

16. The glomerular filtrate contains a lower concentration of _____ than does blood plasma. a) albumin b) glucose c) water d) sodium e) urea

albumin

Juxtamedullary nephrons a) make up about 80-85% of the nephrons within the kidney. b) allows excretion of very dilute or concentrated urine. c) have renal corpuscles located in the outer portion of the renal cortex. d) have very short nephron loops. e) have very thick descending nephron loops.

allows excretion of very dilute or concentrated urine

respiratory system

allows the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the air, blood, and cells cells continually use O2 to generate ATP these reactions release CO2 as a waste product. excessive amount of CO2 produces acidity helps adjust the pH of body fluids. contains receptors for the sense of smell filters inspired air produces sounds rids the body of some water and heat in exhaled air. The cardiovascular and respiratory systems cooperate to supply O2 and eliminate CO2. respiratory system provides for gas exchange intake of O2 and elimination of CO2 cardiovascular system transports blood containing the gases between the lungs and body cells.

autoregulation of blood flow

allows tissue to adjust blood flow without nervous or endocrine control. works at the level of the precapillary sphincters Vasodilation: triggered by hypoxia; hypercapnia; acidosis; inflammatory chemicals (ex: histamines); increased body temperature. These conditions stimulate the release of NO, a powerful vasodilator, from endothelial cells. Vasoconstriction: triggered by the opposite levels of the regulators Platelet secretions and certain prostaglandins may also trigger constriction. prompt the release of endothelins, powerful vasoconstricting peptides secreted by endothelial cells.

Position sense (proprioception)

allows you to control your limbs without looking at them. allows weight discrimination (helps determine the muscular effort needed to perform a task) keeps us upright and balanced

globulins

alpha and beta globulins transport iron, lipids, and the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K to the cells; they also contribute to osmotic pressure. gamma globulins (antibodies, immunoglobulins). produced by leukocytes called plasma cells.

pancreatic islets contain four varieties of cells

alpha cells produce glucagon (raises blood glucose) beta cells produce insulin (lowers blood glucose) delta cells secretes somatostatin (inhibits the release of both glucagon and insulin) F cell secretes the pancreatic polypeptide hormone. role in appetite, regulation of pancreatic exocrine and endocrine secretions.

Prostaglandins

alter smooth muscle contraction glandular secretions blood flow reproductive processes platelet function respiration nerve impulse transmission lipid metabolism immune responses promote inflammation and fever intensify pain.

Hormones are derived from

amino acids or from fatty acids/lipid These chemical groups affect a hormone's distribution, the type of receptor it binds to, and function.

At one end of each semicircular canal is a swollen enlargement called the

ampulla

Arrythmia

an abnormal rhythm The heart may beat irregularly, too quickly, or too slowly.

otitis media

an acute infection of the middle ear, usually caused by bacterial infections of the nose and throat. pain, malaise, fever, reddening and outward bulging of the eardrum (may rupture) Children more susceptible than adults

type 1 diabetes

an autoimmune disease affecting the beta cells of the pancreas. Certain genes are recognized to increase susceptibility. synthetic insulin must be administered by injection or infusion.

ventricular premature contraction

an ectopic focus (a region of the heart other than the conduction system) causes an occasional abnormal action potential. Can be caused by emotional stress; excessive caffeine, alcohol, nicotine; lack of sleep.

diuresis

an elevated urine flow rate, which in turn reduces blood volume.

goiter

an enlarged thyroid gland. If dietary iodine is inadequate; the resultant low level of thyroid hormone stimulates secretion of TSH, which causes thyroid gland enlargement.

posterior pituitary

an extension of the neurons of the hypothalamus (!) cell bodies are in the hypothalamus axons descend as the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract in the infundibulum axon terminals comprise the posterior pituitary.

venules

an extremely small vein Postcapillary venules join multiple capillaries exiting from a capillary bed. Multiple venules join to form veins. The thin walls of the venules allows them to expand "reservoirs" for accumulating blood.

In the first day or two in the circulation:

an immature erythrocyte (a reticulocyte) will still contain remnants of organelles. ~1-2 percent of the erythrocyte count abnormally low or high rates indicating deviations in RBC production

leukocytosis

an increase in WBCs above 10,000/μL, a normal response to invading microbes, strenuous exercise, anesthesia, and surgery.

reticular connective tissue

an interlacing network of reticular fibers (thin form of collagen fiber) and reticular cells. In stroma (supporting framework) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes; red bone marrow; reticular lamina of basement membrane; around blood vessels and muscles. Forms stroma of organs; filters and removes worn‐out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes.

Receptors for the special senses are

anatomically distinct from one another

The lens divides the interior of the eyeball into two cavities:

anterior cavity vitreous chamber (AKA posterior cavity)

Hypothalamic hormones are secreted by neurons, but enter the

anterior pituitary through blood vessels.

the thyroid gland is located

anterior to the trachea, just inferior to the larynx

blood group B antibody

anti-A

blood group O antibody

anti-a AND anti-b

blood group A antibody

anti-b

what else does blood plasma contain?

antibodies for any antigens that your RBCs lack. These antibodies start to appear within a few months of birth, the reason for their presence is not clear.

activation and clonal selection of b cells

antigen binds to B-cell receptors (BCRs). B cells can respond to an unprocessed antigen present in lymph or interstitial fluid, their response is much more intense when they process the antigen. Antigen processing in a B cell: Processed antigen is presented with MHC-II molecules Helper T cells recognize the antigen-MHC-II complex and deliver the costimulation needed for B cell proliferation and differentiation. Once activated, a B cell undergoes clonal selection. All of the B cells of a particular clone are capable of secreting only one type of antibody, which is identical to the BCR plasma cell secretes hundreds of millions of antibodies each day for about 4 or 5 days, until the plasma cell dies. Seroconversion: the time period during which a specific antibody develops and becomes detectable in the blood. Memory B cells function in a way similar to memory T cells. stronger and faster secondary response when compared to the primary response

stimulus

any change in the internal or external environment that causes a functional reaction in a sensory receptor, neuron, or muscle fiber.

meaning of tropin

any hormones that is secreted by an endocrine gland and targets another such gland.

anticoagulant

any substance that can delay/suppress/prevent blood clotting

great arteries

aorta and pulmonary trunk

inferior tip of the heart

apex, lies just to the left of the sternum near the costal cartilages of the fourth and fifth ribs ~ 2/3 of the heart lies to the left of the body's midline.

Both chambers of the anterior cavity are filled with

aqeous humor

people who are in a coma or a persistent vegetative state are:

are not brain dead

pyramidal cells

are upper motor neurons that have pyramid-shaped cell bodies

Types of anticoagulants

aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) inhibits vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation by blocking thromboxane synthesis can also lead to side effects, including ulcers heparin often administered during hemodialysis and open-heart surgery. Warfarin (Coumadin®) acts as an antagonist to vitamin K and thus blocks synthesis of four clotting factors

TH2

associated primarily with the production of antibodies, especially IgE important in the activation of the eosinophils

lingual frenlum

attached to the floor of the mouth and aids in limiting the movement of the tongue posteriorly

falciform ligament

attaches liver to the anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm

malleus

attaches to the tympanic membrane.

Extending across the middle ear

auditory ossicles

The misuse of recombinant human EPO may also lead to

autoimmune disease

contriction of pupil

autonomic reflex occurs simultaneously with accommodation prevents light rays from entering the eye through the periphery of the lens. would result in blurred vision.

Interstitial fluid is the fluid that

bathes body cells and is constantly renewed by the blood.

thoracic aorta

begins at the level of vertebra T5 and continues to the diaphragm about 20 cm (8 in.) long initially traveling in the mediastinum to the left of the vertebral column. As it descends, it moves closer to the midline and extends through an opening in the diaphragm (aortic hiatus) visceral branches bronchial arteries supplies blood to the lungs and pleura pericardial arteries esophageal arteries mediastinal arteries Parietal branches intercostal arteries provides blood to the muscles of the thoracic cavity and vertebral column. superior phrenic arteries provide blood to the superior surface of the diaphragm.

pharyngeal phase of swallowing

begins when the bolus enters the oropharynx.

retroperitoneal organ

behind peritoneum (ascending colon)

The movement of the otoliths cause the stereocilia to:

bend, initiating action potentials in the vestibular nerve fibers

location of parotid glands

between skin and masseter muscle

atrioventricular septum

between the atria and ventricles Has four openings containing valves (ensure one-way flow of blood) atrioventricular valves: between the atria and ventricles semilunar valves: lead to the pulmonary trunk and aorta

anterior chamber

between the cornea and iris.

posterior chamber

between the iris and lens.

interatrial septum

between the two atria in an adult, this septum has an oval-shaped depression called the fossa ovalis remnant of the foramen ovale. allowed blood in the fetal heart to bypass the pulmonary circuit. Within seconds of birth, the foramen ovale normally closes

intestinal gland

between villi and intestinal epithelium

red blood cells have what kind of discs?

biconcave disks shape provides a greater surface area across which gas exchange can occur

the non-iron portion of heme is converted into

biliverdin, (green) and then into bilirubin (yellow-orange). Bilirubin binds to albumin, enters the blood, and is transported to the liver. With a failing liver, bilirubin cannot be removed effectively from circulation and causes jaundice. bilirubin is used to make bile

Lipid soluble hormones cross the cell membrane to

bind intracellular receptors

albumin

binding proteins (transport vehicles for fatty acids and steroid hormones) significant contributor to the osmotic pressure of blood

IgE

binds basophils (in blood) and mast cells (in tissues) usually associated with allergies and anaphylaxis/ parasitic infection

mesentery*

binds jejunum and ileum to posterior abdominal wall, contains blood and lymphatic vessels, largest peritoneal fold

cataracts is a common cause of

blindness

effect of hepcidin

blocks release of iron into bodily fluids

in ABO blood typing, single drops of:

blood are mixed with different antisera (solutions that contain antibodies) In a cross-match, the possible donor RBCs are mixed with the recipient's serum. If agglutination does not occur, the recipient does not have antibodies that will attack the donor RBCs.

Aqueous humor filters out of

blood capillaries in the ciliary processes of the ciliary body and enters the posterior chamber. flows between the iris and the lens, through the pupil, and into the anterior chamber. drains into the scleral venous sinus and back into the blood.

control of blood pressure and blow flow

blood flow must be redirected continually to tissues as they become more active. Only the brain receives a constistent supply of blood Three homeostatic mechanisms ensure adequate blood flow: neural Endocrine autoregulatory mechanisms.

Insulin is released more slowly, and receptor sensitivity to glucose declines.

blood glucose levels spike more rapidly and take longer to return to normal in the elderly. ~27% of Americans aged ≥65 have diabetes.

three major groups of anemia

blood loss (hemorrhagic anemia) faulty or decreased RBC production: sickle cell anemia Iron deficiency anemia (most common type) deficiency in diet/absorption/transportation vitamin deficiency anemia Insufficient/poor absorption of vitamin B12 and folate diseases of the bone marrow and stem cells. Aplastic anemia: destruction of red bone marrow Inherited; or due to radiation, medication/chemotherapy, toxins, infection. Thalassemia: deficient synthesis of hemoglobin inherited excessive destruction of RBCs.: hemolytic anemia: RBC plasma membranes rupture prematurely may damage the kidneys inherited, parasites, toxins, or antibodies from incompatible transfused blood.

left atrium

blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium via pulmonary veins. mitral valve (left atrioventricular valve)

BUN test

blood urea nitrogen (BUN) When glomerular filtration rate decreases severely BUN rises steeply.

The surface of the retina is the only place where

blood vessels can be examined directly for pathological changes: hypertension, diabetes cataracts age-related macular disease.

the cardiovascular system is composed of

blood, heart, and vessels

penis

body composed of three cylindrical masses of tissue, each surrounded by fibrous tissue called the tunica albuginea. two dorsolateral masses called the corpora cavernosa A smaller midventral mass, the corpus spongiosum, contains the spongy urethra and keeps it open during ejaculation. Skin and a subcutaneous layer enclose all three masses, which consist of erectile tissue. Erectile tissue is composed of blood sinuses (vascular spaces), smooth muscle, and elastic connective tissue. glans penis The distal end of the corpus spongiosum root. Attached (proximal) portion The bulb of the penis is attached to the inferior surface of the deep muscles of the perineum and is enclosed by the bulbospongiosus muscle, a muscle that aids ejaculation. supported by two ligaments that are continuous with the fascia of the penis. The fundiform ligament arises from the inferior part of the linea alba. The suspensory ligament arises from the pubic symphysis. Upon sexual stimulation, parasympathetic fibers from the sacral portion of the spinal cord initiate and maintain erection The parasympathetic fibers produce and release nitric oxide (NO). The NO dilation of the arterioles and blood sinuses. Expansion of the blood sinuses compresses the veins that drain the penis Ejaculation, the release of semen from the urethra to the exterior, is a sympathetic reflex coordinated by the lumbar portion of the spinal cord. As part of the reflex, the smooth muscle sphincter at the base of the urinary bladder closes, preventing urine from being expelled during ejaculation, and semen from entering the urinary bladder. Even before ejaculation occurs, peristaltic contractions in the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory ducts, and prostate propel semen into the penile portion of the urethra (spongy urethra). Typically, this leads to emission, the discharge of a small volume of semen before ejaculation. The musculature of the penis (bulbospongiosus, ischiocavernosus, and superficial transverse perineal muscles), which is supplied by the pudendal nerves, also contracts at ejaculation. Once sexual stimulation of the penis has ended, the arterioles supplying the erectile tissue of the penis constrict and the smooth muscle within erectile tissue contracts, making the blood sinuses smaller. This relieves pressure on the veins, allows blood to drain

fluid compartments and fluid homeostasis

body fluid = produced by the body, consists of water and dissolved solutes. In lean adults, body fluids constitute between 55% (females) and 60% (males) of total body mass Obese people have less water water comprises less than 20% of the mass of adipose tissue. Water is 45-75% of total body mass Body fluids are present in two "compartments"; inside cells and outside cells. 2/3 of body fluid is intracellular fluid (cytosol) 1/3 (extracellular fluid) includes all other body fluids. 80% = interstitial fluid lymph; cerebrospinal fluid; synovial fluid; aqueous and vitreous humor; endolymph and perilymph; pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids 20% = blood plasma Two "barriers" separate intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid. plasma membrane Blood vessel walls fluid balance = required amounts of water and solutes are present and are correctly proportioned in the various compartments. The processes of filtration, reabsorption, diffusion, and osmosis allow exchange of water and solutes among body fluid compartments

what stages of deglutition are voluntary

bolus is passed to the oropharynx by movement of tongue

binocular visison

both eyes focus on only one set of objects allows depth perception light rays from an object strike corresponding points on the two retinas.

Upper motor neuron axons extend from the:

brain to lower motor neurons by direct motor pathways and indirect motor pathways

Cortical Homunculus

brain's representation of the human body

indirect motor pathways come from the

brainstem

the left and right coronary arteries

branch from the ascending aorta

respiratory center

breathing muscles contract as a result of nerve impulses transmitted from respiratory centers in the brain and relax in the absence of nerve impulses. respiratory center= clusters of neurons located bilaterally in the brain stem. can be divided into two principal areas: medullary respiratory center in the medulla oblongata pontine respiratory group in the pons

When saturated with oxygen, blood is

bright red

when a blood sample is centrifuged, WBC are in the

buffy coat between the RBCs and the plasma, less than 1% of blood volume

glaucoma

buildup of aqueous humor within the anterior cavity. compresses the lens into the vitreous body puts pressure on the neurons of the retina. pressure destroys these neurons, damages the optic nerve

refraction

by the lens and cornea Images focused on the retina are inverted (upside down) and backwards. the brain "learns" early in life to coordinate visual images with the orientations of objects.

phototransduction step 4

cGMP phosphodiesterase breaks down cGMP

otolithic membrane

calcium carbonate crystals, called otoliths extend over the surface of the otolithic membrane. When the head moves, gravity causes otoliths to move.

intravascular clotting

can be initiated by atherosclerosis, trauma, infection, or when blood flows too slowly (stasis) Clotting in an unbroken blood vessel (usually a vein) is called thrombosis. If not dissolved, the clot (thrombus) can become dislodged and be swept away in the blood. A blood clot, bubble of air, fat from broken bones, or a piece of debris transported by the bloodstream is called an embolus. can be large enough to block a vessel critical to a major organ (embolism). In the heart, brain, or lungs, an embolism may accordingly cause a heart attack, a stroke, or a pulmonary embolism.

slow pain in terms of internal organs

can be the primary type of pain in internal organs, except the brain

Plasticity

capability for change associated with learning

capillary beds in heart

capillaries function as part of a capillary bed 10-100 capillaries that arises from a single metarteriole. Body tissues with high metabolic requirements have extensive capillary networks. Perfusion: Exchange of gases and other substances occurs in the interstitial fluid

The secreted oxytocin/antidiuretic hormone enters the blood stream via the

capillary plexus of the infundibular process

functions of liver

carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism, protein metabolism, processing of drugs and hormones, Excretion of bilirubin, synthesis of bile salts, storage, phagocytosis, and activation of vitamin D.

brush border enzymes

carbohydrate-digesting protein and nucleotide digesting enzymes

macromolecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids assembled by dehydration synthesis (condensation reaction) hydrogen atom from one monomer and a hydroxyl group from the other is removed to join the two molecules Combine to form water, which is released Hydrolysis

the third nasal nuclei is the:

caudate nucleus

segmentations

causes enzyme to slosh around

in order from small intestine to anus, the major regions of the large intestine are

cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal

abdominal aorta branches

celiac trunk originates at the level of the aortic hiatus Branches: common hepatic artery splenic artery left gastric artery superior mesenteric arteries branches into several major vessels that supply the small intestine, pancreas, most of the large intestine. inferior mesenteric arteries. supplies the distal segment of the large intestine, including the rectum. the abdominal aorta also gives rise to several paired arteries: inferior phrenic arteries inferior surface of the diaphragm. adrenal arteries renal arteries gonadal arteries ovarian artery: ovary, Fallopian tube, uterus testicular artery travels outside the body cavity to the testes Lumbar arteries lumbar region, abdominal wall, spinal cord.

upper motor neurons

cell bodies are in CNS and are responsible for the initiation of voluntary movement, muscle tone, and posture

Hydrophilic hormones bind to a

cell surface receptor

immune system

cells and organs that destroy or neutralize pathogens

endocrine system: types of target cells

cells throughout the body

blood is made up of

cellular elements and an extracellular matrix.

cons

central and color vision. more concentrated in the macula stimulated by brighter light

If the oil glands become blocked due to inflammation, a cyst called

chalazion can develop swelling or lump on your eyelid

tastant

chemicals that stimulate gustatory receptor cells

Parathyroid glands contain two kinds of epithelial cells:

chief cells: produce and secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) the major hormone involved in the regulation of blood calcium levels. oxyphil cell: normal function unknown

major skin hormone

cholecalciferol

key sign of huntington's disease

chorea

the vascular tunic is composed of

choroid, ciliary body, and iris

chronic obstrictive pulmonary disease (COPD)

chronic and recurrent obstruction of airflow, which increases airway resistance. The principal types are emphysema and chronic bronchitis. most common cause is cigarette smoking or breathing secondhand smoke. Other causes include air pollution, pulmonary infection, occupational exposure to dusts and gases, and genetic factors. affects about 30 million Americans, fourth leading cause of death Emphysema destruction of the walls of the alveoli, producing abnormally large air spaces that remain filled with air during exhalation. O2 diffusion across the damaged respiratory membrane is reduced. recoil decreases due to loss of elastic fibers added exertion during inhalation increases the size of the chest cage, resulting in a "barrel chest." common precursor to the development of lung cancer Chronic Bronchitis excessive secretion of bronchial mucus accompanied by a productive cough that lasts for at least 3 months of the year for two successive years. Symptoms also include shortness of breath, wheezing, cyanosis, and pulmonary hypertension. Inhaled irritants lead to chronic inflammation with an increase in the size and number of mucous glands and goblet cells in the airway epithelium. narrows the airway and impairs ciliary function. inhaled pathogens become embedded in airway

what can slow pain become?

chronic pain

classes of lipoproteins

chylomicrons form in mucosal epithelial cells of the small intestine transport dietary lipids to adipose tissue for storage. Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) form in hepatocytes transport triglycerides made in hepatocytes to adipocytes As they deposit some of their triglycerides in adipose cells, VLDLs are converted to LDLs. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) carry about 75% of the total cholesterol in blood Delivers cholesterol to body cells repair of cell membranes, synthesis of steroid hormones and bile salts. When present in excessive numbers, LDLs deposit cholesterol in and around smooth muscle fibers in arteries Eating a high-fat diet increases the production of VLDLs, which elevates the LDL level High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) removes excess cholesterol from body cells and blood and transports it to the liver for elimination. a high HDL level is associated with decreased risk of coronary artery disease.

The anterior portion of the choroid becomes the

ciliary body

close objects

ciliary muscles contract, releases tension on the suspensory ligaments Allows the lens to curve becomes convex (curves outward)

Humans sleep and awaken in a 24-hour cycle called a

circadian rhythm

Most endocrine hormones are

circulating hormones—they circulate in the blood Can remain in blood for minutes to hours before being inactivated by the liver and excreted by the kidneys

regeneration

cis-retinal binds to opsin again, reforming the photopigment.

in darkness:

cis-retinal is present

cell-mediated immunity

classified by surface glycoproteins called clusters of differentiation (CD) cytotoxic (CD8) T cells directly attack infected, foreign, or cancerous cells "cell to cell combat" Helper (CD4) T cells aid the immune responses of both cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity.

nervous system: site of action

close to site of release, at synapse; binds to receptors in postsynaptic membrane

the putamen (shell) is

closer to the cerebral cortex

the globus pallidus is

closer to the thalamus

The coagulation cascade involves many intermediary steps, but the principal events are:

clotting factors trigger the conversion of the inactive prothrombin into activated enzyme thrombin Thrombin converts soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into an insoluble fibrous form called fibrin The fibrin strands form a mesh around the platelet plug and traps blood cells to form a temporary clot

Aggultination

clumping of red blood cells

zinc

co-enzyme that facilitates the synthesis of the heme.

3. All of the following are wastes removed by the kidneys EXCEPT a) urea b) bilirubin c) creatinine d) drugs e) CO2

co2

endocrine system

collection of glands that produce hormones

external ear

collects sound waves and channels them inward

The follicles are made up of a central cavity filled with a sticky fluid called

colloid

increased PTH

combined with decreased levels of calcitonin (and estrogens in women) can lead to osteoporosis osteoporosis is common in both elderly males and females.

the adrenal medulla is composed of

composed of postganglionic SNS neurons called chromaffin cells produce neurotransmitters epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).

receptors for the special senses are

concentrated in specialized organs in the head.

second order neurons

conduct impulses from the brainstem or spinal cord to the thalamus

third order neurons

conduct impulses from the thalamus to the postcentral gyrus.

Purkinje fibers

conduct the action potential beginning at the apex of the heart upward to the remainder of the ventricular myocardium toward the base the ventricles contract at the same time

the basal ganglia connect with

connect with the motor cortex, midbrain, and each other

semicircular canals/ducts

connect with the utricle of the vestibule.

blood

connective tissue

tunica externa

connective tissue outer covering.

tunica externa of the heart

connective tissue outer covering. contains nerves and blood vessels (vasa vasorum) that supply the tissue of the vessel wall anchors the vessels to surrounding tissues.

tarsal plate

connective tissue that gives form and support to the eyelids.

auditory tube

connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx (superior portion of the throat). normally closed at its medial (pharyngeal) end. Opens during swallowing and yawning allows pressure in the middle ear to equal atmospheric pressure. Bacteria from the nose and throat can travel up the auditory tube to cause ear infection (otitis media)

ciliary body

consists of ciliary processes and ciliary muscle. contain blood capillaries that secrete aqueous humor. Extending from the ciliary process are suspensory ligaments that attach to the lens. alters the shape of the lens, adapting it for near or far vision.

vitreous humor does not undergo

constant replacement

myocardial contractile cells

constitute 99% of the cells. conduct impulses and are responsible for contractions that pump blood

lesser omentum*

contains lymph nodes, contains common bile duct, connects stomach and duodenum to the liver

greater omentum*

contains lymph nodes, drapes over transverse colon and small intestine like a fatty apron

slowly adapting receptors

continue to trigger nerve impulses as long as the stimulus persists. pain, body position, chemical composition of the blood.

In each cardiac cycle, the atria and ventricles alternately

contract and relax, forcing blood from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. Fluids will flow according to pressure

mesangial cells

contractile cells that help regulate glomerular filtration Found between glomerular capillaries and afferent/efferent arterioles

atrial fibrilation

contraction of the atrial fibers is asynchronous (not in unison) so atrial pumping stops no clearly defined P waves and irregularly spaced QRS complexes (and R-R intervals) irregular heartbeat with diminished strength. most dangerous complication is stroke since blood may form clots in the atria

outer hair cells

control and amplify the sensitivity of the inner hair cells.

cerebellular neurons

control the activity of upper motor neurons via the thalamus monitors differences between intended movements and movements actually performed and then corrects errors coordinates movements for posture and balance.

corticobulbar pathway

controls voluntary movement in the head.

corticospinal pathway

controls voluntary movement in the limbs and trunk.

isomerization

conversion of cis- to trans-retinal

inner hair cells

convert the mechanical vibrations of sound into electrical signals.

middle ear

conveys sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window

causes of CHF

coronary artery disease congenital defects long-term high blood pressure myocardial infarctions valve disorders

example of a direct motor pathway

corticospinal pathways and the corticobulbar pathway.

2 countercurrent mechanisms in kidney

countercurrent multiplication : a progressively increasing osmotic gradient is formed in the interstitial fluid of the renal medulla as a result of countercurrent flow. involves the nephron loops of juxtamedullary nephrons. Countercurrent exchange: the process by which solutes and water are passively exchanged between the blood of the vasa recta and interstitial fluid as a result of countercurrent flow.

acrosome

covers 2/3 of nucleus anterior

Messages are sent from the vestibular nuclei to:

cranial nerves: movements of the eyes and head Accessory nerves: head and neck movement vestibulospinal tract: muscle tone thalamus and parietal lobe: conscious awareness of movements The remaining axons enter the cerebellum

renal calculi

crystals of salts present in urine occasionally precipitate and solidify into insoluble stones

prolapsed valve

cusps are forced backward into the atria by blood if the chordae tendineae are damaged or broken results in regurgitation (blood flows backward from its normal path)

what is a common second messenger?

cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

There is a high concentration of cyclic GMP (cGMP) in the

cytosol

This cascade is stimulated by clotting factors released from

damaged cells (extrinsic pathway) and platelets (intrinsic pathway) Both pathways lead to the formation of prothrombinase. Prothrombinase converts prothrombin (a plasma protein formed by the liver) into the enzyme thrombin.

When unsaturated with oxygen, blood is

dark red

ovulation

day 14 in a 28-day cycle. the rupture of the mature (graafian) follicle and the release of the secondary oocyte into the pelvic cavity the secondary oocyte remains surrounded by its zona pellucida and corona radiata. The ovulated oocyte and its corona radiata cells are usually swept into the uterine tube. From time to time, an oocyte is lost into the pelvic cavity, where it later disintegrates. An over-the-counter home test that detects a rising level of LH can be used to predict ovulation a day in advance.

vitreal floaters

debris that cast a shadow on the retina and create specks in the field of vision. usually harmless and does not require treatment.

decreased thyroid hormones

decrease in metabolic rate, increase in body fat hypothyroidism is seen more often in older people

sympathetic nerve impulses

decrease salivation in times of stress

During Nrem sleep, there are

decreases in heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure. Muscle tone decreases slightly. This allows the sleeping person to shift body positions while in bed.

Trigeminothalamic Pathway: axons of second order neurons function

decussate in the brainstem and extend to the thalamus, where they synapse with third order neurons, which transmit impulses to the postcentral gyrus opposite the site of stimulation.

Posterior Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the Cortex: the axons of second order neurons do and form what?

decussate in the brainstem and form the medial lemniscus which extends to the third order neurons in the thalamus.

Anterolateral (Spinothalamic) Pathway to the Cortex: the axons of the second order neurons do what?

decussate in the spinal cord and pass to the brainstem as the spinothalamic tract.

innate nonspecific immunity

defenses present at birth. does not involve specific recognition of a microbe acts against all microbes in the same way. immunity's early warning system designed to prevent microbes from entering the body and to help eliminate those that do gain access. 1st line of defense: physical and chemical barriers 2nd line of defense: antimicrobial substances, natural killer cells, phagocytes, inflammation, and fever

veins carry

deoxygenated blood to the heart

regulation of food intake

depends on many factors neural connections between the hypothalamus and other parts of the brain. Within the hypothalamus are clusters of neurons that play key roles in regulating food intake. arcuate nucleus and the paraventricular nucleus. endocrine signals leptin synthesized and secreted by adipocytes in proportion to adiposity acts on the hypothalamus to inhibit eating and activate circuits that increase energy expenditure. insulin has a similar but smaller effect than leptin Ghrelin produced by endocrine cells of the stomach. role in increasing appetite. levels of certain nutrients in the blood Ex: glucose psychological elements such as stress or depression signals from the GI track and the special senses Distension of the GI tract Satiety = feeling full satiety signals = chemical or neural changes that help terminate eating when "fullness" is attained.

The inflow of Na+ (dark current)

depolarizes the photoreceptor.

eicosanoid hormones

derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon fatty acid. Prostaglandins: modify responses to hormones contribute to the inflammatory response, prevent stomach ulcers, dilate (enlarge) airways to the lungs, regulate body temperature, and influence formation of blood clots Leukotrienes participate in allergic and inflammatory responses.

steroid hormones

derived from the lipid cholesterol

location of thermoreceptors

dermis, skeletal muscles, liver, hypothalamus

decreased intraocular pressure can lead to a

detached retina, and in some cases blindness.

The vestibular apparatus uses hair cells with stereocilia to

detect changes in head position or acceleration.

muscle spindle

detect changes in the length of the muscle regulates the contraction of muscles via the stretch reflex Allows brain to set muscle tone

tendon organs

detect changes in the tension (contraction) of the muscle Regulates contraction via the tendon reflex

WBCs leave the bloodstream by a process called

diapedesis, in which they roll along the endothelium, stick to it, and then squeeze between endothelial cells. Once in tissues, WBCs can move like amoebas Leukocytes are attracted by chemokines injured or infected cells and nearby leukocytes emit secrete a chemical "911" call, attracting more leukocytes to the site.

What 2 factors contribute to osmotic gradient in concentrated urine formation?

differences in solute and water permeability and reabsorption in the nephron loops and collecting ducts countercurrent flow

functions of small intestine

digestion and absorption

pharynx is part of what two systems

digestive and respiratory

salivary amylase

digestive enzyme that acts on starch

brush border

digestive enzymes

relay stations

direct sensory input to the appropriate place in the cerebral cortex.

treatment of PD

directed toward increasing levels of dopamine symptoms are partially relieved by levodopa (l-dopa), a precursor of dopamine, the drug does not slow the progression of the disease. As more affected brain cells die, the drug becomes useless.

merkel discs

disc-shaped free nerve endings contact tactile epithelial cells (Merkel cells) slowly adapting, responds to continuous touch, pressure

pathogen

disease-producing microbes (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, etc.)

With the exception of lymphocytes, formed elements do not

divide once they leave red bone marrow. Lymphoid stem cells migrate from the bone marrow to lymphatic tissues, where their production and differentiation continues. B cells mature in the bone marrow, while T cells mature in the thymus.

membrane potentials autorhythmic cells

do not have a stable resting potential. sodium channels allow a slow influx of sodium ions that causes the membrane potential to rise slowly creates spontaneous depolarization calcium ion channels open, further depolarizing the cell calcium ion channels close and K+ channels open, allowing outflux of K+ results in repolarization. When the membrane potential reaches −60 mV, the K+ channels close and Na+ channels open prepotential phase begins again.

local hormones

don't enter the blood stream act on the same cell that secreted them (autocrines) or on neighboring cells (paracrines) Usually inactivated quickly

Parkinson's disease

dopamine-releasing neurons that extend from the substantia nigra to the putamen and caudate nucleus degenerate.

Posterior Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the Cortex: the cell bodies of the first order neurons are located in the what?

dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord, their axons form the posterior dorsal columns which extend to the medulla, where they synapse with second order neurons.

middle cardiac vein

drains both ventricles

great cardiac vein

drains both ventricles and left

small cardiac vein

drains right atrium and right ventricle

epididymis

ductus epididymis 6 m (20 ft) in length if uncoiled. lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium and encircled by layers of smooth muscle. The free surfaces of the columnar cells contain stereocilia, which are long, branching microvilli (not cilia) that increase the surface area for the reabsorption of degenerated sperm. the epididymis is the site of sperm maturation sperm acquire motility and the ability to fertilize an ovum. occurs over a period of about 14 days. The epididymis helps propel sperm into the vas deferens during arousal by peristaltic contraction of smooth muscle. At its distal end, the tail of the epididymis continues as the ductus (vas) deferens. the epididymis stores sperm, which remain viable here for several months. Any stored sperm that are not ejaculated by that time are reabsorbed.

hemophilia

due to deficiencies of blood clotting factor(s), range from mild to severe bleeding tendencies. bleeding can be spontaneous or after minor trauma. Bleed into joint spaces after exercise, blood in the urine/stool, subcutaneous and intramuscular hemorrhaging, nosebleeds usually affects males Treated with infusions of clotting factors

slow pain

dull/burning/aching/throbbing pain.

tympanic membrane

eardrum

female gamete

egg

Messiner's corpsucles

egg-shaped mass of dendrites covered by a capsule rapidly adapting Touch, low-frequency vibration

electron transport chain

electron transport chain - membrane-embedded proteins and organic molecules organized into four complexes inner membrane of the mitochondria NADH and FADH2 bring the electrons to the electron transport chain Electrons are passed from one complex to another in a series of redox reactions Energy released in these reactions is used to create a proton gradient creates an electrochemical gradient across the membrane (proton-motive force) form of stored energy, like a battery At the end of the chain, electrons join with protons and oxygen (O2) to form water (H2O)

Ruffini corpuscles

elongated, encapsulated receptors sensitive to skin stretching and pressure

what constitute the endocrine system.

endocrine cells and hormone-secreting cells

G cells

endocrine cells that secrete gastrin

fill in the blank: the dendrites of the sensory neuron are covered in a connective tissue capsule that ________ the sensitivity or specificity of the receptor.

enhances

glucose-dependant insulinotropic peptide

enhances release of insulin

In the capillaries, carbon dioxide

enters the bloodstream, 76 percent dissolves in the plasma 23-24 percent binds to the amino acids in hemoglobin, forming carbaminohemoglobin. hemoglobin carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs, where it releases it for exchange of oxygen.

lingual lipase

enzyme, 30% of dietary triglycerides and converts them to simpler fatty acids and diglycerides

From superficial to deep, each eyelid consists of:

epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous tissue, fibers of the orbicularis oculi muscle a tarsal plate tarsal glands conjunctiva

gastic glands

epithelial cells in lamina propia that form columns of excretory cells

fibrinogen

essential for blood clotting

The left side of the heart pumps blood through

estimated 100,000 km (60,000 mi) of blood vessels

macula lutea

exact center of the retina, visual axis of the eye.

parietal cells

exocrine cell, secretes HCl and intristic factor

mucous neck cells

exocrine cell, secretes mucous

chief cells

exocrine cells, secretes pepsinogen and gastric lipase

Trigeminothalamic Pathway: axons of first order neurons function

extend to the pons through the trigeminal (V) nerves and synapse with second order neurons in the brainstem (pons or medulla).

vulva

external genitals of the female. The following components make up the vulva: mons pubis Anterior to the vaginal and urethral openings elevation of adipose tissue that cushions the pubic symphysis. labia majora two longitudinal folds of skin which extend from the mons pubis inferiorly and posteriorly. contains adipose tissue, sebaceous (oil) glands, and apocrine sudoriferous (sweat) glands. labia minora two smaller folds of skin medial to the labia majora have few sudoriferous glands, but they do contain many sebaceous glands clitoris a small cylindrical mass composed of two small erectile bodies, the corpora cavernosa, and numerous nerves and blood vessels. A layer of skin called the prepuce of the clitoris is formed at the point where the labia minora unite and covers the body of the clitoris. The exposed portion of the clitoris is the glans clitoris. Vestibule region between the labia minora is the. contains the hymen (if present), the vaginal orifice, the external urethral orifice, and the openings of the ducts of several glands.

epicardium

external layer contains blood vessels, lymphatics that supply the myocardium. composed of: visceral layer of the serous pericardium. thin, transparent layer fibroelastic and adipose tissue

accessory structres of the eye

eyelashes, eyebrows, eyelids, lacrimal apparatus, extrinsic eye muscles

example of where special senses are located

eyes, ears

corticobulbar pathway example

eyes, tongue, neck, chewing, facial expression, speech, swallowing

Antithrombin inactivates

factor X and opposes the conversion of prothrombin (factor II) to thrombin in the common pathway.

4. The kidneys lie within the peritoneal membrane. a) True b) False

false

As you smell food, your mouth begins to water and your stomach rumbles. This signals the beginning of the gastric phase of digestion. a. True b. False

false

Micturition is the involuntary portion of urination. a) True b) False

false

acrosome of sperm contains mitochondria needed for ATP production

false

bile breaks down fats into monoglycerides and fatty acids

false

simple squamos epithelium found in esophagus allows diffusion and absorption of water

false

the oral cavity is formed by the cheeks, tongue and hard palate, but not the soft palate

false

upper esophageal sphincter contains smooth muscle

false

hyperopia

farsightedness (can see distant objects, but not close ones) eyeball is short relative to the focusing power of the cornea and lens, or the lens is thinner than normal, so an image converges behind the retina.

In areas where such discrimination is not necessary, receptive fields are:

farther apart

receptive aphasia

faulty understanding of spoken or written words. A person with this type of aphasia may produce strings of words that have no meaning ("word salad").

gamete

female/male reproductive cells unite to form zygote

bacteria in the large intestine

ferment carbohydrates, convert proteins into amino acids, results in formation of indoles and skatoles, decompose bilirubin to stercobilin

transfusion reaction symptoms

fever /chills low blood pressure back and chest pain Nausea/vomiting Red urine Hives/itching

The anterior pituitary releases GH every

few hours, especially during sleep.

wall of eyeball

fibrous tunic, vascular tunic, retina

the entire surface of the tongue has

filiform papillae

rapidly adapting receptors

fire rapidly when a stimulus is first presented and then fall silent ("adapt") very quickly specialized to signal changes in a stimulus. pressure, touch, smell

gustatory receptor cells synapse with

first order taste neurons

olfactory receptor cells

first-order neurons of the olfactory pathway

Vestibular hair cells synapse with

first-order sensory neurons of the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve.

fissure and lobes

fissures divide each lung into sections called lobes. Both lungs have an oblique fissure Superior and inferior lobes the right lung also has a horizontal fissure. Middle lobe Each lobe receives its own lobar bronchus. the right main bronchus gives rise to three lobar bronchi called the superior, middle, and inferior lobar bronchi left main bronchus gives rise to superior and inferior lobar bronchi. The lobes are divided into segments Each with its own tertiary (segmental) bronchus

Other flavors (chocolate, pepper, coffee) are combinations of the

five primary tastes plus any accompanying olfactory sensations.

red bone marrow is constricted to

flat bones (ribs, sternum) irregular bones (vertebrae, pelvis) long bones (proximal epiphyses of the femur and humerus)

trigone

floor of the urinary bladder is a small triangular area

concurrent flow

flow of fluid in opposite directions.

glomerular filtrate

fluid that enters capsular space

b vitamins

folate and B12 function as co-enzymes that facilitate DNA synthesis (critical for the synthesis of new cells)

Axons of olfactory receptor cells (1st order neurons) (olfactory nerves) pass through

foramina of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone into part of the brain called olfactory bulbs

contractility

force or strength of the contraction itself positive inotropic agents increase contractility Ex: sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (epinephrine, norepinephrine) negative inotropic agents decrease contractility Ex: anoxia, acidosis, increased K+ level, calcium channel blockers

afterload

force the ventricles generate to pump blood Any condition that increases resistance requires a greater afterload Ex: Damage to the valves (ex: stenosis), hypertension, atherosclerosis An increase in afterload causes stroke volume to decrease

exogenous antigens

foreign antigens that are present in fluids outside body cells Bacteria, bacterial toxins, parasitic worms, viruses that have not yet infected a body cell. A special class of cells called antigen-presenting cells (APCs) process and present exogenous antigens. APCs include dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. exogenous antigen is bound to an MHC-II molecule After processing and presenting an antigen, APCs migrate from tissues via lymphatic vessels to lymph nodes. Within lymphatic tissue, a small number of T cells that have compatibly shaped receptors recognize and bind to the antigen fragment-MHC-II complex, triggering an adaptive immune response. Clonal selection

endogenous antigens

foreign antigens that are present inside body cells Ex: viral proteins, toxins produced by intracellular bacteria, abnormal proteins synthesized by a cancerous cell. Most cells of the body can process and present endogenous antigens. endogenous antigen bound to an MHC-I molecule signals that a cell has been infected and needs help.

vallate papillae

form an inverted V-shaped row at the back of the tongue.

micelle

formed by fatty acids

cellular elements

formed elements Red blood cells (RBCs, erythrocytes) transport oxygen to body cells and remove some carbon dioxide from them. white blood cells (WBCs, leukocytes) phagocytosis, immunity, and allergic reactions. cell fragments called platelets (thrombocytes) blood clotting

primary lymphoid organs: thymus

found between the sternum and the aorta between the lungs. a bilobed organ Connective tissue holds the lobes together but also separates them and forms a capsule. The connective tissue capsule further divides the thymus into lobules via extensions called trabeculae. Cortex contains thymocytes, epithelial cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. "positive selection" specialized epithelial cells surround and serve as a framework for as many as 50 T cells. Only ~2% of developing T cells survive the cortex. remaining cells die via apoptosis (programmed cell death). The surviving T cells enter the medulla. Medulla less dense collection of more mature T cells, epithelial cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages. "negative selection" against self-reactive T-cells T cells that leave the thymus migrate to lymph nodes/spleen/lymphatic tissues Hormones produced by the thymus—promote the maturation of T cells thymosin, thymic humoral factor (THF), thymic factor (TF), thymopoietin The thymus atrophies with age largest in infancy. After puberty, its size begins to decrease thymic tissue is replaced by adipose and areolar connective tissue. Before atrophy, it populates the secondary lymphatic organs and tissues with T cells. some T cells continue to proliferate in the thymus throughout an individual's lifetime, but this number decreases with age.

igA

found in secretions & mucosal linings Is a dimer on mucosal surfaces in breast milk & colostrum

skeletal muscle is found in the muscularis of where? but not in the muscularis of where?

found in the muscularis of middle esophagus, not found in the muscularis of the small intestine

IgD

found on b cell membranes; not secreted

how many types of circuits provide input to lower motor neurons

four

cardiac skeleton

four dense connective tissue rings surround the valves and fuse with each other structural foundation for the heart valves point of insertion for cardiac muscle acts as an electrical insulator between the atria and ventricles.

During each cardiac cycle (heartbeat), there are:

four heart sounds, but in a normal heart only the first and second heart sounds (S1 and S2) are loud enough to be heard through a stethoscope.

coronary artery disease (CAD)

from atherosclerotic plaques in coronary arteries Reduces blood flow to the myocardium Some have no signs/symptoms Other experience angina pectoris (chest pain) Can cause heart attacks affects ~ 7 million people annually. 750,000 deaths in the United States/year leading cause of death for both men and women. the heart of a patient who survives a heart attack often has regions of infarcted (dead) cardiac muscle replaced with noncontractile fibrous scar tissue over time

visceral senses

from internal organs pressure, stretch, nausea, hunger

upper motor neurons descend:

from the brainstem motor centers into five major tracts: vestibulospinal tract lateral reticulospinal tract medial reticulospinal tract tectospinal tract rubrospinal tract

aortic semilunar valve

from the left ventricle into the aorta

pulmonary semilunar valve

from the right ventricle into the pulmonary trunk

nephron

functional units of the kidney (1 million)

chime

gastric contents reduced to liquid

major hormone on GI tract

gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, GIP, GLP-1

The body responds in different ways to short-term stress and long-term stress following a pattern known as

general adaptation syndrome

nervous system: duration of action

generally briefer (milliseconds)

endocrine system: duration of action

generally longer (seconds to days)

The surfaces of erythrocytes contain

genetically determined assortment of antigens composed of glycoproteins and glycolipids. Antigens are substances that the body does not recognize as belonging to the "self" and that therefore trigger immune responses.

high intraocular pressure can lead to

glaucoma

What are the three functions of the nephron?

glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion

opsin

glycoprotein

optic radiations

go to the primary visual areas in the occipital lobes

optic tract

goes to the thalamus, and synapse with neurons whose axons form the optic radiations

receptor potential

graded potential in a sensory neuron, happens via transduction

Veins carrying blood to the coronary sinus:

great, middle, small cardiac vein

sulci

grooves that contain coronary blood vessels and fat.

visceral pain

gut organs, muscles

what ion is sour

h+

receptors for hearing

hair cells

movement of hair on skin

hair root plexus

stereocilia

hairlike microvilli arranged in several rows of graded height.

substantia nigra function

has extensive connections with the motor cortex

haustral churning

haustra remain relaxed and become distended while they fill up

principle cells

have receptors for antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone

causes of coma

head injuries, damages to the reticular activating system (RAS), brain infections, alcohol intoxication, and drug overdoses.

It is well known that EPO, by thickening the blood, leads to an increased risk of:

heart disease stroke cerebral or pulmonary embolism.

when a blood sample is centrifuged, RBC are

heaviest and settle at the bottom 99% of the formed elements, 45% of blood volume Hematocrit (AKA packed cell volume, PCV) = the % of RBCs in a blood sample. polycythemia causes an increased viscosity of the blood, which makes it more difficult for the heart to circulate the blood.

function of cornea

helps focus light onto the retina. receives oxygen from the air

juxtaglomerular cells

helps regulate blood pressure in the kidneys.

Iron is removed from

heme can be stored in the liver or spleen (ferritin or hemosiderin), or carried through the blood (transferrin) to the red bone marrow

process of cell replacement

hemopoiesis

Hemopoiesis begins when the stem cell is exposed to

hemopoietic growth factors, which prompt them to divide and differentiate. a group of glycoproteins that causes blood cells to grow and mature. pluripotent stem cells in red bone marrow produce myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells.

basophils release

heparin, a short-acting anticoagulant that opposes prothrombin.

hepatic laminae

hepatocytes form three dimensional arrangements

what plays a major role in memory consolidation?

hippocampus

example of merkel discs function

holding an object for an extended period

the response triggered by a hormone binding its receptor depends on the

hormone and the target cell. Ex: insulin stimulates synthesis of glycogen in liver cells and synthesis of triglycerides in adipose cells

binding generates a

hormone-receptor complex

endocrine system: molecules

hormones delivered by tissues throughout the body by blood

posterior gland does not produce

hormones, but stores and secretes hormones produced by the hypothalamus. oxytocin Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin )

internal ear

houses the receptors for hearing and equilibrium

accommodation

how the eye changes focus from distant to near images produced by a change in lens shape Shape changed by the ciliary muscle changing tension on the suspensory ligaments

the circadian rhythm is established by the:

hypothalamus

Hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary is regulated by

hypothalamus, releasing hormones stimulate secretion inhibiting hormones inhibit secretion

hormone secreting cells are found in

hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, adipose tissue, and placenta.

hemolytic disease of a newborn

if a small amount of Rh+ blood leaks from the fetus through the placenta into the bloodstream of a Rh− mother, the mother will start to make anti-Rh antibodies. Because the greatest possibility of fetal blood leakage into the maternal circulation occurs at delivery, the firstborn baby usually is not affected. If the mother becomes pregnant again with a Rh+ fetus, her anti-Rh antibodies can cross the placenta and enter the bloodstream of the fetus, causing hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) May cause loss of pregnancy or death of the baby shortly after birth. An injection of anti-Rh antibodies called anti-Rh gamma globulin (RhoGAM®) can be given to prevent HDN. These antibodies bind to and inactivate the fetal Rh antigens normally administered to Rh− mothers during weeks 26−28 of pregnancy and within 72 hours following birth

specificity

immune system reacts differently to each foreign substance

sleep deprivation

impairs attention, learning, performance, and immunity if the lack of sleep lasts long enough, it can lead to mood swings, hallucinations, and even death.

transfusions in emergency cases

in emergency situations, there may not be time for cross matching to identify blood type. blood from a universal donor (O− blood) may be transfused. Rh+ patient can receive both Rh+ and Rh− blood

vestibular organs

in the inner ear send information about rotation, acceleration, and position

The receptors for olfaction are located:

in the olfactory epithelium of the nose.

what is the mesothelium?

in the serosa, composed of areolar connective tissue and simple squamos epithileum

superficial somatic pain

in the skin

superficial veins

in the subcutaneous layer unaccompanied by arteries. form connections (anastomoses) with the deep veins that travel between the skeletal muscles.

primary olfactory area

in the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex conscious awareness of smell occurs. the only sense that gets to the cortex without going through the thalamus first

location of the heart

in the thoracic cavity in the space called the mediastinum. extends from the sternum to the vertebral column, from the first rib to the diaphragm, and between the lungs. rests on the diaphragm, near the midline of the thoracic cavity.

effect of thrombopoietin

increase of platelets

18. Glomerular filtration rate is decreased by all of the following EXCEPT a) increased production of angiotensin II b) increased secretion of atrial natriuretic peptide c) increased stretching of smooth muscle fibers in afferent arterioles d) increased activity of renal sympathetic nerves

increased secretion of atrial natriuretic peptide

gherlin

increases appetite

plasticity involves changes in:

individual neurons as well as changes in the strengths of synaptic connections. neurons grow new synaptic end bulbs with increasing gage.

WBCs leave the bloodstream and collect at sites of

infection or inflammation. Once granular leukocytes and monocytes leave the bloodstream, they never return to it. Lymphocytes recirculate from blood to interstitial spaces to lymphatic fluid and back to blood.

the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are connected by a stalk called the

infundibulum

sources about body water gain and loss

ingested liquids about 1600 mL moist foods about 700 ml metabolic water 200 mL/day. aerobic respiration dehydration synthesis reactions. water loss normally equals water gain. Water loss occurs in four ways. kidneys 1500 mL in urine skin 400 mL as insensible perspiration 200 mL as sweat lungs 300 mL gastrointestinal tract 100 mL in feces.

causes of kidney stones

ingestion of excessive calcium, low water intake, abnormally alkaline or acidic urine, and overactivity of the parathyroid glands.

Functions of digestive system*

ingestion: eating secretion: cells in the walls of the GI tract and accessory organs secrete about 7 liters of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into the lumen of the tract every day motility: smooth muscle in the walls of the GI tract mix food and secretions and move them towards the anus. digestion: break down of food absorption: products of digestion move from the GI tract into blood/lymph elimination: wastes, indigestible substances, bacteria, cells sloughed from the lining of the GI tract, and digested materials that were not absorbed leave the body through the anus.

huntington's disease

inherited disorder in which the caudate nucleus and putamen degenerate, progressive mental deterioration

most somatic motor neurons are ____ during rem sleep

inhibited significant decrease in muscle tone/paralysis of skeletal muscles (except those used for breathing and eye movements)

negative feedback

inhibition of further secretion because adequate levels have been reached. Most regulation

glutamate

inhibitory neurotransmitter Prevents signals to the ganglion cells.

leptin

inhibits hunger, diminishes fat storage in adipocytes

effect of osteoclacin

inhibits insulin production

effect of FGF23

inhibits production of calcitriol and increases phosphate excretion

gastrocolic reflex

initiates peristalsis

cataracts can occur with age but can also be caused by

injury excessive exposure to ultraviolet rays certain medications (ex: long-term steroid use) disease complications (ex: diabetes)

paneth

innate mucosal defense

Bony lambyrinth

inner ear

endocardium

inner layer Composed of endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) lines the heart chambers, heart valves is continuous with the endothelial lining of the blood vessels.

tunica interna

innermost layer

lower motor neurons

innervate the muscles

minerals

inorganic elements calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, magnesium, iron, iodide, manganese, copper, cobalt, zinc, fluoride, selenium, chromium. about 4% of total body mass concentrated most heavily in the skeleton. help regulate enzymatic reactions. Calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, magnesium work in buffer systems, which help control the pH of body fluids. Sodium, phosphorus Generation of nerve impulses Blood osmolarity

The receptors for lipid-soluble hormones are located

inside target cells

internal nose

inside the skull, called the nasal cavity

thrombocytopenia

insufficient number of platelets; blood may not clot properly

major liver hormones

insulin-like growth factor-1, angiotensinogen, thrombopoetin, hepcidin

amacrine cells

integrate input from multiple bipolar cells and pass that info on to ganglion cells respond to a change in the level of illumination in the retina, or movement of a visual signal

horizontal cells

integrate input from multiple photoreceptor cells and pass that info on to bipolar cells improve visual contrast between adjacent areas of the retina.

second line of defense: antimicrobial substances

interferons Produced by lymphocytes, macrophages, virus-infected cells IFNs diffuse to uninfected neighboring cells, where they induce synthesis of antiviral proteins that interfere with viral replication. complement A group of normally inactive proteins in blood plasma and on plasma membranes When activated, these proteins "complement" or enhance certain immune reactions. The complement system causes cytolysis (bursting) of microbes, promotes phagocytosis, and contributes to inflammation. iron-binding proteins inhibit the growth of certain bacteria by reducing the amount of available iron Ex: transferrin, lactoferrin, ferritin, hemoglobin antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) In addition to killing a wide range of microbes, AMPs can attract dendritic cells and mast cells, which participate in immune responses. Ex: dermicidin (produced by sweat glands), defensins and cathelicidins (produced by neutrophils, macrophages, and epithelia), and thrombocidin (produced by platelets).

three major branches of subclavian arteries

internal thoracic artery supplies blood to the thymus, pericardium, and the anterior chest wall. vertebral artery supplies blood to the brain and spinal cord join together to form the basilar artery at the base of the medulla oblongata. thyrocervical artery provides blood to the thyroid, cervical region of the neck, upper back and shoulder.

wenicke's areas

interprets the meaning of written or spoken words. translates words into thoughts.

most hormones enter where?

interstitial fluid and then the bloodstream

lymph

interstitial fluid passed into lymphatic vessels

After blood passes through arteries, it flows

into capillaries and then moves into coronary veins.

adaptive specific immunity

involve specific recognition of a microbe once it has breached the innate immunity defenses. adapts (adjusts) to handle a specific microbe. "remembers" the microbe

enterogastric reflex

is stimulated by the presence of chyme in the duodenum.

What kind of nephron has a thin ascending limb followed by a thick ascending limb?

juxtamedullary nephrons

ADH target organs

kidneys and smooth muscle in blood vessels. kidneys respond by retaining more water (decreasing urine output) Smooth muscle in the walls of arterioles (small arteries) contract, increasing blood pressure.

temperature in mucous membranes

krause end bulbs

suspectibility

lack of resistance to a disease

veins

lack the elastic laminae found in arteries. not designed to withstand pressure. Many veins, especially those in the limbs, contain valves thin folds of tunica interna that form flaplike cusps.

medial commissure has the

lacrimal caruncle, which contains sebaceous (oil) glands and sudoriferous (sweat) glands. The material that collects in the medial commissure comes from these glands.

Chemical digestion

large carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid molecules in the food are split into smaller molecules by hydrolysis. digestive enzymes produced by salivary glands, tongue, stomach, pancreas and small intestine catalyze these catabolic reactions

spleen

largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in the body. on average it fits in a person's open hand and measures about 12 cm (5 in.) in length. Filters blood located between the stomach and diaphragm attached to the lateral border of the stomach via the gastrosplenic ligament. soft, encapsulated organ Fragile, does not have a strong capsule dark red due to extensive vascularization. Stroma = capsule, trabeculae, reticular fibers, and fibroblasts Parenchyma = white pulp and red pulp. white pulp = lymphatic tissue Upon entering the spleen, the splenic artery splits into several arterioles (surrounded by white pulp) and eventually into sinusoids. consists of germinal centers of dividing B cells surrounded by T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells. red pulp = reticular fibers with macrophages and some lymphocytes. primarily functions as a filtration system of the blood Macrophages remove ruptured, worn out, or defective blood cells and platelets stores of platelets (up to 1/3 of the body's supply!) Veins are closely associated with the red pulp. Blood collects in the venous sinuses and leaves via the splenic vein.

lower respiratory system

larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

long term memory

lasts from days to years.

reticular formation

lateral reticulospinal tract, medial reticulospinal tract

Two of the basal nuclei are:

lateral to the thalamus

tunica media of the heart

layer of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue regulates the diameter of the lumen (vasoconstriction, vasodilation) Allows vascular spasm and vessel stretch/recoil

basophils

least common (> 1% of leukocyte count) Granule stain best with basic stains intensify the inflammatory response.

major hormone of adipose tissue

leptin, adiponecetin

peptic ulcers

lesions in areas exposed to gastric juice

the eyelids contain

levator palpebrae superioris muscle

what does the reticular activating system mediate?

level of consciousness. When this area is active, nerve impulses are sent to the cerebral cortex, causing a generalized increase in cortical activity.

parafollicular cells

lie between follicles. produce the hormone calcitonin (CT), helps regulate calcium homeostasis.

reducing hypertension

lifestyle changes: Weight loss (if overweight) Limit alcohol intake Exercise moderate activity several times a week for 30 to 45 minutes can lower systolic blood pressure by about 10 mmHg. Reduce intake of sodium Increased potassium, calcium, and magnesium in the diet Don't smoke or quit smoking. nicotine causes vasoconstriction. Manage stress. Medications: Diuretics ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitors Beta blockers Vasodilators

Other axons of the olfactory tract project to the

limbic system

choroid

lines most of the internal surface of the sclera. contains melanocytes (produce melanin) absorbs stray light rays, which prevents reflection/scattering light in the eyeball.

visceral peritoneum

lines some organs in abdominal cavity

palpebral conjunctiva

lines the inner eyelids

parietal membrane

lines wall of abdominal cavity

essential fatty acids

linoleic acid an omega-6 fatty acid found mostly in plant oils. used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and cell membranes. Linolenic acid an omega-3 fatty acid. found in many seeds and oils, including flaxseed, walnuts, chia, hemp thought to decrease the risk of heart disease helping to maintain normal heart rhythm/pumping. might reduce blood clots formation

chylomicron

lipoproteins; 85% triglycerides, 6-12% cholesterol, 1-2% proteins

cortical homunculus means

little man

adrenaline effects

liver and skeletal muscle convert glycogen into glucose, increasing blood glucose increase heart rate, pulse, and blood pressure dilates the airways, vasodilation in lungs, brain, heart, and skeletal muscle. vasoconstriction in GI tract, kidneys, and skin downregulates some components of the immune system. dry mouth, loss of appetite, pupil dilation, tunnel vision Aldosterone causes the kidneys to retain Na+, which leads to water retention and elevated blood pressure (in the case of bleeding)

3 accessory organs that aid digestion in small intestine

liver, gallbladder, pancreas

chemoreceptor reflexes

located close to the baroreceptors monitor the concentration of various chemicals in the blood. Hypoxia (lowered O2) acidosis (increased H+) hypercapnia (excess CO2) CV center increases sympathetic stimulation

atrioventricular node

located in the interatrial septum, where the action potential slows due to differences in cell structure. provides time for the atria to empty From the AV node, the action potential enters the atrioventricular (AV) bundle (bundle of His). the action potential enters both the right and left bundle branches.

how is the temperature of testes regulated, what muscles are involved?

location of scrotum and contraction of its muscle regulate the temperature

dendritic cells

long membrane extensions resemble the dendrites of nerve cells Antigen presenting cells initiate adaptive immune responses

pancreas

long, slender organ, most of which is located posterior to the bottom half of the stomach. primarily an exocrine gland, secreting a variety of digestive enzymes pancreatic islets secrete hormones

CHF

loss of pumping efficiency by the heart.

cataracts

loss of transparency of the lens due to changes in the structure of the crystallins.

bolus

lump of chewed food, swallowed mass

flow of lymph

lymph is not actively pumped by the heart forced through vessels by body movement Respiratory pump. flow maintained by pressure changes in the chest that occur during breathing Skeletal muscle pump. The "milking action" of skeletal muscle contractions compresses lymphatic vessels (as well as veins) and forces lymph toward the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins. One-way valves the lymph moving toward the heart.

lymph vessels and nodes

lymphatic capillaries unite to form larger lymphatic vessels resemble small veins but with thinner walls and more valves. in almost every tissue in the body avascular tissues (ex: cartilage, epidermis, cornea), portions of the spleen, and red bone marrow lack lymphatic capillaries At intervals along the lymphatic vessels, lymph flows through lymph nodes encapsulated bean-shaped organs consisting of B cells and T cells. commonly found near the groin, armpits, neck, chest, and abdomen Humans have about 500-600 lymph nodes throughout the body.

lymphoid organs

lymphatic organs and tissues are classified into two groups based on their functions. Primary lymphatic organs where stem cells divide and become immunocompetent (capable of mounting an immune response) bone marrow Pluripotent stem cells give rise to immunocompetent B cells and to pre-T cells. thymus gland. pre-T cells migrate to the thymus, where they become immunocompetent T cells. secondary lymphatic organs and tissues where most immune responses occur. Organs lymph nodes Spleen tissues lymphatic nodules (follicles). not considered organs because they lack a capsule.

lymoh trunks and ducts

lymphatic vessels exit lymph nodes and unite to form lymph trunks. The principal trunks are the Lumbar drains lower limbs, pelvic wall/viscera, kidneys, adrenal glands, abdominal wall. Intestinal Drains stomach, intestines, pancreas, spleen, part of the liver Bronchomediastinal Drains thoracic wall, lung, heart Subclavian drains upper limbs Jugular drains head and neck Trunks unite to form ducts Right lymphatic duct thoracic duct begins beneath the diaphragm in the cisterna chyli a sac-like chamber that receives lymph from the lumbar and intestinal trunks

secondary lymphoid organs

lymphocytes can circulate in the blood, and concentrate in secondary lymphoid organs lymph nodes spleen lymphoid nodules (follicles) A naïve lymphocyte is one that has left the primary organ and entered a secondary lymphoid organ. Naïve lymphocytes are fully functional immunologically (immunocompetent), but have yet to encounter an antigen to respond to.

for static equliibrium, stereocilia housed in the

macula These maculae (plural) are oriented 90 degrees to one another so that they respond to positions in different planes

location of fast pain

mainly in the skin

causes of hypertension

major cause of heart failure, kidney disease, and stroke heart increased afterload forces the ventricles to work harder As a result, the left ventricle enlarges, weakens, and dilates. arteries in the brain prolonged hypertension cause them to rupture less protected by surrounding tissues than arteries in other parts of the body damages kidney arterioles causing them to thicken (narrows the lumen) blood supply is thereby reduced, so the kidneys secrete more renin elevates the blood pressure even more. may also lead to aneurism ballooning of a blood vessel caused by a weakening of the wall

Recognition of Self vs. Non-self

major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens also called human leukocyte antigens (HLA) because they were first identified on white blood cells. Unless you have an identical twin, your MHC antigens are unique. Thousands to several hundred thousand MHC molecules mark the surface of each of your body cells except red blood cells. normal function is to help T cells recognize that an antigen is foreign, not self. The two types of major histocompatibility complex antigens are class I and class II. 'Self' = normal host cells/substances major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHC class I) = 'self' ID tags All nucleated cells immune system doesn't (normally) react to cells bearing 'self' markers self-tolerance 'Non-self' = foreign cells/substances self markers from a different organism graft rejection Antigens Class II MHC (MHC-II) molecules appear on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, and display ingested antigen bits

igG

major type found in blood Opsonization, Activates complement can cross the placenta, found in milk & colostrum main antibody of secondary responses in the blood. This is because class switching occurs during primary responses.

functions of transport proteins

make lipid-soluble hormones temporarily water-soluble slow the rate small hormones get filtered out of the blood through the kidneys provide a reserve of the hormone in the blood

pinealocyte

make up the pineal gland produce and secrete melatonin derived from serotonin. may influence circadian rhythms, promote sleepiness.

chemical reactions

making or breaking of bonds between atoms the total number of atoms remains the same, but there are new molecules with new properties because the atoms have been rearranged All chemical bonds require energy to form or break activation energy Synthesis Reactions anabolic reactions Decomposition Reactions catabolic reactions About 40% of the energy released in catabolism is used for cellular functions; the rest is converted to heat

lymphoma

malignant T and/or B lymphocytes collect in lymph nodes, the spleen, the liver, and other tissues. the malignant leukocytes do not function properly, and the patient is vulnerable to infection.

mechanical digestion in the mouth

mastication, reduced to a bolus

Types of pain stimuli

mechanical: (high pressure or stretching) thermal: (extreme heat or cold) chemical: chemicals from the outside world (ex. acids) Chemicals released by the body due to trauma or inflammation

As we move closer to an object, the eyes must rotate

medially if the light rays from the object are to strike the same points on both retinas.

labial frenulum

median fold of mucosa that joins the internal aspect of each lip to the gums

Most of these axons synapse with sensory neurons in vestibular nuclei in the:

medulla and pons integrates information from vestibular, visual, and somatic receptors

location of chemoreceptor

medulla, aortic and carotid bodies

Axons from the three cranial nerves carrying taste information travel to the

medulla. Some of the info is sent to the hypothalamus and amygdalae autonomic reflexes (ex: gagging, salivation) Most of the info is sent to the thalamus, and then to the primary gustatory cortex perception/discrimination of taste.

platelet is a fragment of a

megakaryocyte Megakaryocytes remain in the bone marrow platelet-precursor extensions extend through the walls of bone marrow capillaries to release cytoplasmic fragments (platelets) into the circulation Each megakarocyte releases 2000-3000 platelets during its lifespan.

primary spermatocyte

meiosis I

symporters

membrane proteins that move two or more substances in the same direction across a membrane.

arterioles

microscopic vessels ~ 400 million arterioles primary site of resistance and regulation of blood pressure. Lumen diameter controlled by neural and chemical controls Vasoconstriction/vasodilation in the arterioles are the primary mechanisms for distribution of blood flow. The tunica externa contains sympathetic nerves. regulates the flow of blood into the capillary networks Metarterioles link arterioles and capillaries At the metarteriole, precapillary sphincters control the blood flow into the capillary bed

axon collaterals project to

midbrain (constriction of the pupils, coordination of head and eye movements) hypothalamus (circadian rhythm).

myocardium

middle layer cardiac muscle ~ 95% of the heart wall. cardiac muscle is organized to form a figure 8 pattern around the atria and ventricles the muscle of the left ventricle is much thicker

tunica media

middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue

nervous system: time to onset of action

milliseconds

The olfactory nerves synapse with

mitral cells (2nd order neurons)

amine hormones

modified amino acids Thyroid hormones: Modified tyrosine Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine): Modified tyrosine Histamine Serotonin and melatonin: Modified tryptophan

podocyte

modified epithelial cells in visceral layer of glomular capsule

effect of cholecalciferol

modified to form vitamin d

agranular leukocytes

monocytes (mature into macrophages) and lymphocytes contain smaller, less-visible granules in their cytoplasm.

products of digestion that reach body

monosaccharides, fatty acids, glycerol, monoglycerides, amino acids. Some minerals and many vitamins are part of enzyme systems

As the pump becomes less effective, what happens?

more blood remains in the ventricles at the end of each cycle, and gradually the end-diastolic volume (preload) increases. Initially, increased preload may promote increased force of contraction (the Frank-Starling law of the heart) as the preload increases further, the heart is overstretched and contracts less forcefully.

what characteristic about slow pain differs from fast pain?

more diffuse, feels like it's coming from a larger area of the skin

neutrophils

most common (50-70% of leukocyte count) granules show up with neutral stains nucleus has lobes, number of lobes increase with the age of the cell. often called polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) Neutrophils are rapid responders to the site of infection and are efficient phagocytes.

foliate papillae

most of their taste buds degenerate in early childhood

oral cavity

mouth

The upper eyelid is more

movable than the lower

paracellular rebabsorption

move between tubule cells

antiporters

move two or more substances in opposite directions across a membrane.

static (gravitational) equilibrium

movement of the head with respect to gravity

external iliac artery

much larger than internal iliac supplies blood to the lower limbs. As the external iliac artery passes through the body wall, it is renamed the femoral artery. As the femoral artery passes posterior to the knee near it is called the popliteal artery. The popliteal artery branches into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries.

nervous system: types of target cells

muscle cells, gland cells, other neurons

detrustor muscle

muscularis

2 plexus that contain nerves of the ENS

myenteric and submucosal

what ion is salty

na+

capillary beds

narrow, slowing the RBCs and allowing more time for gas exchange to occur.

second line of defense: cellular defenses

natural killer cells phagocytes. When an infection occurs, neutrophils and monocytes migrate to the infected area. A monocyte is a circulating precursor cell that differentiates into either a macrophage or dendritic cell

myopia

nearsightedness (can see close, but not distant) eyeball is too long relative to the focusing power of the cornea and lens; or the lens is thicker than normal, so an image converges in front of the retina.

ADH is controlled by a

negative feedback loop

secretion of CT is controlled by

negative feedback system

homeostatic responses to shock

negative feedback systems that work to return cardiac output and arterial blood pressure to normal. Activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Secretion of antidiuretic hormone. Activation of the sympathetic division of the ANS. aortic and carotid baroreceptors initiate powerful sympathetic responses throughout the body. vasoconstriction of arterioles and veins of the skin, kidneys, abdominal organs. increases heart rate and contractility Release of local vasodilators. K+, H+, lactic acid, adenosine, nitric oxide—dilate arterioles/relax precapillary sphincters. If compensatory mechanisms may fail to maintain adequate blood flow to tissues, shock becomes life-threatening

Persistently high blood glucose levels affects tissues throughout the body by:

nerve damage loss of sensation (neuropathy) particularly in the hands and feet. increase the risk of injury, infection, and tissue death (necrosis) high rate of amputation impairs kidney function, can lead to kidney failure. can lead to blindness. Cataracts, damage to blood vessels in the retina

Pacinian corpuscles

nerve ending surrounded by a capsule that looks like a sliced onion. Rapidly adapting high-frequency vibrations

Once the taste cells are activated, they release

neurotransmitters onto the dendrites of sensory neurons (1st order, primary afferent).

nervous system: molecules

neurotransmitters released locally in response to nerve impulses

granular leukocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils short lifespan (hours to days)

rods

night and peripheral vision. Black/white/gray vision

The hypothalamus synthesizes at least

nine different hormones

hemoglobin can also bind

nitric oxide produced by endothelial cells hemoglobin can release NO, causing vasodilation plays a role in the regulation of blood flow and blood pressure.

can o neg receive o positive blood?

no

Mature erythrocytes have few internal cellular structural components:

no mitochondria, rely on anaerobic respiration. they do not use any of the oxygen they are transporting, No endoplasmic reticula, do not synthesize proteins. Do contain structural proteins (ex: spectrin) that allow them to squeeze through capillaries. Since RBCs lack organelles, there is more space for hemoglobin molecules

semilunar valves

no papillary muscles or chordae tendineae When the ventricle relaxes: the pressure change causes blood to flow back into the ventricle from the pulmonary trunk. This flow of blood fills the pocket-like flaps of the semilunar valves, causing the valve to close

blind spot

no photoreceptors

example of a tonic receptor

nociceptors

dendrites of olfactory receptor cells have a

non-motile olfactory cilia sites of olfactory transduction.

normal sleep consists of:

non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.

Blood group O antigen

none

blood group AB antibody

none

persistent vegetative state

normal sleep-wake cycles but not an awareness of the surroundings. unable to speak or to respond to commands.

why do the testes have to be 2-3 celsius below core temp

normal sperm production

upper respiratory system

nose, nasal cavity, pharynx

conducting zone

nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles function is to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs.

deoxyribonuclease

nucleic acid enzyme

ribonuclease

nucleic acid enzyme

Adaptation (decreasing sensitivity) to odors

occurs rapidly

absorption

occurs via diffusion, osmosis, active transport

When your nose is 'stuffy' and you cannot taste your food, what is blocked?

olfaction

Olfactory epithelium is composed of three kinds of cells:

olfactory receptor cells, supporting cells, basal cells

RAS: there is no input from

olfactory receptors People who die in house fires usually succumb to smoke inhalation without awakening.

microvilli

on membrane of absorptive cells

decrease growth hormone

one cause of muscle atrophy

steroids have at least

one hydroxyl (alcohol) group (—OH)

each taste cell is sensitive to

only one type of tastant

fauces*

opening between oral cavity and oropharynx

the depolarization of photoreceptors:

opens Ca2+ channels, which triggers the release of glutamate

The retina can be examined using an

ophthalmoscope

The optic nerves pass through the

optic chaism

The extrinsic eye muscles extend from the

orbit to the sclera of the eye and are surrounded by periorbital fat.

premotor cortex

organizes movement sequences, stores information about learned motor activites

ventricular tachycardia

originates in the ventricles and causes the ventricles to beat too fast (>120 beats/min). almost always associated with heart disease and may develop into ventricular fibrillation. Pulseless V-tach is a "shockable rhythm"

PO2 is the most important factor

other factors shift the curve left (higher affinity) or right (lower affinity). how body to cellular needs. active tissue produce acids, CO2, and heat as wastes.

the stereocilia project into a thick, gelatinous, glycoprotein layer called the

otolithic membrane

the heart's size is equivalent to

our fist

only lower motor neurons provide:

output from the CNS to skeletal muscle fibers.

menopause and the decline of ovarian function.

ovaries decrease in both size and weight and become progressively less sensitive to gonadotropins. decrease in estrogen and progesterone levels, leading to menopause and the inability to reproduce. Low levels of estrogens and progesterone are also associated with osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, and hyperlipidemia

female gonad

ovary

Receptive fields of adjacent sensory neurons can

overlap, allowing for greater resolution between 2 simultaneous stimuli

hypoxia

oxygen deficiency at the tissue level lower oxygen content of air at high altitudes, anemia, circulatory problems, etc.

transportation of blood

oxygen, nutrients, hormones, heat, waste products for elimination

arteries carry

oxygenated blood away from the heart

sinoatrial node

pacemaker of the heart, sinus rhythm located in the right atrial wall SA node cells repeatedly depolarize to threshold spontaneously (pacemaker potential) propagates through internodal pathways to the atrial myocardial contractile cells and the atrioventricular node. the two atria contract at the same time.

what doesn't the brain have but the rest of our body does?

pain receptors

nocioceptors

pain receptors, free nerve endings

bulbourethral/cowper's glands

paired glands about the size of peas. inferior to the prostate on either side of the membranous urethra within the deep muscles of the perineum ducts open into the spongy urethra. During sexual arousal, the bulbourethral glands secrete an alkaline fluid into the urethra that neutralizes acids from urine in the urethra. They also secrete mucus which decreases the number of sperm damaged during ejaculation.

systemic circulation

paired vessels: arteries and veins share the same names, parallel one another similar on the right and left sides of the body. some vessels closer to the midline of the body (ex: aorta) are unique. some superficial veins have no arterial counterpart. names of vessels can change with location. Anastomoses A large vessel referred to as a trunk gives rise to several smaller vessels.

the ________ separates the oral and nasal cavities

palate

what bones make up the hard palate

palatine process of maxilla and horizontal plate

CCK

pancreatic secretion, gallbladder contraction

On the tongue, taste buds are found in elevations called

papillae

when ventricles are relaxed

papillary muscles are relaxed chordae tendineae are slack blood moves from high pressure in the atria to low pressure in the ventricles through open AV valves

2 ways substances get reabsorbed

paracellular reabsorption transcellular reabsorption

contriction

parasympathetic fibers stimulate the circular muscles (sphincter pupillae) of the iris to contract

micturition reflex

parasympathetic impulses from the micturition center cause contraction of the detrusor muscle and relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter muscle. inhibits somatic motor neurons that innervate skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter.

how does parasympathetic nervous system affect ENS (enteric nervous system)? Sympathetic stimulation?

parasympathetic: the vagus nerve supply parasympathetic fibers to most of the GI tract except the last half of the large intestine. sympathetic: decrease in GI secretion and motility

epitope

part of an antigen that an antibody can attach to epitopes can be displayed by antigen presenting cells

pineal gland

part of the epithalamus and is covered by a capsule

serosa*

parts of the GI tract that are suspended in the abdominal cavity, which have a superficial layer, called visceral peritoneum.

astigmatism

parts of the image are out of focus, and thus vision is blurred or distorted either the cornea or the lens has an irregular curvature.

throat

passageway for air and food, provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils, which participate in immunological reactions against foreign invaders. about 13 cm (5 in.) long starts at the internal nares and extends to the level of the cricoid cartilage, the most inferior cartilage of the larynx (voice box). posterior to the nasal and oral cavities, superior to the larynx, and just anterior to the cervical vertebrae. composed of skeletal muscles and is lined with a mucous membrane. Relaxed skeletal muscles help keep the pharynx patent. Contraction of the skeletal muscles assists in deglutition (swallowing).

bulbar conjunctiva

passes from the eyelids onto the surface of the eyeball, where it covers the sclera

pituitary gland

pea-shaped structure that lies in the sphenoid bone. two anatomically and functionally separate portions: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary.

veins of abdomen and pelvis

pelvic organs/integument drain into the internal iliac vein joins the external iliac vein to form the common iliac vein The left and right common iliac veins come together, forming the inferior vena cava. lumbar veins portions of the abdominal wall and spinal cord drain into the inferior vena cava. Renal veins from the kidneys normally the largest veins entering the inferior vena cava. Blood from the GI tract, spleen, pancreas, and gallbladder first go to the liver for processing via the hepatic portal vein blood then drains into the hepatic veins, which empty into the inferior vena cava.

IgM

pentamer activates complement promoting chemotaxis, opsonization, cell lysis. first antibody made during a primary response. As the primary response proceeds, the antibody produced in a B cell can change to IgG, IgA, or IgE by the process known as class switching. Class switching is the change of one antibody class to another. While the class of antibody changes, the specificity and the antigen-binding sites do not.

hepatocyte

perform metabolic, secretory, endocrine functions, 80 percent of liver

the heart is separated from the other structures by a tough membrane called the

pericardium (AKA pericardial sac) sits in the pericardial cavity. surrounds the "roots" of the major vessels.

histology of the uterus

perimetrium part of the visceral peritoneum Laterally, it becomes the broad ligament. Anteriorly, covers the urinary bladder Posteriorly, covers the rectum and forms the rectouterine pouch (pouch of Douglas) the most inferior point in the pelvic cavity. myometrium three layers of smooth muscle fibers thickest in the fundus and thinnest in the cervix. During labor, contractions of the myometrium in response to oxytocin help expel the fetus from the uterus. endometrium. highly vascularized divided into two layers. stratum functionalis (functional layer) lines the uterine cavity and sloughs off during menstruation. stratum basalis (basal layer) Permanent, gives rise to a new stratum functionalis after each menstruation.

after a few weeks of being in a coma, the patient may enter a

persistent vegetative state

abnormalities in macula lutea

persons 50 years of age and older, afflicts 13 million Americans more common in pack-a-day smokers than in nonsmokers. retain peripheral vision leading cause of blindness in those over age 75

Macrophages in the spleen, liver, and red bone marrow:

phagocytize ruptured and worn-out red blood cells. The globin and heme portions of hemoglobin are split apart. globin is broken down into amino acids (reused to make other proteins)

what states of deglutition are involuntary?

pharyngeal stage, passage of bolus through pharynx into esophagus esophageal stage, passage of bolus through esophagus to stomach

cAMP is inactivated by the enzyme

phosphodiesterase

retina

pigmented layer, neural layer

auricle

pinna

types of endocrine cells

pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands.

cerebral cortex

planning and execution of voluntary movements

frontal lobe

planning and initiating sequences of behavior, including movement.

prefrontal cortex

plans movements

In humans, 20 liters of:

plasma is released into the interstitial space of tissues each day due to capillary filtration. Once this filtrate is in the interstitium, it is called interstitial fluid. 17 liters is reabsorbed directly by the blood vessels. the lymphatic system drains the excess 3L

The receptors for water-soluble hormones are part of

plasma membrane of target cells

extraceullar matrix

plasma, makes blood unique among connective tissues because it is fluid. pale yellow fluid consists mostly of water with a wide variety of dissolved substances nutrients, wastes, enzymes, plasma proteins, hormones, respiratory gases suspends the formed elements and enables them to circulate throughout the body within the cardiovascular system.

When a clot is formed, an inactive plasma enzyme called

plasminogen is incorporated into the clot. plasminogen is converted into the active plasmin, which gradually breaks down the fibrin of the clot.

thrompoietin

platelet production produced by the liver and kidneys

hepatic sinusoids

plates of hepatocytes

About 0.05-0.1% of red bone marrow cells are

pluripotent stem cells. have the capacity to develop into many different types of cells.

the brain continually receives information about:

positions of body parts

Anterolateral (Spinothalamic) Pathway to the Cortex: The cell bodies of the first-order neurons are located in what?

posterior root ganglion

eryhthropoiesis starts with a

precursor cell (proerythroblast) The proerythroblast divides several times, producing cells that begin to synthesize hemoglobin. a cell near the end of the development sequence ejects its nucleus and becomes a reticulocyte

factors determining stroke volume

preload, contractility, afterload

permissive effect

presence of one hormone enables another hormone to act

What does the ability of ADH to form concentrated urine depend on?

presence of osmotic gradient

natural killer cells

present in blood, spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow. Kill a wide variety of infected body cells and certain tumor cells. NK cells attack any body cells that display abnormal or unusual plasma membrane proteins. target is coated with antibodies antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) binding of NK cells to a target cell causes the release of toxic substances Perforin: creates holes in the plasma membrane Cell bursts (cytolysis) Granzymes: protein-digesting enzymes induce apoptosis Activity is increased by cytokines Ex: Interferon

intraocular pressure

pressure in the eye, maintains the shape of the eyeball/prevents it from collapsing. mainly from aqueous humor, partly by vitreous body normally 16 mmHg

when ventricles contract

pressure of the blood drives the cusps upward until their edges meet and close the opening. papillary muscles contract, which pulls and tightens the chordae tendineae. This prevents the valve cusps from opening into the atria due to the high ventricular pressure.

baroreceptors

pressure-sensitive sensory receptors located in large arteries in the neck and chest. send impulses to the cardiovascular center When blood pressure increases, the baroreceptors are stretched and initiate action potentials to the CV at a higher rate. triggers parasympathetic stimulation of the heart and vasodilation of the arterioles. At lower blood pressures, the degree of stretch is lower and the rate of firing to the CV is slower. triggers sympathetic stimulation of the heart and peripheral vessels Examples Carotid sinus reflex Regulates pressure of blood going to the brain aortic reflex regulates systemic blood pressure. Sometimes these reflexes operate more slowly, especially in the elderly a person can faint due to reduced brain blood flow after standing up too quickly.

during swallowing what is the function of the soft palate and uvula

prevents swallowed foods and liquids from entering the nasal cavity

From the thalamus, axons project to the

primary auditory area of the cerebral cortex in the temporal lobe

platelets

primary function = limit blood loss.

axons descend from pyramidal cells in the

primary motor and premotor areas

A "map" (homunculus) of the body is also present in the:

primary motor area, each point within the area controls muscle fibers in a different part of the body.

Some of the olfactory tract projects to the

primary olfactory area

The somatic sensory (somatosensory) pathways relay information from somatic sensory receptors to the:

primary somatosensory area (postcentral gyrus) in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex When impulses reach the cortex, the sensation is perceived cerebellum

Somatosensory Pathways to the Cortex consists of

primary, secondary, and tertiary neurons

integration

process of combining information from many sources "information processing"

neural layer

processes visual data before sending nerve impulses into axons that form the optic nerve

hormone regulation of blood pressure: ADH, vasopressin

produced by the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary in response to dehydration or decreased blood volume. Promotes vasoconstriction promotes movement of water from the kidney tubules into the blood

K

produces glucose-dependant insulinotropic peptide

hormones of zona reticularis

produces small amounts of androgens. produced in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH from the anterior pituitary converted in the tissues to testosterone or estrogens. supplement the gonadal androgens. In adult women may contribute to sex drive In post-menopausal women, as the functions of the ovaries decline, the main source of estrogens In adult men function not well understood. testosterone is released in much greater quantity by the testes, making the amount secreted by the adrenal gland so low that their effects are insignificant.

motor cortex

produces specific movements

decreased cortisol and aldosterone

production of epinephrine and norepinephrine remains normal.

functions of the reproductive system

production of gametes, fertilization, development and nourishment of new individual, production of reproductive hormones

Spermatogenesis

production of sperm

persistalsis

progression of coordinated contractions and relaxations of circular and longitudinal layers of the muscularis, pushes bolus onward

pedicel

projections of podocyte that wrap around the single layer of endothelial cells of the glomerular capillaries

growth hormone

promotes growth of body tissues (bones, skeletal muscles) causes cells in the liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage, and bone secrete to insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) IGFs synthesized in the liver enter the bloodstream and cause growth throughout the body IGFs produced in skeletal muscle, cartilage, and bone act locally regulates certain aspects of metabolism. Can enhance lipolysis, decreases glucose uptake, stimulates liver to release glucose into the blood

effect of leptin

promotes sateiety signals to the brain

3 anatomical regions of male urethra

prostatic, intermediate, spongy

white blood cells

protects the body against invading microorganisms, foreign objects, defective body cells, and they clean up debris. larger than erythrocytes, and possess a nucleus and organelles.

protein catabolism

protein catabolism is stimulated by cortisol Cells throughout the body oxidize a small amount of amino acids to generate ATP via the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. Before amino acids can enter the Krebs cycle, their amino group (NH2) must first be removed—a process called deamination. Deamination occurs in hepatocytes and produces ammonia (NH3). liver cells then convert the ammonia to urea

Carboxypeptidase

protein enzyme

chymotrypsin

protein enzyme

elastase

protein enzyme

trypsin

protein enzyme

cAMP activates

protein kinases phosphorylates (add phosphate groups to) one or more cellular proteins. activates/inactivates proteins, like turning a switch on or off. Produces cellular responses

protein metabolism

proteins are broken down into amino acids. amino acids are either oxidized to produce ATP or used to synthesize new proteins for body growth and repair. Excess dietary amino acids are converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis) or triglycerides (lipogenesis). The active transport of amino acids into body cells is stimulated by insulinlike growth factors (IGFs) and insulin.

photopigment

proteins in the plasma membrane

olfactory receptors

proteins that detect odorants (chemicals that bind to and stimulate the receptors) Dissolved in mucus produced by Bowman's cells.

collateral circulation

provide detours for arterial blood if a main route becomes partially obstructed

supporting cells

provide physical support, nourishment, and electrical insulation for the olfactory receptor cells

sensory pathway

provide routes for input into the brain and spinal cord (CNS)

motor pathway

provide routes for output from CNS to muscles for responses

blood vessels

provide structure for the flow of blood and the exchange of nutrients/wastes in tissues. a closed system important role in adjusting the velocity and volume of blood flow.

basal nuclei neurons

provides input to upper motor neurons via the thalamus/brainstem

pulse pressure

pulse pressure = the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure represents the force that the heart generates each time it contracts. proportional to stroke volume normally about 40 mmHg A pulse pressure below this level is described as low or narrow. may be seen in congestive heart failure, aortic valve stenosis, significant blood loss pulse pressure normally becomes high with exercise typically return to normal within about 11 minutes. A persistently high pulse pressure (≥100 mm Hg) may indicate excessive resistance in the arteries Ex: atherosclerosis

the heart function

pumps blood into vessels. contraction develops the pressure that ejects blood

Autonomic reflexes regulate

pupil diameter in response to light levels.

mass peristalsis

push fecal material from the sigmoid colon to the rectum

migrating motility complexes

pushes chyme forward

direct motor pathways are also known as the

pyramidal pathways

Under direct ANS control, hormone released very

quickly. controlled by a neural pathway from the hypothalamus

effect of angiotensin

raises blood pressure

Supraventricular tachycardia

rapid but regular heart rate (160-200 beats/ min) that originates in the atria.

trachycardia

rapid heart rate (over 100 beats per minute)

chorea

rapid, jerky movements occur involuntarily and without purpose.

fibrilation

rapid, uncoordinated heartbeats.

how do intercalated cells influence pH

reabsorb bicarbonate and secrete H+ reabsorb K+.

right atrium

receives blood returning from the systemic/cardiac circulation. superior and inferior venae cavae, coronary sinus (drains the heart myocardium) anterior wall contains muscular ridges called pectinate muscles, which also extend into the auricle tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve)

In a newborn, all bone marrow is

red and is involved in hemopoiesis. With increasing age, much of the bone marrow changes from red to yellow.

Following birth, most hemopoiesis occurs in

red bone marrow

effect of ANP

reduces blood volume, blood pressure, Na+ concentration

Effect of adiponectin

reduces insulin resistance

how the eye forms images of objects on the retina

refraction (bending) of light Accommodation constriction (narrowing) of the pupil

functions of kidneys

regulate blood volume and composition help regulate blood pressure, pH, and glucose levels produce two hormones (calcitriol and erythropoietin) excrete wastes in urine.

facultative water absorption

regulated by antidiuretic hormone and occurs mainly in the collecting ducts.

brainstem

regulates posture, balance, muscle tone, and reflexive movements of the head and trunk.

positive feedback

release of more hormone in response to initial hormone Ex: oxytocin during childbirth

S

release secretin

glucagon

release triggered by a decline in blood glucose levels and causes: glycogenolysis gluconeogenesis lipolysis

insulin

release triggered by a rise in blood glucose and causes: uptake of glucose into body cells. glycolysis (metabolism of glucose) Conversion of glucose into glycogen Inhibition of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Promotion of triglyceride and protein synthesis.

PTH

released in response to low blood calcium levels increases blood calcium levels by: stimulating osteoclasts, which secrete enzymes that degrade bone and release calcium. inhibiting osteoblasts, the cells involved in bone deposition increasing reabsorption of calcium (and magnesium) in the kidney tubules from the urine initiates the production of the steroid hormone calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D3) in the kidneys. Calcitriol stimulates increased absorption of calcium by the intestines. Controlled via negative feedback loops

is it more difficult to wake a person during nrem sleep or rem sleep?

rem sleep

With age, the percentage of

rem sleep declines, 50% of an infant's sleep is REM sleep, 25% for adults.

major hormone of kidneys

renin, calcitriol, ethyropoeitin

key role in memory consolidation

repitition

each homunculus shows

representation of how much of the cortex innervates certain body parts. proportional to how richly innervated that region is, not to its size.

glucose

required for cellular respiration and is the preferred fuel for all body cells. Receptors located in the pancreas sense blood glucose levels Glucagon and insulin are regulated by negative feedback

respiratory zone

respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli within the lungs, where gas exchange occurs.

Number of WBCs varies in

response of pathogens/antigens

zygote

resulting diploid cell, one set of chromosomes from each parent

myocardial infection

results from lack of blood flow (ischemia) to a region of the heart, resulting in death of the cardiac muscle cells. Angina pectoris is a severe pain that usually accompanies myocardial ischemia. often radiates down the left arm in males but not in female patients An MI occurs when a coronary artery is blocked atherosclerotic plaque, atherosclerotic thrombosis, embolism

location of photoreceptors

retina; rods and cones

conversion

retinal isomerase converts trans-retinal back to cis-retinal.

the thyroid gland is composed of

right and left lateral lobes, one on either side of the trachea, that are connected by an isthmus anterior to the trachea. About 50% of thyroid glands have a small third lobe, called the pyramidal lobe. extends superiorly from the isthmus.

The anterior cardiac veins open directly into the

right atrium. Drains the right ventricle

blood flow of heart

right side: Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium of the heart. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your right atrium into your right ventricle through the open tricuspid valve. When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atria while the ventricle contracts. • As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve, into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs where it is oxygenated. Note that oxygen-poor or CO2 containing blood goes through the pulmonary artery to the lungs where CO2 is exchanged for O2. left side: The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood from the lungs into the left atrium of the heart. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the open mitral valve. When the ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atrium while the ventricle contracts. As the ventricle contracts, oxygen-enriched blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta and to the arteries and eventually into veins to complete the blood circulation in your body.

red nucelus

rubrospinal tract

tugging on the skin

ruffini endings

fungiform papillae

scattered over the tongue's surface

At the junction of the sclera and cornea is an opening known as the

scleral venous sinus aqueous humor drains into this sinus.

tarsal glands

sebaceous glands oil mixes with tears to moisten and protect your eyes.

Receptor binding causes a signaling cascade which activates a

second messenger

calcium is critical for many biological processes:

second messenger in many signaling pathways, essential for muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, blood clotting.

Anterolateral (Spinothalamic) Pathway to the Cortex: first order neurons synapse with what?

second-order neurons in the posterior gray horn of the spinal cord.

represent first haploid stage of spermatogenesis

secondary spermatocytes

endocrine system: time to onset of action

seconds to hours to days

goblet

secrete mucous

leydig

secrete testosterone

endocrine glands

secrete their products (hormones) into the interstitial fluid surrounding the secretory cells. the hormones then diffuse into blood capillaries and blood carries them to target cells throughout the body.

exocrine glands

secrete their products into ducts

gastric lipase

secreted by gastric chief cells

olfaction

sense of smell

bitter

senses alkaloids (contain basic nitrogen atoms within their structures)

umami

senses amino acids, especially glutamine.

sweet

senses glucose

olfaction is much more

sensitive than taste

two types of homunculus:

sensory and motor

interoception

sensory information arising from within the body

receptive fields

sensory neurons often synapse with multiple receptors Activation of any of these receptors will result in the firing of the neuron

first order neurons

sensory neurons, primary afferent nuerons

first order (primary) neurons

sensory neurons; conduct impulses from somatic sensory receptors to the CNS.

joint kinesthetic receptors

sensory receptors in joint capsules and ligaments Senses joint position and movement Necessary for coordination

haustra

series of pouches in colon, gives colon a puckered appearance

tunica vaginalis

serous membrane partially covering the testes

the pituitary glands secretes how many hormones

seven

diabetes is what rank of leading causes in the US

seventh

gastric pits

several gastric glands open into the bottom of narrow channels

Cogenital hypothyroidism

severe mental retardation, stunted bone growth. Most states require testing of all newborns. oral thyroid hormone treatment must be started soon after birth and continued for life.

gonad

sex organs which secrete sex hormones

fast pain

sharp pain

pigmented layer

sheet of melanin-containing epithelial cells between the choroid and the neural layer

peptide

short chains (4-49) of amino acids (ex: antidiuretic hormone (ex: ADH)

When hormone binds its receptor:

signaling events or cellular mechanisms are triggered that cause a response.

hormone secretion is regulated by

signals from the nervous system Ex: nerve impulses to the adrenal gland regulates epinephrine chemical changes in the blood Ex: blood Ca2+ level regulates parathyroid hormone other hormones. Ex: adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates the release of cortisol

acute inflammation

signs and symptoms develop rapidly usually self-limiting Lasts for days or weeks principal defensive cells are neutrophils Ex: sore throat, scratch

chronic inflammation

signs and symptoms develop slowly can last for several months or years often severe and progressive principal defensive cells are monocytes and macrophages Ex: rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis

perilymph

similar to cerebrospinal fluid surrounds the membranous labyrinth

lymphoid nodules

simpler architecture dense cluster of lymphocytes without a capsule. mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) present in the: bronchi (BALT) nasopharynx (NALT) gut (GALT)

Human beings do not have a __________ for proprioception

single organ

How many extrinsic eye muscles are responsible for moving each eye?

six

lower motor neurons synapse with:

skeletal muscle at the neuromuscular junction.

More cortical area is devoted to those muscles in the primary motor area involved in

skilled, complex, or delicate movement.

location of mechanoreceptor

skin

somatic sensations come from:

skin (tactile, temperature, pain) muscles, tendons, and joints (proprioception, pain)

cerebral integrative functions include:

sleep and wakefulness learning and memory language

Bradycardia

slow heart rate (below 50 beats per minute)

is slow pain well localized or poorly localized?

slow pain in viscera is poorly localized; can radiate or be referred

how do proprioceptors adapt?

slowly and only slightly

size of platelets

small (2-4 µm) and numerous (150,000-160,000 per µL of blood) one-third migrate to the spleen for storage in case of bleeding Lifespan of 10 days, then are phagocytized by macrophages. many vesicles but no nucleus. Their granules contain chemicals that promote blood clotting. secrete a variety of growth factors essential for growth and repair of tissue, particularly connective tissue.

pancreatic acini

small clusters of glandular epithelial cells which comprise the exocrine portion of the pancreas

fovea centralis

small depression in the center of the macula lutea the area of sharpest vision main reason that you move your head and eyes while looking at something is to place images of interest on your fovea centralis

bile canaliculi

small ducts between hepatocytes that collect bile

hypothalamus

small region of the brain below the thalamus major link between the nervous and endocrine systems.

capillaries

smallest blood vessels (diameters of 5-10 μm) RBCs are 8 μm, they must fold on themselves to pass single file! walls are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells and a basement membrane For capillaries to function, their walls must be "leaky" (allow substances to pass through)

specialized chemoreceptors

smell, taste

special senses

smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium (balance)

step 2 of hearing

sound waves cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate.

anterior cavity

space anterior to the lens, has two chambers.

peritoneal cavity

space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum

oral vestibule

space bounded externally by the cheeks and lips, internally by the gums and teeth

male gamete

sperm

spermatogenic cells

sperm forming cells

spermiogensis

spermatids to sperm

reticular activating system: a network of nerve pathways in the brainstem connects the

spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum

Resting on the basilar membrane is the

spiral organ (organ of corti)

pancreatic amylase

starch digesting enzyme

sleep

state of altered consciousness/partial unconsciousness from which an individual can be aroused.

coma

state of unconsciousness in which an individual has little or no response to stimuli.

basal cells

stem cells produce new olfactory receptor cells, which only live for 1-2 months

taste bud: basal cells

stem cells which produce new gustatory receptor cells

spermatogonia

stem cells, dominant till puberty

step 8 of hearing

stereocilia are mechanoreceptors, and when bent by vibrations they respond by opening a gated ion channel, and a signal is transmitted.

At the apical tip of each hair cell are

stereocilia that extend into the endolymph of the cochlear duct.

lipid soluble

steroid hormones, thyroid hormones,

In the body, common steroids are called

sterols

effect of GIP and GLP-1

stimulate beta cells of pancreas to produce insulin

Leukotrienes

stimulate chemotaxis (attraction to a chemical stimulus) of white blood cells and mediate inflammation.

high concentration of alkaloids

stimulate the gag reflex

The same hypothalamic neurons

stimulate the release of the hormones into the bloodstream.

lipogenesis

stimulated by insulin. Excess dietary carbohydrates, proteins, and fats all are converted into triglycerides.

LH

stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone

effect of insulin-like growth factor-1

stimulates bodily growth

GnRH

stimulates gonadotropins in anterior pituitary to increase secretion

effect of renin

stimulates release of aldosterone

cholecystokinin

stimulates release of bile into intestines

secretin

stimulates secretion by liver and pancreas

gastrin

stimulates secretion of large amounts of gastric juice, strengthens contraction of lower esophageal sphincter

TSH

stimulates the synthesis and secretion of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) by the thyroid gland. released from the anterior pituitary in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus. low blood levels of T3 and T4 stimulate the release of TRH from the hypothalamus, which triggers secretion of TSH from the anterior pituitary. Conditions that increase ATP demand also increase the secretion of the thyroid hormones. cold environment, hypoglycemia, high altitude, pregnancy high levels of T3 and T4 inhibit secretion of TRH via negative feedback.

oxytocin

stimulates uterine contractions and dilation of the cervix during childbirth released throughout childbirth in a positive feedback loop cervical stretching stimulates additional oxytocin synthesis/release Synthetic oxytocin (Pitocin) often is given to induce labor, increase uterine tone, control hemorrhage just after giving birth.

steps in the process of sensation

stimulation of sensory receptor, transduction of stimulus, generation of nerve impulses, integration of sensory input

ducts

store and transport gametes

The thyroid gland is the only endocrine gland that

stores its secretory product in large quantities—normally ~ 100-day supply.

cardiomyocytes

striated like muscle cells, but are involuntary like smooth muscle cells mitochondria are larger and more numerous than in skeletal muscle fibers. Cardiac cell respiration largely aerobic can use lactic acid produced by skeletal muscle fibers to make ATP during exercise.

For an experience to become part of long-term memory, it must produce:

structural and functional changes that represent the experience in the brain.

thrombolytic agents

substances that are injected to dissolve clots that have already formed to restore circulation. either directly or indirectly activate plasminogen. A genetically engineered version of human tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is now used to treat victims of both heart attacks and strokes that are caused by blood clots. some strokes are caused by hemorrhage, the cause must be determined before treatment begins.

diuretic

substances that slow renal reabsorption of water

Nearby, functionally linked structure of the basal ganglia is the

substantia nigra

types of exocrine glands

sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), mucous, and digestive glands

great veins

superior and inferior venae cavae

taste bud: supporting cells

support gustatory receptor cells

sertoli cells

support spermatogenesis

A taste bud is composed of three kinds of epithelial cells:

supporting cells, gustatory receptor cells, basal cells

external nose functions

supporting framework of bone frontal bone, nasal bones, and maxillae Supporting framework of hyaline cartilage connected to each other and certain skull bones by fibrous connective tissue. septal nasal cartilage: forms the anterior portion of the nasal septum lateral nasal cartilages: inferior to the nasal bones alar cartilages: form a portion of the walls of the nostrils. covered with muscle and skin lined by a mucous membrane. the external nares (nostrils) lead into cavities called the nasal vestibules. three functions: warming, moistening, filtering incoming air detecting olfactory stimuli modifying speech vibrations as they pass through the large, hollow resonating chambers. Resonance = prolonging/amplifying/modifying a sound by vibration.

deep somatic pain

surfaces of joints, periosteum (the lining around the bone), walls of the arteries

Sight from cataracts can usually be restored by

surgical removal of the old lens and implantation of a new artificial one.

deglutition

swallowing

nerves from what two systems innervate the GI tract

sympathetic and parasympathetic

dilation

sympathetic neurons stimulate the radial muscles (dilator pupillae) of the iris to contract

gluconeogenesis

synthesis of new glucose molecules from protein and lipid breakdown When your liver runs low on glycogen, it is time to eat. If you don't, your body starts catabolizing triglycerides (fats) and proteins. large-scale triglyceride and protein catabolism does not happen unless you are starving, eating very few carbohydrates, or suffering from an endocrine disorder. stimulated by cortisol and by glucagon cortisol also stimulates the breakdown of proteins into amino acids

hemoglobin

synthesized before the nucleus is lost and = ~33% of the cell weight. gives blood its red color large molecule made up of proteins and iron. four folded chains of a protein called globin Each globin molecule is bound to a red pigment molecule called heme, which contains iron (Fe2+). Each iron can bind to one oxygen An individual erythrocyte may contain about 300 million hemoglobin molecules, and therefore can bind to and transport up to 1.2 billion oxygen molecules.

caud

tail (amygdala)

hormones exert their effects by binding to receptors on or in their

target cells

receptors for taste

taste buds

superior colliculus

tectospinal tract

Accessory digestive organs

teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, gallbladder

axons of upper motor neurons:

terminate in the motor nuclei of cranial nerves in the brainstem

male gonad

testes

From each inferior colliculus, axons extend to the

thalamus

From the olfactory cortex, a pathway extends via the

thalamus to the frontal lobe, where odor identification occurs.

what part of the brain is a major relay station?

thalamus, for sensory input from the body, eyes, ears and other senses, except for smell. Directs impulses traveling to and from the spinal cord, brain stem, cerebellum and cerebrum.

immunity

the ability to ward off damage or disease through our defenses.

accessory sex glands

the accessory sex glands secrete most of the liquid portion of semen. The accessory sex glands include the: Seminal Vesicles Prostate bulbourethral glands. (Cowper's glands)

platelet aggregation

the accumulation and attachment of platelets = platelet plug. temporarily seals a small opening in a blood vessel. a glycoprotein in the blood plasma called von Willebrand factor helps stabilize the growing platelet plug.

heterogeneity

the adaptive immune response has a unique way to develop as many as 100 trillion different receptors to recognize nearly every conceivable pathogen.

cardiac output

the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute. stroke volume (SV, amount of blood pumped by each ventricle) x heart rate (HR, beats per minute) close to the total blood volume!

Immunological memory provides

the basis for immunization When you receive a vaccine, which may contain attenuated (weakened) or killed microbes/pieces of microbes, your lymphocytes are activated. Should you subsequently encounter the living pathogen as an infecting microbe, your body initiates a secondary response.

veins of thorax

the brachiocephalic veins drain some portions of the thorax most thoracic structures are drained by a network of veins, the azygos system runs on either side of the vertebral column The azygos system consists of three veins azygos Larger veins that drain the lower limbs and abdomen also connect into the azygos system hemiazygos accessory hemiazygos Ultimately empty into the superior vena cava. The superior vena cava drains most of the body superior to the diaphragm. formed from the left and right brachiocephalic veins and azygos vein

distant objects

the ciliary muscles relax, pulling the suspensory ligaments The lens becomes flatter since it's being stretched

iris

the colored portion of the eyeball between the cornea and the lens and attached to the ciliary body. regulates the amount of light entering the eyeball through the pupil

TFPI (tissue factor pathway inhibitor) inhibits

the conversion of the inactive factor VII to the active form in the extrinsic pathway.

Most of the deoxygenated blood from the myocardium drains into

the coronary sinus on the posterior surface of the heart A vascular sinus (thin walled vein, has no smooth muscle) Empties into the right atrium

heart block

the electrical pathways between the atria and ventricles are blocked most common site of blockage is the AV node (AV block) 1st-degree: conduction through the AV node is slower than normal the P-Q interval is prolonged 2nd-degree: excitation doesn't always reach the ventricles "dropped" beats (more P waves than QRS complexes) 3rd-degree (complete): no SA node action potentials get through the AV node. the atria and ventricles pace separately. the ventricular contraction rate is less than 40 beats/min.

Fribrinolysis

the enzymatic break-down of a clot dissolves inappropriate clots and clots at a site of damage once the damage is repaired.

REM sleep

the eyes move rapidly back and forth under closed eyelids, most dreaming occurs. increased activity in the visual association area and limbic system (emotions) and decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex (reasoning).

oogenesis

the formation of gametes in the ovaries begins in females before they are even born. During early fetal development, primordial (primitive) germ cells migrate from the yolk sac to the ovaries. There, germ cells differentiate within the ovaries into oogonia. Oogonia (2n) stem cells that divide mitotically to produce millions of germ cells. before birth, most of these germ cells degenerate in a process known as atresia. The degeneration of those ovarian follicles which do not ovulate during the menstrual cycle. A few develop into larger cells called primary oocytes Primary oocytes (2n) enter prophase of meiosis I during fetal development but do not complete that phase until after puberty. each primary oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of flat follicular cells, and the entire structure is called a primordial follicle. At birth, approximately 200,000 to 2,000,000 primary oocytes remain in each ovary. about 40,000 are still present at puberty, and around 400 will mature and ovulate during a woman's reproductive lifetime. The remainder undergo atresia.

filtration membrane

the glomerular capillaries and the podocytes (which completely encircle the capillaries) form a leaky barrier

Once a tastant is dissolved in saliva, it can make contact with:

the gustatory hairs, which are the sites of taste transduction

exercise and respiratory system

the heart pumps the same amount of blood to the lungs as to all the rest of the body. as cardiac output rises, the blood flow to the lungs (pulmonary perfusion) increases as well. O2 diffusing capacity (the rate O2 can diffuse from alveolar air into the blood) may increase threefold during maximal exercise because more pulmonary capillaries become maximally perfused. At the onset of vigoruous exercise, an abrupt increase in breathing is followed by a more gradual increase. anticipation of the activity, which stimulates the limbic system; sensory impulses from proprioceptors in muscles, tendons, and joints motor impulses from the primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus). The more gradual increase in breathing during moderate exercise is due to chemical and physical changes in the bloodstream: slightly decreased PO2 due to increased O2 consumption slightly increased PCO2, due to increased CO2 production by contracting muscle fibers increased temperature, due to liberation of more heat as more O2 is utilized. During strenuous exercise, HCO3- buffers H+ released by lactic acid in a reaction that liberates CO2, which further increases PCO2 At the end of an exercise session, an abrupt decrease in breathing is followed by a more gradual decline to the resting level. slower return of blood chemistry levels and temperature to the resting state.

hemoglobin and oxygen partial pressure

the higher the PO2 , the more O2 combines with Hb. in pulmonary capillaries, where PO2 is high, a lot of O2 binds to hemoglobin. In tissue capillaries, where the PO2 is lower, hemoglobin releases O2 the dissolved O2 diffuses into tissue cells. hemoglobin is still 75% saturated with O2 at a PO2 of 40 mmHg, the average PO2 of tissue cells in a person at rest. This is the basis for the earlier statement that only 25% of the available O2 unloads from hemoglobin and is used by tissue cells under resting conditions. explains why people can still perform well at high altitudes or when they have certain cardiac/pulmonary diseases In active tissues such as contracting muscles, PO2 may drop well below 40 mmHg. large percentage of the O2 is released from hemoglobin, providing more O2 to metabolically active tissues.

If a hormone is prevented from interacting with its receptors

the hormone cannot perform its normal functions

factors affecting target cell's response

the hormone's concentration in the blood the abundance of the target cell's hormone receptors influences exerted by other hormones.

effect of Rh- receiving Rh+ blood

the immune system starts to make anti-Rh antibodies that will remain in the blood (sensitized). If a second transfusion of Rh+ blood is given later, the previously formed anti-Rh antibodies will cause a transfusion reaction

immunological memory

the immune system's ability to quickly and specifically recognize an antigen that the body has previously encountered and initiate a response. primary adaptive response: The immune system's first exposure to a pathogen Symptoms of a first infection (primary disease) are always relatively severe because it takes time for the initial response Upon re-exposure to the same pathogen, a secondary adaptive immune response occurs stronger and faster that the primary response. often eliminates a pathogen before it can cause significant tissue damage or any symptoms. Memory cells are long lived Years to decades later if these cells are stimulated they very rapidly differentiate and proliferate within hours.

The receptors for olfaction cover:

the inferior surface of the cribriform plate

lumen

the inside space of a tubular structure

The bundle branches extend through

the interventricular septum toward the apex of the heart, where they connect with the Purkinje fibers

hypoxia stimulates

the kidneys to release erythropoietin

elastic arteries

the largest arteries in the body aorta and pulmonary trunk (garden hose size) Branches of the aorta (finger-sized) thick tunica media with many elastic fibers helps propel blood walls stretch then recoil

The left coronary artery divides into

the left anterior descending (LAD) and circumflex arteries. The left anterior descending (LAD) artery supplies oxygenated blood to both ventricles. The circumflex artery supplies oxygenated blood to the left ventricle and left atrium. Posterior ventricular branch

APC's: dendritic cells

the main APCs that induce T-cell immune responses Act like sentinels engulf invading microbes, degrade them, and transfer them to lymph nodes for display to T cells located there

bronchi

the main bronchi contain incomplete rings of cartilage and are lined by ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium. The right main bronchus is more vertical, shorter, and wider than the left. an aspirated object is more likely to enter the right main bronchus At the point where the trachea divides there's an internal ridge called the carina formed by a posterior and somewhat inferior projection of the last tracheal cartilage. one of the most sensitive areas for triggering a cough reflex. the main bronchi divide to form smaller bronchi—the lobar (secondary) bronchi, one for each lobe of the lung. The right lung has three lobes; the left lung has two. Lobar bronchi continue to branch, forming smaller segmental (tertiary) bronchi supply the specific bronchopulmonary segments within the lobes. The segmental bronchi then divide into bronchioles. extensive branching from the trachea through the terminal bronchioles resembles an inverted tree and is commonly referred to as the bronchial tree. Bronchioles branch repeatedly, leading to the smallest branches called terminal bronchioles. Terminal bronchioles contain club (Clara) cells, which produce surfactant The terminal bronchioles represent the end of the conducting zone of the respiratory system. Beyond the terminal bronchioles of the bronchial tree, the branches become microscopic. These branches are called the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts As the branching becomes more extensive, several structural changes are seen mucous membrane main bronchi, lobar bronchi, and segmental bronchi: ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium Larger bronchioles: ciliated simple columnar epithelium with some goblet cells Smaller bronchioles: ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium with no goblet cells Terminal bronchioles: nonciliated simple cuboidal epithelium inhaled particles are removed by macrophages. cartilage Plates of cartilage gradually replace the incomplete rings of cartilage in main bronchi No cartilage in the distal bronchioles. Smooth muscles As the amount of cartilage decreases, the amount of smooth muscle increases. because there is no supporting cartilage, muscle spasms can close off the airways. what happens during an asthma attack

acid-base balance

the maintenance of acid-base balance—is of critical importance to normal cellular function. When the diet contains a large amount of protein, as is typical in North America, cellular metabolism produces more acids than bases, which tends to acidify the blood. several mechanisms help maintain the pH of systemic arterial blood between 7.35 and 7.45. The removal of H+ from body fluids and its subsequent elimination from the body depend on the following three major mechanisms: Buffer systems. act quickly to temporarily bind H+, removing them from solution (not the body) Exhalation of carbon dioxide. reduces the level of carbonic acid in blood, which raises the blood pH (reduces blood H+ level). Kidney excretion of H+. The slowest mechanism, the only way to eliminate acids other than carbonic acid

coronary circulation

the network of blood vessels that feeds the myocardium Nutrients from the blood in the heart don't diffuse quickly enough to supply the heart wall. The coronary arteries branch from the ascending aorta and encircle the heart While the heart is contracting, little blood flows in the coronary arteries because they are squeezed shut. When the heart relaxes, the high pressure of blood in the aorta propels blood through the coronary arteries

organs of female reproductive system

the ovaries (female gonads) Produce oocytes produce hormones Progesterone, estrogens, inhibin, and relaxin. the uterine (fallopian) tubes, AKA oviducts transport an oocyte to the uterus normally sites of fertilization the uterus site of implantation of a fertilized ovum development of the fetus during pregnancy labor. the vagina and external organs (vulva AKA pudendum) The mammary glands are considered part of the integumentary and reproductive systems. synthesize, secrete, and eject milk for nourishment of the newborn.

anemia

the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood is reduced. RBC count or hemoglobin is deficient.

"dry" AMD

the pigmented layer atrophies and degenerates. no treatment.

memory

the process by which information acquired through learning is stored and retrieved.

steps in respiration

the process of supplying the body with O2 and removing CO2 Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) the inhalation (inflow) and exhalation (outflow) of air Inhalation permits O2 to enter the lungs and exhalation permits CO2 to leave the lungs. involves the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs. External (pulmonary) respiration exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood in pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory membrane. Internal (tissue) respiration is the exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells. In this step the blood loses O2 and gains CO2.

memory consolidation

the process where a short-term memory is transformed into a long-term memory

Vitamin K is necessary for

the proper functioning of several clotting factors

henry's law

the quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility. (Ex: opening a soda) In comparison to oxygen, more CO2 is dissolved in blood plasma because the solubility of CO2 is 24 times greater than that of O2. Even though air contains mostly N2, this gas has no known effect on bodily functions, because its solubility is very low.

reabsorption

the return of most of the filtered water and many of the filtered solutes to the bloodstream Normally, about 99% of the filtered water is reabsorbed. Solutes reabsorbed by both active and passive processes glucose, amino acids, urea, and ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl−, bicarbonate, phosphate). Most small proteins and peptides that pass through the filter also are reabsorbed, usually via pinocytosis.

The right coronary artery supplies

the right atrium and the posterior walls of both ventricles divides into the posterior interventricular and marginal branches

transduction

the sensory receptor converts the stimulus into a graded potential Translates stimuli into an action potential that the nervous system can "make sense of"

dialysis

the separation of large solutes from smaller ones by diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane.

step 5 of hearing

the sound wave is transferred from the oval window to the perilymph inside the cochlea, creating pressure waves

preload

the stretch of the ventricles prior to contraction proportional to the end-diastolic volume (EDV) Within limits, the more the heart fills the greater the force of contraction Like stretching a rubber band. Two key factors determine EDV: the duration of ventricular diastole (filling time) venous return

nasal cavity

the superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae extend out of each lateral wall of the nasal cavity. also called turbinates thin, scroll-shaped bony elements forming the upper chambers of the nasal cavities. almost reach the nasal septum The nasal septum separates the left and right airways in the nose subdivide each side of the nasal cavity into air passageways superior, middle, and inferior nasal meatuses A nasal meatus is a nasal passage of the nasal cavity The conchae and meatuses increases surface area prevents dehydration by trapping water droplets during exhalation. Warms inhaled air by blood capillaries. Mucus secreted by the goblet cells moistens the air and traps dust particles. Drainage from the nasolacrimal ducts/paranasal sinuses also moistens the air cilia move mucus and trapped dust toward the pharynx swallowed or spit out

short term memory

the temporary ability to recall information for seconds to minutes.

refractory period

the time interval when a second contraction cannot be triggered. lasts longer than the contraction itself For this reason, tetanus (maintained contraction) cannot occur in cardiac muscle as it can in skeletal muscle.

secretion

the transfer of materials from the blood and tubule cells into glomerular filtrate. Secreted substances include H+, K+, ammonium ions, creatinine, and certain drugs/medications

renal plasma clearance test

the volume of blood that is cleared of a substance (ml/min) High clearance means efficient excretion

why are lower motor neurons called lower motor neurons?

their cell bodies are in the lower parts of the CNS (brainstem and spinal cord).

what do the axons of second order neurons do?

they decussate as they travel through the brainstem or spinal cord before going to the thalamus

why is the outermost layer of the esophagus called adventitia and not serosa?

they lack the serosa, they only have a single layer

Anterolateral (Spinothalamic) Pathway to the Cortex: the axons of the third order neurons do what?

they project to the primary somatosensory area opposite the site of stimulation

teniae coli

thickened portions of longitudinal muscles of the muscularis

convergence

this medial movement of the two eyeballs The nearer the object, the greater the degree of convergence needed

which of the following would not be considered sensory modality? a)pain b) vision c) equilibrium d)thought e) vibration

thought

activation of complement

three activation pathway cascades all of which activate C3 classical pathway starts when antibodies bind to antigens alternative pathway starts when lipid-carbohydrate complexes on the surface of microbes interact with complement protein factors B, D, and P. lectin pathway macrophages that digest microbes release chemicals that cause the liver to produce proteins called lectins. Pathway starts when lectins bind to the carbohydrates on the surface of microbes

major thymus (and other organ) hormone

thymosin

The tissue of the thyroid gland is composed mostly of

thyroid follicles

postovulatory phase

time between ovulation and menses. lasts from day 15 to day 28 in an Ovary the mature follicle collapses a blood clot forms from minor bleeding of the ruptured follicle (corpus hemorrhagicum) Theca interna and granulosa cells become the corpus luteum cells under the influence of LH. Stimulated by LH, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone, estrogens, relaxin, and inhibin. The luteal cells absorb the blood clot. If the oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum has a life span of 2 weeks. degenerates into a corpus albicans. As the levels of progesterone, estrogens, and inhibin decrease, release of GnRH, FSH, and LH rises Follicular growth resumes and a new ovarian cycle begins. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, the corpus luteum is "rescued" by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). produced by the chorion of the embryo beginning about 8 days after fertilization. stimulates the secretory activity of the corpus luteum. hormone detected by home pregnancy tests. in the Uterus preparatory changes peak about 1 week after ovulation Progesterone and estrogens produced by the corpus luteum promote growth and coiling of the endometrial glands, vascularization of the superficial endometrium, and thickening of the endometrium If fertilization does not occur progesterone and estrogens levels decline due to degeneration of the corpus luteum. causes menstruation.

serous membrane

tissue that lines certain internal cavities

decussate

to cross over to the other side of the brain

where are the great arteries and great veins attached

to the superior surface of the heart, called the base.

the palatine tonsil are located between what two structures

tongue and palatoglossal arch, also palatopharyngeal arch

what forms the floor of the oral cavity

tongue together with associated muscles

leukopenia

too few leukocytes radiation, shock, certain chemotherapeutic agents.

thrombocytosis

too many platelets; may trigger formation of unwanted blood clots (thrombosis)

example of a phasic receptor

touch receptors in the skin

fibrous pericardium

tough, dense connective tissue protects the heart and maintains its position in the thorax. partially fused to part of the diaphragm deep breathing facilitates the movement of blood by the heart.

When the ventricle contracts, blood flows:

toward the pulmonary trunk and the atrium. the papillary muscles contract, pulling chordae tendineae which prevents backflow into the atrium

bleaching

trans-retinal separates from opsin. Retinal is responsible for the color of the photopigment

Sweet, bitter and umami:

transduced through G-protein

urothelium

transitional epithelium in the wall of the bladder

broca's area

translates thoughts into speech. generates a motor pattern for activation of muscles needed for the words that you want to say. Damage results in an inability to properly articulate or form words (expressive aphasia)

step 4 of hearing

transmit the energy to the oval window

Most lipid-soluble hormone molecules are bound to:

transport proteins

functions of blood

transportation, maintainence of homeostasis, defense

pulmonary circut

transports blood to and from the lungs

systemic circuit

transports oxygenated blood to the body tissues and returns relatively deoxygenated blood

Posterior Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the Cortex: the third order neurons do what?

travel to the postcentral gyrus opposite the site of stimulation.

symptoms of parkinson's disease

tremor (involuntary skeletal muscle contractions often interfere with voluntary movement) "cogwheel" rigidity (muscle tone increase) Rigidity of the facial muscles gives an expression characterized by a wide-eyed, unblinking stare; slightly open mouth; uncontrolled drooling. Bradykinesia (slowness of movements) postural instability

Effect of erythropoietin

triggers formation of RBC in bone marrow

pancreatic lipase

triglycerides

absorbed nutrients reached the liver via the hepatic portal system

true

complex carbohydrates undergo chemical digestion in the GI tract, but monosaccharides do not

true

secretions from the liver and gallbladder are united in the common bile duct and enter duodenum through the sphincter of the hepatopancreatic ampulla

true

voluntary control of external and anal sphincter can occur because the smooth muscles involved are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system

true

macula densa

tubule cells crowded together

phasic

turned on in the presence of stimulus, but adapt quickly

light excites the bipolar cells by:

turning off the release of an inhibitory neurotransmitter

The ABO blood group is based on

two antigens, A and B . those who have neither antigen A nor B are type O.

Syngeristic effect

two hormones acting together is greater than the sum of their individual effects

antagonistic effect

two hormones have opposite effects.

murmur

unusual sound coming from the heart clicking, rushing, gurgling heard with normal heart sounds, or may mask normal heart sounds. Can be caused by valve and septal disorders Can be congenital, caused by disease, trauma, or carditis (inflammation of the heart) a common cause of carditis is rheumatic fever an autoimmune reaction to the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes (strep throat)

indirect motor pathways

upper motor neurons from the brainstem.

direct motor pathways

upper motor neurons from the cerebral cortex.

In the large intestine, bacteria convert bilirubin into

urobilinogen and then into stercobilin. eliminated from the body in the feces, color associated with this waste.

Perionteal dialysis

uses the peritoneum as the dialysis membrane

APC's: macrophages

usually found in a resting state Activated by ingestion of antigenic material cytokines produced by an activated T helper cell Activated macrophages have increased motility, phagocytic and antigen presenting capabilities important in the control of cancer cells and intracellular pathogens Macrophages stimulate T cells to release cytokines that enhance phagocytosis.

The information for static equilibrium and linear acceleration (dynamic) comes from

utricle and saccule

stenosis

valves become rigid/calcify over time. Can cause the heart to work harder eventually weakens the heart.

varicose veins

varicose veins (varicies) = veins become dilated and twisted due to leaky venous valves congenital, from mechanical stress (prolonged standing/ pregnancy), aging. leaky valves allow blood from deep veins into the less efficient superficial veins, where the blood pools. the affected vein and surrounding tissue may become inflamed/painful most common in the: Esophagus Bleeding esophageal varices are life-threatening usually caused by chronic liver disease. anal canal (hemorrhoids) superficial veins of the lower limbs.

Over the sclera, the conjunctiva is

vascular

three mechanism of hemostasis

vascular spasm platelet plug formation blood clotting (coagulation)

paired veins

veins are more numerous than arteries accompany muscular arteries. connect with one another via channels called anastomotic veins. cross the artery to form ladderlike rungs The greatest number of paired veins occurs within the limbs.

ventricular fibrilation

ventricles stop pumping blood, death occur unless there is immediate medical intervention. contractions asynchronous, ventricles quiver rather than contract no clearly defined P waves, QRS complexes, or T waves. Treatment involves CPR and defibrillation.

lifespan of formed elements

very brief

lymphatic system

vessels, cells, and organs that carries excess fluids to the bloodstream and filters pathogens from the blood. Consists of: fluid called lymph lymphatic vessels that transport lymph structures and organs containing lymphatic tissue (lymphocytes within a filtering tissue) red bone marrow

The brainstem contains four major motor centers:

vestibular nuclei, reticular formation, superior colliculus red nucleus

what muscles assist in chewing and speech?

vestibule, buccinator and orbicularis oris

inner ear consists of

vestibule, semicircular canals, cochlea

vestibular nuclei

vestibulospinal tract

example of pacinian corpuscle

vibrations from a power drill

example of messiner's corpsucle

vibrations you feel when your hand moves across a textured object

feature of small intestine that allow the surface area needed for absorption

villi microvilli

external nose

visible external portion

the eyes send what kind of information?

visual information

what lies between the lens and retina

vitreous chamber

larynx

voice box a short passageway that connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea. lies in the midline of the neck anterior to the esophagus and C4-C6 The three parts of the larynx are the supraglottis (including the epiglottis) glottis (including the vocal cords) subglottis. glottis consists of a pair of folds of mucous membrane, the vocal folds (true vocal cords), and the space between them called the rima glottidis. The wall of the larynx is composed of nine pieces of cartilage. 3 occur singly thyroid, epiglottis, cricoid the larynx extends from the entrance into the larynx to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage 3 occur in pairs arytenoid, cuneiform, corniculate laryngeal vestibule = portion of the larynx above the vestibular folds (false vocal cords) infraglottic cavity (infra- = below) = portion of the larynx below the vocal folds (true vocal cords) thyroid cartilage (Adam's apple) forms the anterior wall of the larynx and give it a triangular shape. larger in males due to the influence of sex hormones epiglottis leaf-shaped The "stem" is attached to the anterior rim of the thyroid cartilage. The "leaf" is unattached and is free to move up and down like a trap door. During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx rise; closing the epiglottis over the glottis cricoid Ring that forms the inferior wall of the larynx. arytenoid cartilages form joints with the cricoid cartilage, have a wide range of mobility. influence changes in position and tension of the vocal cords corniculate cartilages apex of each arytenoid cartilage. role in the relaxing, tensing and approximating the vocal cords allows the opening and closing of Glottis, to help with the generation of sound. cuneiform cartilages support the vocal folds and lateral aspects of the epiglottis.

example of interneuron

walking

septa of heart

wall that divides the heart into chambers.

As lipids are transported by the blood, lipid particles are deposited on the

walls of blood vessels, leading to atherosclerosis, heart disease, stroke, peripheral vascular disease, and gangrene.

aquaporin

water channel protein in a cell

Most water-soluble hormone molecules circulate in the

watery blood plasma in a "free" form (not attached to other molecules)

step 6 of hearing

waves in the perilymph cause waves in the in the endolymph in the cochlear duct.

is fast pain well localized or poorly localized?

well localized, you can feel it in a particular spot

adaptation

when a receptor potential decreases in amplitude during a maintained, constant stimulus. causes sensation perception to fade or disappear even though the stimulus is still there

clonal selection

when an antigen enters the body, there is only a small group of lymphocytes with the antigen receptors that responds to that antigen once these lymphocytes encounter the antigen and receives stimulatory cues, it undergoes clonal selection. the process by which a lymphocyte proliferates (divides) and differentiates (forms more highly specialized cells) in response to a specific antigen. occurs in the secondary lymphatic organs and tissues. Results in a population of identical cells (clones) Creates thousands of lymphocytes that can respond to that antigen. clonal selection gives rise to two major types of cells: effector cells carry out immune responses Most die after the immune response is finished memory cells. do not actively participate in the immune response if the same antigen enters the body again in the future, memory cells initiate a swifter reaction than occurred during the first invasion Quickly proliferate and differentiate into more effector and memory cells. the second response is usually so fast that the antigen is destroyed before there are any signs or symptoms of disease memory cells have long life spans (often lasting for decades).

food calories

when catabolism occurs, energy is released. 40% is used to perform biological work Ex: active transport, muscle contraction. 60% is converted to heat some of which maintains normal body temperature. the heat energy released can be measured in units called calories. A calorie (cal) = the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C. kilocalorie (kcal) or Calorie (Cal) always spelled with an uppercase C used to express the energy content of foods. The higher the caloric content of a particular food, the greater the amount of energy released as it is catabolized.

seminferous tubules

where sperm is produced

optic disc

where the optic (II) nerve exits the eyeball. Retinal blood vessels enter/exit through the optic disc

tunica albuginea

white fibrous capsule on testes, deense irregular connective tissue

sclera

white of the eye covers the entire eyeball except the cornea

trachea

windpipe extends from the larynx to the superior border of the fifth thoracic vertebra (T5), where it divides into right and left primary bronchi. about 12 cm (5 in.) long and 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter. The layers of the tracheal wall, from deep to superficial, are: mucosa ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium submucosa connective tissue containing seromucous glands and their ducts. hyaline cartilage, 16-20 incomplete, horizontal rings of hyaline cartilage resemble the letter C stacked one above another, connected by dense connective tissue. open part of each C-shaped cartilage faces posteriorly toward the esophagus and is spanned by a fibromuscular membrane. allows the diameter of the trachea to change subtly during inhalation and exhalation, which is important in maintaining efficient airflow. provides support so the trachea does not collapse inward (especially during inhalation) adventitia connective tissue that joins the trachea to surrounding tissues.

Anterolateral (Spinothalamic) Pathway to the Cortex: the axons of second order neurons synapse with who?

with the third-order neurons in the thalamus

what does fast pain allow the body to do?

withdraw immediately from the painful stimulus

Some urobilinogen is absorbed back into the blood, converted to a:

yellow pigment called urobilin, and excreted in urine. = yellow of urine

jaundice

yellow skin, high level of billirubin

plasma

~ 91.5% percent water, 55% of blood volume hundreds of substances dissolved or suspended in the plasma 8.5% solutes, most of which (7% by weight) are proteins. proteins unique to blood are called plasma proteins.