Final Examination Study Guide

Describe the following demonstrations of how context helps with the perception of words and components of words: (1) phonemic restoration effect; (2) isolating words from conversations (Pollack and Pickett experiment); (3) speech segmentation.

(1) The powerful effect of context on perception is illustrated by the demonstration that a phoneme that is part of a sentence can be heard even if the sound of the phoneme is covered up by an extraneous noise. Richard Warren demonstrated this by having participants listen to a recording of the sentence "The state governors met with their respective legislatures convening in the capital city." Warren replaced the first /s/ in "legislatures with the sound of a cough and asked his participants to indicate where in the sentence the cough occurred. No participant identified the correct position of the cough, and, even more significantly, none of them noticed that the /s/ in "legislatures" was missing. This effect, which Warren called the phonemic restoration effect, was experienced even by students and staff in the psychology department who knew that the /s/ was missing. This "filling in" of the missing phoneme based on the context produced by the sentence and the portion of the word that was presented is an example of top-down processing (2) The way people pronounce words in conversational speech makes about half of the words unintelligible when taken out of context and presented alone. Irwin Pollack and J.M. Pickett demonstrated this by recording the conversations of participants who sat in a room, waiting for the experiment to begin. When the participants were then presented with recordings of single words taken out of their own conversations, they could identify only half the words, even though they were listening to their own voices! The fact that the people in this experiment were able to identify words as they were talking to each other, but couldn't identify the same words when the words were isolated, illustrates that their ability to perceive words in conversations is aided by the context provided by the words and sentences that make up the conversation (3) One of the fascinating aspects of this effect is that if we were to analyze the sound energy that occurs when people are having conversations, we might come to the opposite conclusion - that it would be more difficult to perceive words when they are surrounded by other words in a sentence. The reason we might think this is that words in conversations are not separated from one another by spaces, or pauses, even though it may sound as though they are. The process of perceiving individual words in a continuous flow of the speech signal is called speech segmentation.

Describe what the following evidence tells us about this approach to understanding stories (1) reaction times for pictures that match or don't match the orientations or shapes of objects in a story; (2) reaction times to answer questions about "blocked" and "unblocked" stories; (3) brain activation for action words compared to actual action; (4) brain activation for changes in different types of events in a story

(1) a person simulates the perceptual and motor (movement) characteristics of the objects and actions in a story. This idea has been tested by having participants read a sentence that describes a situation involving an object and then indicate as quickly as possible whether or not a picture shows the object mentioned in the sentence. Robert Stanfield and Rolf Zwaan presented these sentences, followed by either a matching pictire or a nonmatching picture. Because the pictures both show nails and the task was to indicate whether the picture shows the object mentioned in the sentence, the correct answer was "yes" no matter which nail was presented. However, participants responded "yes" more rapidly when the picture's orientation matched the situation described in the picture. In this experiment, by Zwwaan and coworkers, the picture of an eagle with wings outstretched elicited a faster response when it follwed sentence 1 than when it followed sentence 2. Again, reaction times were faster when the pictuure matched the situation described in the sentence. This result corresponds to the result for the orientation experiment, and both experiments support the idea that the participants created perceptions that matched the situation as they were reading the sentences. (2) The idea that readers create situation models has also been applied to stories. For example, William Horton and David Rapp tested this idea using short passages. Participants were then presented with on of the following endings. Blocked story continuation or Unblocked story continuation. Participants read the story line by line from a computer screen. After sentence 7, a warning tone sounded, indicating that the target question was going to be presented. The target question for the story above was "Was the victim being stalked y a vampire?" The participant's task was to answer "yes" or "no" as quickly as possible by pressing the correct key on the computer keyboard. The result confirms this prediction - responding was slower in the blocked condition. This supports the idea that readers represent story events in a manner similar to actual perception. That is, they experience a story as if they are experiencing the situation described in the text (3) Olaf Hauk and coworkers had participants' brain activity measured using fMRI under two conditions: 1) as they moved their right or left foot, left or right index finger, or tongue; 2) as they read "action words" such as kick (foot action), pick (finger or hand action), or lick (tongue action). The results show areas of the cortex activated by the actual movements and by reading the action words. The activation is more extensive for actual movements, but the activation caused by reading the words occurs in approximately the same areas of the brain. The conclusion from this study is that reading about an action causes activity in the brain that is similar to the activity that occurs when carrying out the action (4) Nicole Speer and coworkers had participants read a selection from the book One Boy's Day, which describes the everyday activities of Raymond, a 7-year old boy. The participants' brain activity was measured as they read the story. Speer analyzed the story to determine where changes in various aspects of the story occurred. For example, a spatial change occurred when Raymond moved from one location to another. An object change occurred when Raymond interacted with a new object. Thus, the sentence "He picked up his English workbook and returned to his desk" starts with an object change and ends with a spatial change. Colors indicate the area of the brain activated by each type of change. Two things are clear: 1) reading a story activates many areas in the cortex; and 2) specific actions cause activity in different areas, although there is also overlap. This correlation between events in the story and activity in the brain supports the central proposal of the situation model approach - that reading creates representations of the situations described in a story

What do the results of experiments that have used abstract and concrete versions of the Wason four-card problem indicate about the roles of (a) concreteness; (b) knowledge of regulations; and (c) permission schemas in solving this problem?

(a) in real world terms, Richard Griggs and James Cox stated the problem as follows: Each card has an age on one side and the name of a beverage on the other side. Imagine you are a police officer who is applying the rule "If a person is drinking beer, then he or she must be over 19 years old". Which of the cards must be turned over to determine whether the rule is being followed? This BEER/DRINKING-AGE version of Wason's problem is identical to the abstract version except that concrete everyday terms are substituted for the letters and numbers. Griggs and Cox found that for this version of the problem, 73 percent of their participants provided the correct response. In contrast, none of their participants answered the abstract task correctly. Apparently, being able to relate the beer task to regulations about drinking makes it easier to realize that the "16 years" card must be turned over (b) Patricia Cheng and Keith Holyoak took the Wason task a step further by proposing the concept of pragmatic reasoning schemas. A pragmatic reasoning schema is a way of thinking about cause and effect in the world that is learned as part of experiencing everyday life. An example is the permission schema that states that if a person satisfies condition A, then he or she gets to carry out action B. This idea that people apply a real-life schema like the permission schema to the card task makes it easier to understand the difference between the abstract version of the card task and the beer/drinking-age version. With the abstract task, the goal is to indicate whether an abstract statement about letters and numbers is true. But in the beer/drinking-age task, the goal is to be sure that a person has permission to drink alcohol. Apparently, activating the permission schema helps people focus attention on the card that would test that schema

Describe how the following problems illustrate Gestalt principle to problem solving, and also what else these problems demonstrate about problem solving: the circle (radius) problem; the candle problem; the two-string problem; the water-jug problem.

1) "Circle (radius) Problem": This problem asks us to determine the length of the segment marked x if the radius of the circle has a length r. One way to describe how this problem is represented on the page is "a circle with vertical and horizontal lines that divide the circle into quarters, with a small triangle in the upper left quadrant". The key to solving this problem is to change the last part of the representation to "a small rectangle in the upper let quadrant, with x being the diagonal between the corners". Once x is recognized as the diagonal of the rectangle, the representation can be reorganized by creating the rectangle's other diagonal. Once we realize that this diagonal is the radius of the circle, and that both diagonals of a rectangle are the same length, we can conclude that the length of x equals the length of the radius, r. What is important about this solution is that it doesn't require mathematical equations. Instead, the solution is obtained by first perceiving the object and then representing it in a different way (Restructuring) 2) "Candle Problem": The candle problem illustrates how functional fixedness can hinder problem solving. In this experiment, participants are asked to use various objects to complete a task. The following demonstration asks you to try to solve Duncker's problem by imagining that you have the specified objects (candles, matches in a matchbox, some tacks) with cardboard on the wall in a room. The solution to the problem occurs when the person realizes that the matchbox can be used as a support rather than a as a container. When Duncker did this experiment, he presented one group of participants with small cardboard boxes containing the materials and presented another group with the same materials, but outside the boxes, so the boxes were empty. When the two groups were compared, it was found that the group that had been presented with the boxes as containers found the problem more difficult than did the group that was presented with empty boxes 3) "The Two-String Problem": Another demonstration of functional fixedness is provided by Maier's two-string problem, in which the participants' task was to tie together two strings that were hanging from the ceiling. This is difficult because the strings are separated, so it is impossible to reach one of them while holding the other. Other objects available for solving this problem were a chair and a pair of pliers. To solve this problem, participants needed to tie the pliers to one of the strings to create a pendulum, which could then be swung to within the person's reach. In Gestalt terms, the solution to the problem occurred once the participants restructured their representation of how to achieve the solution (get the strings to swing from side to side) and their representation of the function of the pliers (they can be used as a weight to create a pendulum) 4) "The Water-Jug Problem": The Gestalt psychologists showed how mental set (a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person's experience or what has worked in the past) in which participants are given three jugs of different capacities and are required to use these jugs to measure out a specific quantity of water. All of the participants who began the Luchins' water-jug problem with problem 7 used the shorter solution, but less than a quarter of those who had established a mental set by beginning with problem 1 used the shorter solution to solve problem 7

What are two forms of 'direct memory tasks'?

1) Recall 2) Recognition

What are the four indirect memory tasks?

1) Word naming 2) Lexical decision 3) Perceptual identification 4) Fragment commpletion

The effective duration of short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is __________________

15-20 seconds

What are the assumptions behind the situation model?

A situation model is a mental representation of what a text is about. This approach proposes that the mental representation people form as they read a story does not consist of information about phrases, sentences, or paragraphs

What does the phrase "the more you learn, the easier it is to learn something new about that topic" refer to?

A well developed semantic network for a topic will make learning new information much easier than otherwise. As we bring things into awareness we INCREASE the resting activation of information in our semantic network. Every time we bring something into awareness, we build up the resting activation

How do the following cause errors in reasoning: availability heuristic; illusory correlations; representativeness heuristic; confirmation bias?

AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC: when faced with a choice, we are often guided by what we remember from the past. The availability heuristic states that events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered. An experiment by Stuart McKelvie presented lists of 26 names to participants. In the "famous men" condition, 12 of the names were famous men and 14 were non-famous women. in the "famous women" condition, 12 of the names were famous women and 14 were non-famous men. When participants were asked to estimate whether there were more males or more females in the list they had heard, their answer was influenced by whether they had heard the famous male list or the famous female list. Seventy-seven percent of the participants who had heard the famous male list stated that there were more males in their list, and 81 percent of the participants who had heard the famous female list stated that there were more females in their list. This result is consistent with the availability heuristic, because the famous names would be more easily remembered and would stand out when participants were asked to decide whether there had been more male or female names ILLUSORY CORRELATIONS: Illusory correlations occur when a correlation between two events appears to exist, but in reality there is no correlation or it is much weaker than it is assumed to be. Illusory correlations can occur when we expect two things to be related, so we fool ourselves into thinking they are related even when they are not. These expectations may take the form of astereotype. A stereotype about the characteristics of a particular group may lead people to pay particular attention to behaviors associated with that stereotype, and this attention creates an illusory correlation that reinforces the stereotype. This phenomenon is related to the availability heuristic because selective attention to the stereotypical behaviors makes these behaviors more "available" REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC: While the availability heuristic is related to how often we expect events to occur, the representativeness heuristic is related to the idea that people often make judgments based on how much one event resembles another event. The representativeness heuristic states that the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles the properties we usually associated with class B. CONFIRMATION BIAS: One of the major roadblocks to accurate reasoning is the confirmation bias, our tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and to overlook information that argues against it. The confirmation bias acts like a pair of blinders - we see the world according to rules we think are correct and are never dissuaded from this view because we seek out only evidence that confirms our rule

What are illusory conjunctions, and what do they demonstrate about feature analysis? How have illusory conjunction experiments supported the role of attention in feature analysis? How do experiments with Balint's syndrome patients support feature integration theory?

According to Treisman, illusory conjunctions occur because at the beginning of the perceptual process each feature exists independently of the others. That is, features such as "redness" "curvature," or "tilted line" are, at this early stage of processing, not associated with a specific object. They are, in Treisman's words, "free floating," and can therefore be incorrectly combined if there is more than one object, especially in laboratory situations when briefly flashed stimuli are followed by a masking field; The crucial characteristic of Balint's syndrome is an inability to focus attention on individual objects. According to feature integration theory, lack of focused attention would make it difficult for R.M. to combine features correctly, and this is exactly what happened. When R.M. was presented with two different letters of different colors, such as a red T and a blue O, he reported illusory conjunctions such as "blue T" on 23 percent of the trials, even when he was able to view the letters for as long as 10 seconds+

What is levels-of-processing theory? Be sure you understand depth of processing, shallow processing, and deep processing. What would LOP theory say about the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

According to levels-of-processing theory, memory depends on how information is encoded, with "deeper" processing resulting in better encoding and retrieval than "shallow" processing. In other words, memory depends on how information is programmed into the mind; Craik and Lockhart's levels-of-processing theory states that memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives. Shallow processing involves little attention to meaning. Deep processing involves close attention, focusing on an item's meaning and relating it to something else; Shallow processing also occurs during maintenance rehearsal, in which an item is repeated to keep it in memory but without considering its meaning or its connection with anything else. Deep processing's way of processing an item occurs during elaborative rehearsal and, according to levels-of-processing theory, results in better memory than shallow processing

How do the way choices are presented and the need to justify decisions affect the decisions people make?

According to the utility approach, people make decisions based on expected utility value; therefore, their decisions shouldn't depend on how the potential choices are stated. An example of how the wording of a problem can influence a decision was demonstrated by Paul Slovic and coworkers. They showed forensic psychologists and psychiatrists a case history of a mental patient, Mr. Jones, and asked them to judge the likelihood that the patient would commit an act of violence within 6 months of being discharged. The key variable in this experiment was the nature of a statement that presented information about previous cases. When they were told that "20 out of every 100 patients similar to Mr. Jones are estimated to commit an act of violence," 41 percent refused to discharge him. However, when told that "patients similar to Mr. Jones are estimated to have a 20 percent chance of committing an act of violence," only 21 percent refused to discharge him

What was the takeaway from the 'Sleep' words class demonstration?

After being given a list of words that belong to specific category or semantic network, people are asked to recall as many of the words as they can. While the category is 'sleep' categorization of words, the word 'sleep' was not actually on the list. Many individuals actually recalled the word 'sleep'. THIS DEMONSTRATES THAT RETRIEVAL FROM LONG-TERM MEMORY IS RECONSTRUCTIVE

What was demonstrated in the "number of cues" class demonstration (1 vs 3)?

After writing down all the words from the '1 vs 3' task, one group attaches a cue word (1 cue) and the other attaches multiple cues (3 cues) to help retrieve the word list. The more retrieval cues will continue to allow access to more and more information from LTM. THIS DEMONSTRATES THAT RETRIEVAL FROM LONG-TERM MEMORY IS CUE DEPENDENT

How good are experts at solving problems outside of their field?

Although there are many differences between experts and novices, it appears that these differences hold only when problems are within an expert's field. When James Voss and coworkers posed a real-world problem involving Russian agriculture to expert political scientists, expert chemists, and novice political scientists, they found that the expert political scientists performed best and that the expert chemists performed as poorly as the novice political scientists. In general, experts are experts only within their own field and perform like anyone else outside of their field. This makes sense when we remember that the superior performance of experts occurs largely because they possess a larger and better organized store of knowledge about their specific field.

Experiments showing that memory can be affected by suggestion have led to the proposal of the misinformation effect. How has the misinformation effect been demonstrated, and what mechanisms have been proposed to explain this effect?

An experiment by Elizabeth Loftus and coworkers illustrates a typical Misleading post-event information (MPI) procedure. Participants saw a series of slides in which a car stops at a stop sign and then turns the corner and hits a pedestrian. Some of the participants then answered a number of questions, including "Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the stop sign?" For another group of participants (the MPI group), the words "yield sign" replaced "stop sign" in the stop sign question. participants were then shown pictures from the slide show plus some pictures they had never seen. Those in the MPI group were more likely to say they had seen the picture of the car stopped at the yield sign (which, in actuality, they had never seen) than were participants who had not been exposed to MPI. This shift in memory caused by MPI demonstrates the misinformation effect. Presentation of MPI can alter not only what participants report they saw, but their conclusions about other characteristics of the situation. The misinformation effect shows not only that false memories can be created by suggestion but also provides an example of how different researchers can interpret the same data in different ways; Loftus explains the misinformation effect by proposing the memory trace replacement hypothesis, which states that MPI impairs or replaces memories that were formed during the original experiencing of an event. Another explanation proposes that the original information is forgotten because of retroactive interference, which occurs when more recent learning interferes with memory for something that happened in the past. Another explanation for the misinformation effect is based on the idea of source monitoring, which we discussed earlier. According to source monitoring, a person incorrectly concludes that the source of his or her memory for the incorrect event was the slide show, even though the actual source was the experimenter's statement after the slide show. The following experiment by Stephen Lindsay investigated source monitoring and MPI by asking whether participants who are exposed to MPI really believe they saw something that was only suggested to them. The answer to this question would be "yes" if the participant is making a source monitoring error

What type of coding is predominant in WM/STM? LTM?

Auditory and visual are most prominent in WM/STM; Semantic coding is the predominant type of coding

What is classical conditioning? Why is it a form of implicit memory?

Classical conditioning occurs when the following two stimuli are paired: (1) a neutral stimulus that initially does not result in a response and (2) a conditioning stimulus that does result in a response. An example of classical conditioning from the laboratory is presenting a tone to a person followed by a puff or air to the eye that causes the person to blink. The tone initially does not cause an eye-blink, but after a number of pairings with the puff of air, the tone alone causes an eye-blink; This is implicit memory because it can occur even if the person has forgotten about the original pairing of the tone and air puff

What is coding?

Coding refers to the way information is represented

What are the different types of inference, and what is their relation to coherence?

Coherence can be created by a number of different types of inference. Anaphoric Inference - inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence are called anaphoric inferences. For example, consider the following: 'Riffifi the famous poodle, won the dog show. She has now won the last three shows she has entered'. Anaphoric inference occurs when we infer that She at the beginning of the second sentence and the other she near the end both refer to Riffifi. Instrument Inference - inferences about tools or methods are instrument inferences. For example, when we read the sentence "William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet while he was sitting at his desk," we infer from what we know about the time Shakespeare lived that he was probably using a quill pen (not a laptop computer!) and that his desk was made of wood. Causal Inference - inferences that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence are causal inferences. For example, when we read the sentences 'Sharon took an aspirin. Her headache went away.' we infer that taking the aspirin caused the headache to go away. This is an example of a fairly obvious inference that most people in our culture would make based on their knowledge about headaches and aspirin

What is coherence? What is Inference?

Coherence is the representation of the text in a person's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text; Inference is determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text

What is the confirmation bias? Describe Wason's experiment on sequences of numbers and Lord's experiment on attitudes about capital punishment.

Confirmation Bias is our tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and to overlook information that argues against it.This effect was demonstrated by Wason.... After Wason presented the first set of numbers, 2, 4, and 6, the participants began creating their own sets of three numbers and receiving feedback from Wason. Note that Wason told participants only whether the numbers they proposed fit his rule. The participants did not find out whether their rule was correct until they felt confident enough to actually announce their rule. The most common initial hypothesis was "increasing intervals of two." Because the actual rule was "three numbers in increasing order of magnitude," the rule "increasing intervals of two" is incorrect even though it creates sequences that satisfy Wason's rule. The confirmation bias is so strong that it can affect people's reasoning by causing them to ignore relevant information. Charles Lord and coworkers demonstrated this in an experiment that tested how people's attitudes are affected by exposure to evidence that contradicts those attitudes. By means of a questionnaire, Lord identified one group of participants in favor of capital punishment and another group against it. Each participant was then presented with descriptions of research studies on capital punishment. Some of the studies provided evidence that capital punishment had a deterrent effect on murder; others provided evidence that capital punishment had no deterrent effect. When the participants reacted to the studies, their responses reflected the attitudes they had at the beginning of the experiment. This is the confirmation bias at work - people's prior beliefs caused them to focus only on information that agreed with their beliefs and to disregard information that didn't

Describe the Kremer experiment in which participants rated their expected happiness before gambling and their actual happiness after the results were known.

Deborah Kremer and coworkers did an experiment that compared people's expected emotions with their actual emotions. They gave participants $5 and told them that based on a coin flip they would either win an additional $5 or lose $3. Participants rated their happiness before the experiment started and then predicted how their happiness would change if they won the coin toss. After the coin toss, in which some participants won and some lost, they carried out a filler task for 10 minutes and then rated their happiness. The bars on the right show that the actual effect of losing was substantially less than predicted, but the positive effect of winning was only a little less than predicted. As a result, the positive effect of winning and negative effect of losing were about equal. The results of Kremer's experiment, plus others, show that the inability to correctly predict the emotional outcome of a decision can lead to inefficient decision making

What is deductive reasoning?

Deductive reasoning involves sequences of statements called syllogisms. A syllogism includes two statements, called premises, followed by a third statement, called the conclusion. We can make definite conclusions based on deductive reasoning and probable conclusions based on inductive reasoning

Which of the following is an experimental procedure used to study how attention affects the processing of competing stimuli: (a. Early Selection; b. Filtering; c. Channeling; d. Dichotic listening)?

Dichotic listening

How has the evolutionary approach to cognition been applied to the Wason four-card problem?

Different explanations have been offered for the results of various experiments involving the Wason four-card problem. For example, one proposed alternative to a permission schema is that performance on the Wason task is governed by a built-in cognitive program for detecting cheating. Leda Cosmides and John Tooby are among psychologists who have an evolutionary perspective on cognition. They argue that we can trace many properties of our minds to the evolutionary principles of natural selection. One such characteristic, according to the evolutionary approach, is related to social exchange theory, which states that an important aspect of human behavior is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people. The evolutionary approach proposes that eh Wason problem can be understood in terms of cheating

What is convergent thinking? What is divergent thinking? How are these two types of thinking related to creativity?

Divergent thinking is thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential "solutions" and no "correct" answer; Convergent thinking is thinking that works toward finding a solution to a specific problem that usually has a correct answer; Creativity involves having unique insights and also being able to follow through to transform that insight into a product - be it a work of art, an idea for a scientific experiment, or a commercially viable invention

What are the different types of Explicit memory? Describe them.

EXPLICIT MEMORY: 1) Episodic Memory & 2) Semantic Memory; Episodic Memory involves 'mental time travel' or self-knowing/ remembering. Semantic knowledge involves accessing knowledge about the world that does not have to be tied to remembering a personal experience. It does not involve mental time travel

Distinguish between expected emotions, integral immediate emotions, and incidental immediate emotions.

Emotions can affect decisions in a number of different ways. 1) Expected emotions are emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome. Note that while expected emotion provides information about probable emotional outcomes of a decision, it doesn't involve actually feeling an emotion. Because emotion potentially provides information, this means that expected emotions can be part of a utility approach, because an outcome that results in a positive emotion 2) Immediate emotions are emotions that are experienced at the time a decision is being made. There are two types immediate emotions: "integral emotions" & "incidental emotions". Integral immediate emotions are emotions that are associated with the act of making a decision Incidental immediate emotions are emotions that are unrelated to the decision. Incidental emotions can be caused by a person's general disposition (the person is naturally happy, for example, or something that happened earlier in the day, or reacting to the general environment such as background music being played in a game show or the yells of the game show audience

What is an expert?

Experts are people who by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in the particular field

What are some differences between the way experts and non-experts go about solving problems?

Experts in a particular field usually solve problems faster with a higher success rate than do novices (people who are beginners or who have not had the extensive training of experts); 1) Experts possess more knowledge about their fields 2) Experts' knowledge is organized differently from novices' 3) Experts spend more time analyzing problems

Differentiate 'Explicit memory' from 'Implicit memory'.

Explicit memories are those that can be reported. This means we are consciously aware of them. Implicit memories are those memories that we are not aware of. The content can't be reported

What is the difference between explicit memory and implicit memory? What are the two types of explicit memory? The three types of implicit memory?

Explicit memory consists of episodic memory (memory for personal experiences) and semantic memory (stored knowledge and memory for facts). Both of these types of memory are called explicit, because their contents can be described or reported; Implicit memories are memories that are used without awareness, so the contents of implicit memories cannot be reported. One type of implicit memories that had influenced Cliff's behavior is priming (a change in response to stimulus caused by the precious presentation of the same or a similar stimulus). Another good of implicit memory is procedural memory, also called skill memory, which is memory for doing things. Finally, classical conditioning is another form of implicit memory. Classical conditioning occurs when pairing an initially neutral stimulus with another stimulus results in the neutral stimulus taking on new properties.

What are the different types of Implicit memory? Describe them.

IMPLICIT MEMORY: 1) Procedural memory, 2) Classical Conditioning, 3) Priming; Procedural memory (also skill memory/'muscle memory') is memory for doing things that usually require action. Ex: H.M. got good at Mirror Drawing/ K.C. could stack books/sort in library. Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a conditioning stimulus that does result in a response

What events are associated with the beginning of the modern study of language in the 1950s?

In 1957 B.F. Skinner, the main proponent of behaviorism, published a book called Verbal behavior in which he proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. According to this idea, just as children learn appropriate behavior by being rewarded for "good" behavior and punished for "bad" behavior, children learn language by being rewarded for using correct language and punished (or not rewarded) for using incorrect language In the same year, the linguist Noam Chomsky published a book titled Syntactic Structures in which he proposed that human language is coded in the genes. According to this idea, just as humans are genetically programmed to walk, they are programmed to acquire and use language Chomsky's disagreement with behaviorism led him to publish a scathing review of Skinner's Verbal behavior in 1959. In his review, he presented arguments against the behaviorist idea that language can be explained in terms of reinforcements and without reference to the mind. One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments was that as children learn language, they produce sentences that they have never heard and that have never been reinforced

How was the dichotic listening procedure used to determine how well people can focus on the attended message and how much information can be taken in from the unattended message?

In a dichotic listening experiment, different messages are presented to the two ears. In a selective attention experiment, participants are instructed to pay attention to the message presented to one ear (the attended message), repeating it out loud as they are hearing it, and to ignore the message presented to the other ear (the unattended message). As Cherry's participants shadowed the attended message, the other message was stimulating auditory receptors within the unattended ear. however, when asked what they had heard in the unattended ear, participants could say only that they could tell there was a message and could identify it as a male or female voice. They could not report the content of the message. Other dichotic listening experiments have confirmed this lack of awareness of most of the information being presented to the unattended ear;

What is inductive reasoning, and how is it different from deductive reasoning?

In deductive reasoning, premises are stated as facts, such as "All robins are birds." However, in inductive reasoning, premises are based on observation of one or more specific cases, and we generalize from these cases to a more general conclusion. In inductive reasoning, conclusions are suggested, with varying degrees of certainty, but do not definitely follow from premises. In evaluating inductive arguments, we do not consider validity, as we did for deductive arguments; instead, we decide how strong the argument is. Strong arguments result in conclusions that are more likely to be true, and the weak arguments result in conclusions that are not as likely to be true. Remember that inductive arguments lead to what is probably true, not what is definitely true

What is the Wason four-card problem? Describe the falsification principle.

In the Wason four-card problem, each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other side. Your task is to indicate which cards you would need to turn over to test the following rule: if there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side. When Wason posed this task (abstract task), 53 percent of his participants indicated that the E must be turned over. This is correct because turning over the E directly tests the rule. However, another card needs to be turned over to fully test the rule. Forty-six percent of Wason's participants indicated that in addition to the E, the 4 would need to be turned over. The problem with this answer is that if a vowel is on the other side of the card, this is consistent with the rule, but if a consonant is on the other side, turning over the 4 tells us nothing about the rule, because having a consonant on one side and a vowel on the other does not violate the rule. Only 4 percent of Wason's participants came up with the correct answer - that the second card that needs to be turned over is the 7. Turning over the 7 is important because revealing a vowel would disconfirm the rule; The key to solving the Wason four-card problem is to be aware of the FALSIFICATION PRINCIPLE: To test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule. The only two cards that have the potential to achieve this are the E and the 7. Thus, these are the only two cards that need to be turned over to test the rule

Describe "word naming".

In two groups of words, both with the word 'butter', one group is faster in naming the same word because butter is primed with the word bread because the word 'bread' activates all of the categories associated with bread in your semantic network. The other featuring the word 'butter' has no real connection to any other word in the group, thus the reaction time is not as fast

What is insight, and what is the evidence that insight does, in fact, occur as people are solving a problem?

Insight is the sudden realization of a problem's solution. For Gestalt psychologists, the solution to most of the problems posed by Gestalt psychologists involves suddenly discovering a crucial element that leads to the solution. Janet Metcalfe and David Wiebe did an experiment designed to distinguish between insight problems and noninsight problems. Their starting point was the idea that there should be a basic difference in how participants feel they are progressing toward a solution as they are working on an insight problem versus a noninsight problem. They predicted that participants working on an insight problem, in which the answer appears suddenly, should not be very good at predicting how near they are to a solution. Participants working on a noninsight problem, which involves a more methodical process, would be more likely to know when they are getting closer to the solution. To test the hypothesis, Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants insight problems and noninsight problems and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds as they were working on the problems. Ratings closer to "hot" (7 on a 7-point scale) indicated that they believed they were getting close to a solution; ratings closer to "cold" (1 on a scale) indicated that they felt that they were far from a solution. For the insight problems, warmth ratings remain low at 2 or 3 until just before the problem is solved. In contrast, for the algebra problems (noninsight problems), the ratings gradually increased until the problem was solved.

How has it been shown that suggestion can influence people's memories for early events in their lives?

Ira Hyman, Jr. and coworkers created false memories for long ago events in an experiment in which they contacted the parents of their participants and asked them to provide descriptions of actual events that happened when the participants were children. The experimenters then also created descriptions of false events, ones that never happened,such as a birthday that included a clown and a pizza, and spilling a bowl of punch at a wedding reception. Participants, who as college students were far removed from these childhood experiences, were given some of the information from the parents' descriptions and were told to elaborate on them. They were also given some of the information from the false events and were told to elaborate on them as well. The result was that 20 percent of the false events were "recalled" and described in some detail by the participants. Stephen Lindsay and coworkers did an experiment that used the procedure described above, but with one additional twist. Participants were presented with descriptions of real childhood experiences supplied by their parents and another experience that never occurred. Additionally, Lindsay had one group of participants look at a photograph of their first- or second-grade class as they were being presented with the story about placing the slime toy in the teacher's desk. The result of this experiment was that the group of participants who saw the picture experienced more than twice as many false memories as the group who did not see the picture

Why do we say that understanding a story involves more than adding up the meanings of the sentences that make up the story?

Just as sentences are more than the sum of the meaning of individual words, stories are more than the sum of the meanings of individual sentences. In a well-written story, sentences in one part of the story are related to sentences in other parts of the story. Thus, the reader's task is to use these relationships between sentences to create a coherent, understandable story

What is special about human language? Consider why human language is unique and what it is used for.

Language makes it possible to create new and unique sentences because it has a structure that is (1) hierarchical and (2) governed by rules. The hierarchical nature of language means that it consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units. The rule-based nature of language means that these components can be arranged in certain ways ("What is my cat saying?" is permissible in English), but not in other ways ("Cat my saying is what?" is not). These two properties - a hierarchical structure and rules - endow humans with the ability to go far beyond the fixed calls and signs of animals, to communicate whatever they want to express

Given what we know about the operation of the phonological loop, which of the following word lists would be most difficult for people to retain for 15 seconds (a: BIP, TEK, LIN, MOD, REY; b: SAY, BET, PIN, COW, RUG; c: PIG, DOG, RAT, FOX, HEN; d: MAC, CAN, CAP, MAN, MAP)?

MAC, CAN, CAP, MAN, MAP

What is the analogical paradox? How has analogical problem solving been studied in the real world?

Many real-world examples of analogical problem solving illustrate what Kevin Dunbar has called the analogical paradox: Participants in psychological experiments tend to focus on surface features in analogy problems, whereas people in the real world frequently use deeper, more structural features. Dunbar reached this conclusion by using a technique called in vivo research

What is "chunking", according to Miller?

Miller introduced the concept of "chunking" to describe the fact that small units (like words) can be combined into larger meaninful units, like phrases or even larger units like sentences, paragraphs, or stories. Chunking in terms of meaning increases our ability to hold information in STM/WM. 8-9 unrelated words can increase to 20 words or more when we arrange them in a meaningful sentence

What are some differences between imagery and perception? What have most psychologists concluded about the connection between imagery and perception?

Most psychologists, looking at the behavioral and physiological evidence, have concluded that imagery and perception are closely related and share some (but not all) mechanisms. For example, perception occurs automatically when we look at something, but imagery needs to be generated with some effort. Also perception is stable - it continues as long as you are observing a stimulus - but imagery is fragile - it can vanish without continued effort. Another example of a difference between imagery and perception is that it is harder to manipulate mental images than images that are created perceptually.

What is the utility approach to decisions? What are some examples of situations in which people do not behave to maximize the outcome, as the utility approach proposes?

Much of the early theorizing on decision making was influenced by expected utility theory. This theory is based on the assumption that people are basically rational, so if they have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility. Utility refers to outcomes that achieve a person's goals. But just because it is possible to predict the optimum strategy doesn't mean that people will follow that strategy; Veronica Denes-Raj and Seymour Epstein offered participants the opportunity to earn up to $7 by receiving $1 every time they drew a red jelly bean from a bowl consisting of red and white jelly beans. When given a choice between drawing from a small bowl containing 1 red and 9 white beans (chances of drawing red = 10 percent) or from a larger bowl containing a smaller proportion of red beans (for example, 7 red beans and 93 white beans, chances of drawing red = 7 percent), many participants chose the larger bowl with the less favorable probability. When asked to explain, they reported that even though they knew the probabilities were against them, they somehow felt as if they had a better chance if there were more red beans. A decision of greater consequence is the real-life decision of whether to travel by car or plane. Although it is well known that the odds are far greater of being killed in a car accident than in a plane crash, a decrease in air travel and an increase in driving occurred following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. According to one calculation, the number of Americans who lost their lives on the road by avoiding the risk of flying was higher than the total number of passengers killed on the four hijacked flights

How do the "Recency Effect" and the "Primacy Effect" related to Murdoch's SERIAL POSITION CURVE

Murdoch's Serial Position Curve indicates that memory is better for words at the beginning of the list and at the end of the list than for words in the middle of the curve

Describe Newell and Simon's approach to problem solving, in which "search" plays a central role.

Newell and Simon saw problems in terms of an initial state - conditions at the beginning of the problem - and a goal state - the solution of the problem. Newell and Simon conceived of problem solving as involving a sequence of choices of steps, with each step creating an intermediate state. Thus, a problem starts with an initial state, continues through a number of intermediate states, and finally reaches the goal state. The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem is called the "problem space". According to Newell and Simon, the person has to search the problem space to find a solution, and they proposed that one way to direct the search is to use a strategy called means-end analysis.

What is the capacity of STM, and how is it influenced by chunking?

One measure of the capacity of STM is provided by the digit span. According to measurements of digit span, the average capacity of STM is about 5 to 9 items - about the length of a phone number. More recent measures of STM capacity have set the capacity at about 4 items. These estimates of either 4 items or 5 to 9 items set rather low limits on the capacity of STM. Miller introduced the concept of chunking to describe the fact that small units (like words) can be combined into larger meaningful units, like phrases, or even larger units, like sentences, paragraphs, or stories. Chunking in terms of meaning increases our ability to hold information in STM. We can recall a sequence of 5 to 8 unrelated words, but arranging the words to form a meaningful sentence so that the words become more strongly associated with one another increases the memory span to 20 words or more

Some of the neuropsychological results demonstrate parallels between imagery and perception, and some results do not. How has Behrmann explained these contradictory results?

One way to explain this paradox, according to Behrmann and coworkers, is that the mechanisms of perception and imagery overlap only partially, with the mechanism for perception being located at both lower and higher visual centers and the mechanism for imagery being located at both lower and higher visual centers and the mechanism for imagery being located mainly in higher visual centers. According to this idea, visual perception necessarily involves bottom up processing, which starts when light enters the eye and an image is focused on the retina, and then continues as signals are sent along the visual pathways to the visual cortex and then to higher visual centers. The visual cortex is crucial for perception because it is here that objects begin being analyzed into components like edges and orientation. This information is then sent to higher visual areas, where perception is "assembled" and some top-down processing, which involves a person's prior knowledge, may also be involved. In contrast, imagery originates as a top-down process, in higher brain areas that are responsible for memory. Mental images are therefore "preassembled"; they do not depend on activation of cortical areas, such as the visual cortex, because there is no input that needs to be processed

Balloons used to suspend a speaker in mid air illustrate what role ________________ in memory?

Organization

What is the correct order of levels of processing from most shallow to deepest?

Orthographic (spelling), Phonological, Semantic, Self-referential

Most cognitive psychologists believe that people forget information because?

Other previous or subsequent information interferes with access to the target information

Research on monkeys has shown that the part of the brain most closely associated with WM?

Prefrontal Cortex

What is priming?

Priming occurs when you pair one stimulus (priming stimulus) and it changes the response to a subsequent testing stimulus

Regarding what you've had for dinner, are past dinners you've had an example of 'retroactive' or 'proactive' interference?

Proactive Interference

What is the basic principle behind the Gestalt approach to problem solving?

Problem solving, for the Gestalt psychologists, was about (1) how people represent a problem in their mind and (2) how solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of this representation

What is procedural memory? Describe the mirror drawing experiment and other examples from the chapter. Why is procedural memory considered a form of implicit memory?

Procedural memory is also called skill memory because it is memory for doing things that usually require action. The implicit nature of procedural memory has been demonstrated in amnesia patients who can master a skill without remembering any of the practice that led to this mastery; Mirror drawing, which involves copying a picture that is seen in a mirror. After a number of days of practice, H.M. became quite good at mirror drawing, but each time he did it, he thought he was practicing it for the first time. Jimmy G. could still tie his shoes, and Clive Wearing, who was a professional musician, was able to play the piano. In fact, people who can't form a new long-term memories can still learn new skills. K.C., who had lost his episodic memory because of a motorcycle accident learned how to sort and stack books in the library after his injury.

Describe the "prototype approach".

Prototype Approach to categorization states that membership in a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category

What is psycholinguistics?

Psycholinguistics is the field concerned with the psychological study of language with the goal to discover the psychological processes by which humans acquire and process language;

Conduct an experiment where participants see a number of target letters flashed briefly on a screen and are told to immediately write down the letters in the order they were presented. It is most likely that the target letter "P" will be misidentified as _________________ (L; I; R; or C). (Hint: The phonological loop is a sound loop)

R

Describe Tulving's "Encoding Specificity Principle".

Retrieval from long-term memory is best when original encoding conditions match retrieval conditions

When trying to think of a song you know, but you come up with an alternate song, the other song gets stuck in your head making it difficult to retrieve the desired song. What is this an example of?

Retroactive Interference

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates how effective or ineffective maintenance rehearsal is in transferring information into LTM?

Serena's keys were stolen from her purse. She cannot give a detailed description of her key-chain to the police, even though she used it every day for three years

What are the 3 components of STM/WM? Describe them.

Short-term Memory/Working Memory = 1) phonological loop, 2) Visuospatial sketchpad, 3) Central Executive Phonological Loop holds verbal and auditory information. Visuospatial Sketchpad holds visual and spatial information. The Central Executive pulls information from Long-term memory and coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad by focusing on specific parts of a task

How does the frequency of words (word frequency effect) aid in accessing words?

Some words occur more frequently in a particular language than others. The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words like home than to low-frequency words like hike

Describe Sperling's experiment on the focus of sensory memory capacity.

Sperling flashed an array of letters on the screen for 50 ms and asked his participants to report as many letters as possible. a) Whole Report: saw all 12 letters at once and reported as many as he could b) Partial Report: person saw all 12 letters as before, but immediately after they were turned off, a tone indicated which row they were to report c) Delayed Partial Report: Same as partial report but with a short delay between extingusing of the letters and presentation of tone Same results roughly for all manners o report. Sperling concluded from these results that a short lived sensory memory registers all or most of the information that hits our visual receptors, but that this information decays within less than 15 seconds

What can we conclude from all of the experiments on the Wason problem?

Stating the four-card problem in terms of familiar situations can often generate better reasoning than abstract statements or statements that people cannot relate to. However, familiarity is not always necessary for conditional reasoning, and situations have also been devised in which people's performance is not improved, even in familiar situations

What is the "Primacy Effect"? Explain.

Superior memory for stimuli presented at the beginning of a sequence is called the primary effect. Explanation for this is that people had time to rehearse the words and transfer them to LTM.

What is the "Recency Effect"? Explain.

Superior memory for stimuli presented at the end of a sequence is called the 'recency effect'. An explanation for this effect asserts this occurs because these are still in WM/STM.

How can failure to take into account base rates and small sample sizes cause errors in reasoning?

The Law of large numbers states that the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population. Conversely, samples of small numbers of individuals will be less representative of the population. Thus, in the hospital problem it is more likely that the percentage of boys born on any given day will be near 50 percent in the large hospital and farther from 50 percent in the small hospital. People often assume that representativeness holds for small samples, and this results in errors in reasoning

Describe the "Phonological Similarity Effect".

The PHONOLOGICAL SIMILARITY EFFECT is the confusion of letters or words that sound similar

Describe the 'Word Length Effect'.

The WORD LENGTH EFFECT occurs when memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words This is because it takes longer to rehears the long words and to produce them during recall

Marcus is talking on the phone to his mother when a garbage truck drives by. As a result, he is unable to hear what his mom is saying for a few seconds. Which of the following is LEAST likely to help him figure out what his mother said? (hint: keep in mind the duration)

The fact that our minds fill in missing words, which is called the phonemic restoration effect

What is the flanker compatibility task? How have experiments using this task shown how attention is affected by load and by the nature of task-irrelevant stimuli? Be sure you understand the explanation for the relation between load, cognitive capacity, and whether task-irrelevant stimuli are processed.

The flanker compatibility task is a task in which participants are told to carry out a task that requires them to focus their attention on specific stimuli and to ignore other stimuli. The flankers are associated with the same response as the target. These flankers are therefore called compatible flankers. Those flankers that are associated with a different response than the target are called incompatible flankers. Because pushing a key in response to an easily visible target is easy, this task wouldn't use all of a person's cognitive resources, so some cognitive resources would remain available. If this is so, we would expect that the flanker stimuli will be processed even if the participant doesn't intend to process them. When participants try to respond to the target as quickly as possible, they typically respond more slowly when incompatible flankers are present than when neutral flankers or compatible flankers are present. This occurs because the incompatible flanker elicits a response that is different from the one that is required for the target and therefore competes with the response that the participant is supposed to make to the target. The fact that the flanker has this effect demonstrates that even though participants were told to ignore the flankers, they still processed information from them. The results of experiments for these two conditions indicate that the incompatible flanker causes a slower response in the low-load condition but has no effect in the high-load condition. Because cognitive resources are available, the incompatible flankers intrude and cause slower responding. The high-load condition corresponds to Figure 4.7b. Because no cognitive resources are available, the incompatible flankers have no effect.

What are the major concerns of psycholinguistics?

The four major concerns of psycholinguistics are as follows: 1) Comprehension: How do people understand spoken and written language 2) Speech Production: How do people produce language 3) Representation: How is language represented in the mind and in the brain? 4) Acquisition: How do people learn language?

What is 'Echoic Memory'? What is 'Iconic Memory'?

The persistence of sound in the mind is called 'Echoic memory'; Brief sensory memory for visual stimuli is called 'Iconic Memory'

What is encoding specificity? Describe Godden and Baddeley's "diving" experiment and Grant's studying experiment. What does each one illustrate about encoding specificity? About cued recall?

The principle of encoding specificity states that we encode information along with its context; A classic experiment that demonstrates encoding specificity is D.R. Godden and Alan Baddeley's "diving experiment." in this experiment, one group of participants put on diving equipment and studied a list of words underwater, and another group studied the words on land. These groups were then divided, so half of the participants in the land and water groups were tested for recall on land and half were tested underwater. The results, indicate that the best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location. This conclusion about studying is supported by an experiment by Harry Grant and coworkers. Participants read an article on psychoimmunology while wearing headphones. The participants in the "silent" condition heard nothing in the headphones. Participants in the "noisy" condition heard a tape of background noise recorded during lunchtime in a university cafeteria (which they were told to ignore). half the participants in each group were then given a short-answer test on the article under the silent condition, and the other half were tested under the noisy condition. The results indicate that participants did better when the testing condition matched the study condition

How does means-end analysis as applied to the Tower of Hanoi problem illustrate Newell and Simon's approach to problem solving?

The problem apace for the Tower of Hanoi starts with the initial state, marked 1 and the goal state marked 8. All of the other possible configurations of discs on pegs are intermediate states. From the diagram, you can see that there are a number of possible paths from getting from the initial state to the goal state, but that one of these paths is shorter than others. By choosing the path along the right side of the problem space (states 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7), it is possible to reach the goal state by making just seen moves. Our overall goal in applying means-end analysis to the Tower of Hanoi problem is to reduce the size of the difference between initial and goal states. An initial goal would be to move the large disc that is on the left over to the peg on the right. However, if we are to obey the rules, we can't accomplish this in just one step, because we can move only one disc at a time and can't move a disc if another is on top of it. To solve the problem we therefore set a series of subgoals, some of which may involve a few moves.

Which experimental result caused problems for Broadbent's filter model of selective attention?

The result of the "Dear Aunt Jane" experiment

A researcher asks a participant to memorize a city map. On the map, the library and the school are 2 inches apart; the school and the hospital are 4 inches apart. The researcher now instructs the participant to form an image of the map and to scan from the library to the school. The researcher then asks the participant to scan from the school to the hospital. Which of the following is MOST likely to be true?

The scanning tie from the school to the hospital is double the scanning time between the library and the school

What is the basic idea behind the semantic network approach? What is the goal of this approach, and how did the network created by Collins and Quillan accomplish this goal?

The semantic network approach proposes that concepts are arranged in networks. One of the first semantic network models was based on the pioneering work of Ross Quillian, whose goal was to develop a computer model of human memory. The network consists of nodes that are connected by links. Each node represents a category or concept, and concepts are placed in the network so that related concepts are connected. In addition, properties associated with each concept are indicated at the nodes. The links connecting the nodes indicate that they are related to each other in the mind. It is a hiearchical model because it constists of levels arranged so that more specific concepts, such as "canary" and "salmon," are at the bottom, and more general concepts are at higher levels. We can illustrate how this network works, and how it proposes that knowledge about concepts is organized in the mind, by considering how we would retrieve the about concepts is organized in the mind, by considering how we would retrieve the properties of canaries from the network. At this node, we obtain the infromation that a canary can sing and is yellow. To access more infromation about "canary," we move up the link and learn that a canary is a bird and that a bird has wings, can fly, and has feathers. We can cask how accurately Collins and Qullian's model represents how concepts are organized in the mind. The beauty of the network's hierarchical organization, in which genral concepts are at the top and specific ones are at the botom, is that it results in the testable prediction that the time it takes for a person to retrieve infromation about a concept should be deterined by the distance that must be traveled through the network. Thus, the model predicts that when using the sentence verification technique, in which participants are asked to answer "yes" or "no" to statements about concepts, it should take longer to answer "yes" to the statement "A canary is an animal" than to "A canary is a bird." Another property of the theory, which leads to further predictions, is spreading activation. Spreading activation is activity that spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node. But according to the idea of spreading activation, this activation also spreads to other nodes in the network, as indicated by the dashed lines.

Describe Atkinson & Shiffrin's Modal Model of Memory.

The stages in the model are called the structural features of the model. There are 3 major structural features: 1) Sensory Memory (an initial state that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second), 2) STM/WM (holds 5-7 items for about 15-30 seconds), 3) Long-Term memory (can hold a large amount of information or years or even decades)

Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin's modal model of memory, in terms of both its structure (the boxes connected by arrows) and the control processes.

The stages in the model are called the structural features of the model. There are three major structural features: 1) sensory memory (an initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second) 2) short-term memory (holds 5-7 items for about 15-30 seconds) 3) long-term memory (can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades). Atkinson and Shiffrin also described the memory system as including control processes. Examples include (1) strategies you might use to help make a stimulus more memorable, such as relating the numbers in a phone number to a familiar date in history, and (2) strategies of attention that help you focus on information that is particularly important or interesting

Describe the syntax-first explanation and the interactionist explanation of parsing. What are the roles of syntax and semantics in each explanation? What evidence supports the interactionist approach?

The syntax-first approach to parsing focuses on how parsing is determined by syntax - the grammatical structure of the sentence. The syntax-first approach states that the parsing mechanism groups phrases together based on structural principles. One of these principles is called late closure. The principle of late closure states that when a person encounters a new word, the person's parsing mechanism assumes that his word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible. The Interactionist approach to parsing proposes that all information, both syntactic and semantic, is taken into account simultaneously as we read or listen to a sentence, so any corrections that need to occur take place as the sentence is unfolding;

What are the two components of words?

The two smallest units of language are defined not in terms of letters, but by sounds and meanings. The two smallest units of language are 1) phonemes & 2) morphemes. A phoneme is the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word. Thus the word bit contains the phonemes /b/,/i/, and /t/t (phonemes are indicated by phonetic symbols that are set off with slashes), because we can change bit into pit by replacing /b/ with /p/, to bat by replacing /i/ with /a/, or to bid by replacing /t/ with /d/ Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have a definable meaning or a grammatical function. For example, "truck" consists of a number of phonemes, but only one morpheme, because none of the components that create the word truck mean anything. In contrast, "bedroom" has two syllables and two morphemes, "bed" and "room." Endings such as "s" and "ed," which contribute to the meaning of a word, are morphemes.

According to Treisman's "attenuation model," which of the following would you expect to have the highest threshold for most people (The word "house"; Their spouse's first name; The word "platypus"; The word "fire")?

The word "platypus"

What is the word superiority effect?

The word superiority effect refers to the finding that letters are easier to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a non-word. This effect was first demonstrated by G.M. Reicher in 1969 using the following procedure. When Reicher's participants were asked to choose which of the two letters they had seen in the original stimulus, they did so more quickly and accurately when the letter had been part of a word, than when the letter had been presented alone, or as part of a non-word. This more rapid processing of letters within a word - the word superiority effect - means that letters in words are not processed one by one but that each letter is affected by its surroundings

Matt is shown two complex three-dimensional images (A and B) and asked to determine if the images are identical. The images are aligned in different planes, so answering the question requires mentally rotating one of the images. Which of the following statements about Matt's task is TRUE? (a: the larger the required rotation, the faster responding will be; b: the smaller the required rotation, the slower responding will be; c: the time it takes will be the same, regardless of the required rotation; d: there is a systematic correlation between the required rotation and reaction time)?

There is a systematic correlation between the required rotation and reaction time

What is some evidence that incidental emotions affect decisions? Consider the relationship between the weather and university admissions, and Lerner's experiment on the relationship between mood and setting buying and selling prices.

There is evidence that decision makings is affected by these incidental emotions, even though they are not directly related to the decision. An example of how emotions can affect the economic decisions of establishing selling and buying prices is provided in a study by Jennifer Lerner and coworkers. Participants viewed one of three film clips, calculated to elicit emotions: (1) a person dying (sadness); (2) a person using a dirty toilet (disgust); and (3) fish at the Great Barrier Reef (neutral). Lerner and coworkers then gave participants a highlighter set and determined (1) the price for which participants would be willing to sell the set (sell condition) and (2) the price at which they would be willing to choose the set instead of accepting the money (choice condition). The choice condition is roughly equivalent to setting the price they would pay for it. The proposed reasons behind setting buying and selling prices are hypothetical at this point, but whatever the reasons, this study and others support the idea that a person's mood can influence economic decisions

What is the Stroop effect? What does this demonstrate about how the nature of a task-irrelevant stimulus can affect attention?

This effect occurs because the names of the words cause a competing response (just as in the incompatible condition in the flanker compatibility task) and therefore slow responding to the target - the color of the ink. In the Stroop effect the task-irrelevant stimuli are extremely powerful, because reading words is highly practiced and has become so automatic that it is difficult not to read them

What is the cocktail party effect, and what does it demonstrate?

This phenomenon, in which a person is selectively listening to one message among many yet hears his or her name or some other distinctive message such as "Fire!" that is not being attended, is called the cocktail party effect. Moray's participants had recognized their names even though, according to Broadbent's theory, the filter is supposed to let through only one message, based on its physical characteristics. Clearly, the person's name had not been filtered out and, most important, it had been analyzed enough to determine its meaning

Describe Sanfey and coworkers' (2003) experiment, and indicate what it adds to our understanding of decision making.

To illustrate the neuroeconomic approach, we will describe an experiment by Alan Sanfey and coworkers in which people's brain activity was measured as they played the ultimatum game. The ultimatum game is very simple. Two people play. One is designated as the proposer and the other as the responder. The proposer is given a sum of money, say $10, and makes an offer to the responder as to how this money should be split between them. If the responder accepts the offer, then the money is split according to the proposal. If the responder rejects the offer, neither player receives anything. Either way, the game is over after the responder makes his or her decision. According to utility theory, the responder should accept the proposer's offer, no matter what it is. This is the rational response, because if you accept the offer you get something, but if you refuse, you get nothing. In Sanfey's experiment, participants played 20 separate games as responder: 10 with 10 different human partners and 10 with a computer partner

According to the model of working memory, which of the following mental tasks should LEAST adversely affect people's driving performance while operating a car along an unfamiliar, winding road (A: "trying to imagine how many cabinets are in their kitchen; B: "trying to remember a map of the area; C: "trying to remember the definition of a word they just learned; D: "trying to imagine a portrait from a recent museum exhibit)

Trying to remember the definition of a word they just learned

What did Brooks' "F" task demonstrate?

Visuospatial pad can be disrupted by interference. Visualize Block Letter 'F' then point to the outer corners of the letter. Task 2 is to visualize block letter 'F' again, but this time say 'out' or 'in' instead of pointing to out or in corners. Pointing task more difficult because visualizing and pointing are both visual tasks

Describe "fragment completion".

We are more likely to fill fragments in with something that has a boost in spreading activation

Make a list of the important events in the history of the study of imagery in psychology, from the imageless thought debate of the 1800s to the studies of imagery that occurred early in the cognitive revolution in the 1960s

We can trace the history of imagery back to the first laboratory of psychology, founded by Wilhelm Wundt. 1) Wundt proposed that images were one of the three basic elements of consciousness, along with sensations and feelings. He also proposed that because images accompany thought, studying images was a way of studying thinking, which gave rise to the "imageless thought debate" 2) Evidence supporting the idea that imagery as not required for thinking was Francis Galton's observation that people who had great difficulty forming visual images were still quite capable of thinking. 3) arguments and counterarguments regarding imageless thought debate ended when behaviorism toppled imagery from its central place in psychology. The founder of behaviorism, John Watson, described images as "unproven" and "mythological", and therefore not worthy of study. The dominance of behaviorism from the 1920s through the 1950s pushed the study of imagery out of mainstream psychology. However, this situation changed when the study of cognition was reborn in the 1950s. 4) One of the keys to the success of this revolution was that cognitive psychologists developed ways to measure that could be used to infer cognitive processes. One example of a method that linked behavior and cognition is Alan Paivio's work on memory. Paivio showed that it was easier to remember concrete nouns, like truck or tree, that can be imaged, than it is to remember abstract nouns, like truth or justice, that are difficult to image. One technique Paivio used was 'paired associate learning'. Paivio found that memory for pairs of concrete nouns is much better than memory for pairs of abstract nouns. To explain this result, Paivio proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, concrete nouns create images that other words can "hang onto." Whereas Paivio inferred cognitive processes by measuring memory, Roger Shepard and J. Metzler inferred cognitive processes by using mental chronometry, determining the amount of time needed to carry out various cognitive tasks. In Shepard and Metzler's experiment, participants saw pictures with their task was to indicate, as rapidly as possible, whether the two pictures were of the same object or of different objects. This experiment showed that the time it took to decide that two views were of the same object was directly related to how different the angles were between the two views. This result was interpreted as showing that participants were mentally rotating one of the views to see whether it matched the other one.

How is inductive reasoning involved in everyday experience?

We often use inductive reasoning in everyday life, usually without even realizing it. Thus, anytime we make a prediction about what will happen based on our observations about what has happened in the past, we are using inductive reasoning

How do we know that information outside of awareness is "active"?

We utilize indirect memory tasks that measure priming

Distinguish between well-defined and ill-defined problems.

Well-defined problems usually have a correct answer; certain procedures, when applied correctly, will lead to a solution. Ill-defined problems, which occur frequently in everyday life, do not necessarily have one "correct" answer, and the path to their solution is often unclear

Evidence for the role of top-down processing in perception is shown by which of the following examples?

When someone accurately identifies a word in a song on a radio broadcast despite static interfering with reception

How are episodic and semantic memory distinguished from each other?

When we say that episodic memory is memory for events and semantic memory is memory for facts, we are distinguishing between these two types of memory based on the types of information remembered. Endel Tulving has suggested, however, that episodic and semantic memory can also be distinguished based on the type of experience associated with each. The defining property of the experience of episodic memory is that it involves mental time travel. Tulving describes this experience of mental time travel/episodic memory as self-knowing or remembering. In contrast to the mental time travel property of episodic memory, the experience of semantic memory involves accessing knowledge about the world that does not have to be tied to remembering a personal experience. This knowledge can be things like facts, vocabulary, numbers, and concepts. When we experience semantic memory, we are not traveling back to a specific event from our past, but we are accessing things we are familiar with and know about. Tulving describes the experience of semantic memory as knowing, with the idea that knowing does not involve mental time travel

Describe how each part of the Modal model comes into play when you decide you want to order pizza but can't remember the pizzeria's phone number.

When you want to order pizza, you first look at the screen, all of the information that enters you eyes is registered in sensory memory. You then use the control process of selective attention to focus on the number for whatever pizza restaurant your ordering from, which enters short-term memory and you use the control process of rehearsal to keep it there. Knowing you'll want to use the number again later, you decide that in addition to storing the number in your cell phone, you are going to memorize the umber so it will be stored in your mind. The process you use to memorize the number transfers the number into long-term memory, where it is stored. The process of storing the number in long-term memory is called encoding. A few days later, when one has an urge for pizza, they remember the number. This process of remembering information that is stored in long-term memory is called retrieval.

How does Swinney's experiment about "bugs" indicate that the meanings of ambiguous words can take precedence over context, at least for a short time? Be sure you understand lexical ambiguity and lexical priming.

Words can often have more than one meaning, a situation called lexical ambiguity. For example, the word bug can refer to insects, or hidden listening devices, or being annoyed, among other things. When ambiguous words appear in a sentence, we usually use the context of the sentence to determine which definition applies. However, David Swinney showed that people briefly access multiple meanings of ambiguous words before the effect of context takes over. He did this by presenting participants with a tape recording of sentences such as the following: "rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. the man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room". If you had to predict which meaning listeners would use for bugs in this sentence, insect would be the logical choice because the sentence mentions spiders and roaches. However, using a technique called lexical priming, Swinney found that right after the word bug was presented, his listeners had accessed two meanings. Swinney used lexical priming by presenting the passage about the government building to participants and, as they were hearing the word bug, presenting a word or a non-word on a screen. The words he presented were either related to the "insect" meaning of bug (ant), related to the "hidden listening device" meaning (spy), or not related at all (sky). The participant was told to indicate as quickly as possible whether the item flashed on the screen was a word or a non-word. Swinney's result was that participants responded with nearly the same speed to both ant and spy and the response to both of these words was significantly faster than the response to sky. This faster responding to words associated with two of the meanings of bug means that even though there is information in the sentence indicating that bug is an insect, listeners accessed both the "listening device" and "insect" meanings of bug as it was being presented. This effect was short-lived, however. The effect vanished when Swinney repeated the same test but, instead of presenting the word or non-word simultaneously with bug, waited about 200 ms before presenting the test words. Thus, within about 200 ms after hearing bug, the "insect" meaning had been selected from the ones initially activated. Context does, therefore, help determine the appropriate meaning of a word in a sentence, but it exerts its influence after a slight delay during which other meanings of a word are briefly accessed

Why do we say that there is more to understanding a sentence than simply adding up the meaning of the words that make up the sentence?

Words rarely appear in isolation. They appear together in sentences in which all of the words combine to create meaning. To understand how words work together to create the meaning of a sentence, we first need to distinguish between two properties of sentences: semantics and syntax. Semantics is the meaning of words and sentences; syntax specifies the rules for combining words into sentences

A specific persons face is represented in the nervous system by the firing of _______________________

a group of neurons each responding to a number of different faces

Ill-defined problems are so named because it is difficult to specify ______________ for the problems

a single correct answer

The technique of transcranial magnetic stimulation employs strong magnetic pulses at a particular site on the scalp. When it is used on the scalp near Area V1, the effect is _________________________

a temporary disruption of vision and visual imagery

Describe the following examples of situations that involved source monitoring errors: (a) familiarity (becoming famous experiment); (b) schemas and scripts (office experiment; dentist experiment); (c) false recall and recognition ("sleep" experiment).

a) An experiment by Larry Jacoby and coworkers demonstrates an effect of source monitoring errors by testing participants' ability to distinguish between famous and non-famous names. In the acquisition part of the experiment, Jacoby had participants read a number of made-up non-famous names like Sebastian Weissdorf and Valerie Marsh. In the immediate test, which was presented right after the participants saw the list of non-famous names, participants were told to pick out the names of famous people from a list containing (1) the non-famous names they had just seen, (2) new non-famous names that they had never seen before, and (3) famous names that many people might have recognized during that time period. Because the test was given shortly after the participants had seen the first list of non-famous names, they correctly identified most of the old non-famous names as being non-famous. The interesting result occurred in the delayed test, which happened 24 hours later. When tested on the same list of names a day later, participants were more likely to identify the old non-famous names as being famous. Apparently, some of Jacoby's participants decided that the familiarity was caused by fame, so the previously unknown Sebastian Weissdorf became famous! b) A schema is a person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment. We develop schemas through our experiences in different situations, such as visiting a post office, going to a ball game, or listening to lectures in a classroom. In an experiment that studied how memory is influenced by people's schemas about offices, participants were seated in an office waiting to be in an experiment. When the participants were called into another room, they were told that the experiment was actually a memory experiment, and their task was to write down what they had seen while they were sitting in the office. The participants responded by writing down many of the things they remembered seeing, but they also included some things that were not there but that fit into their "office schema." Thus, the information in schemas can provide a guide for making inferences about what we remember. A script is our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occur during a particular experience. Scripts can influence our memory by setting up expectations about what usually happens in a particular situation. To test the influence of scripts, Gordon Bowers and coworkers did an experiment in which participants were asked to remember short passages. The participants read a number of passages, all of which were about familiar activities such as going to the dentist, going swimming, or going to a party. After a delay period, the participants were given the titles of the stories they had read and were told to write down what they remembered about each story as accurately as possible. The participants created stories that included much material that matched the original stories, but they also included material that wasn't presented in the original story but is part of the script for the activity described. c) Remembering sleep is a false memory because it isn't on the list. This false memory occurs because people associate sleep with other words on the list. This is similar to the effect of schemas, in which people create false memories for office furnishings that aren't present because they associate these office furnishings with what is usually found in offices. Again, constructive processes have created an error in memory.

Describe how differences between STM/WM and LTM have been demonstrated based on (a) the serial position curve, (b) neuropsychological evidence, and (c) differences in coding

a) Murdoch's serial position curve indicates that memory is better for words at the beginning of the list and at the end of the list than for words in the middle. Superior memory for stimuli presented at the beginning of a sequence is called the primacy effect. A possible explanation of the primacy effect is that participants had time to rehearse these words and transfer them to LTM. Superior memory for stimuli presented at the end of a sequence is called the recency effect. One possible explanation for the better memory for sorxs ag the end of fbd most is that ghe most recently presented words are still in STM. b) Clive Wearing has a functioning STM, as indicated by his ability to remember what has happened to him for the most recent 30 seconds, but is unable to form new LTMs. Another case of functioning STM but absent LTM is the case of H.M. His operation eliminated his seizures, but unfortunately also eliminated his ability to form new LTMs. Thus, the outcome of H.M.'s case is similar to that of Clive Wearinf and Mr. G, except that Clive Wearing's brain damage was caused by disease, Mr. G's by Vitamin deficiency, and H.M.'s by surgery. There are also people, such as patient K.F., with the opposite problem: normal LTM but poor STM. K.F.'s problem with STM was indicated by a reduced digit span. Even though K.F.'s STM was greatly impaired, she had a functioning LTM, as indicated by her ability to form and hold new memories of events in her life. Some brain imaging experiments have demonstrated activation of different areas of the brain for STM and LTM. The results indicated that probe words that were from the beginning of the list activated areas of the brain associated with both long-term memory and short-term memory. It would be expected that both areas would be activated because words at the beginning of the list would be in long-term memory and would then he transferred into STM when they were being recalled. In contrast, probe words from the end of the list only activated areas of the brain associated with short-term memory. c) auditory, visual, and semantic coding can occur for STM (with auditory and visual coding being the most prominent). LTM can involve each of these types of coding. For example, you use visual coding in LTM when you recognize someone based on his ID had appearance, auditory coding when you recognize a person based on the sound of his or her voice, and semantic coding when you remember the general gist or meaning of something that happened in the past. Although all three types of coding can occur in LTM, semantic coding is the predominant type of coding in LTM

Describe how experiments using the following physiological techniques have provided evidence of parallels between imagery and perception: (a) brain imaging; (b) deactivation of part of the brain; (c) neuropsychology; and (d) recording from single neurons

a) One of the early brain imaging experiments to study imagery was carried out by LeBihan and coworkers, who demonstrated that both perception and imagery activate the visual cortex. Activity in the striate cortex increased both when a person observed presentations of actual visual stimuli (marked "Perception") and when the person was imagining the stimulus ("Imagery"). Results of Ganis's experiment shows activation at three different locations in the brain Figure 10.15a shows activation in the frontal lobe for perception and imagery in the two center columns, and for the difference between perception and imagery in the right column. The absence of color in the right column indicates there is no difference between the activation caused by perception and by imagery. The same result also occurs for activation further back in the brain (Figure 10.15b). However, in Figure 10.15c, which shows activity nearer the back of the brain, the color in the far right column indicates that some areas responds more for perception than for imagery. This greater activity for perception isn't surprising because this is the location of the visual receiving area, where signals from the retina first reach the cortex. Thus, there is almost complete overlap of the activation caused by perception and imagery in the front of the brain, but some differences near the back of the brain. b) Other experiments have also concluded that there are similarities but some differences between brain activation for perception and imagery. For example an fMRI experiment by Amir Amedi and coworkers showed overlap, but also found that when participants were creating images using visual imagery, some areas associated with non-visual areas such as hearing and touch were deactivated. That is, during imagery, their activation was decreased. Amedi suggests that the reason for this might be that visual mental images are more fragile than real perception, so this deactivation helps quiet down irrelevant activity that might interfere with the mental image. Giorgio Ganis and coworkers used fMRI to measure activation under two conditions, perception and imagery. For the perception condition, participants observed a drawing of an object. For the imagery condition, participants were told to imagine a picture that they had studied before, when they heard a tone. For both the perception and imagery tasks, participants had to answer a question such as "Is the object wider than it is tall?" c) Patient M.G.S. was a young woman who was about to have part of her right occipital lobe removed as treatment for a severe case of epilepsy. Before the operation, Martha Farah and coworkers had M.G.S. perform the mental walk task in which she imagined walking toward an animal and estimated how close she was when the image began to overflow her visual field. Before the operation, M.G.S. felt she was about 15 feet from an imaginary horse before its image overflowed. But when Farah had her repeat this task after her right occipital lobe had been removed, the distance increased to 35 feet. This occurred because removing part of the visual cortex reduced the size of her field of view, so the horse filled up the field when she was farther away. This result supports the idea that the visual cortex is important for imagery. A large number of cases have been studied in which a patient with brain damage has a perceptual problem and also has a similar problem in creating images. Damage to the parietal lobes can cause a condition called unilateral neglect, in which the patient ignores objects in one half of the visual field, even to the extent of shaving just one side of his face, or eating only the food on one side of her plate. E. Bisiach and G. Luzzatti tested the imagery of a patient with unilateral neglect by asking him to described things he saw when imagining himself standing at one end of the Piazza del Duomo in Milan, a place with which he had been familiar before his brain was damaged. The patient's responses showed that he neglected the left side of his mental image, just as he neglected the left side of his perceptions. Thus, when he imagined himself standing at A, he neglected the left side and named only objects to his right (small a's). When he imagined himself standing at B, he continued to neglect the left side, again naming only objects on his right (small b's). C. Guariglia and coworkers studied a patient whose brain damage had little effect on his ability to perceive but caused neglect in his mental images (his mental images were limited to just one side). Another case of normal perception but impaired imagery is the case of R.M., who had suffered damage to his occipital and parietal lobes. R.M. was able to recognize objects and to draw accurate pictures of objects that were placed before him. However, he was unable to draw objects from memory, a task that requires imagery. he also had trouble answering questions that depend on imagery, such as verifying whether the sentence "A grapefruit is larger than an orange" is correct. Marlene Behrmann and coworkers studied C.K., a 33-year old graduate student who was struck by a car as he was jogging. C.K. suffered from visual agnosia, the inability to visually recognize objects. Thus, he labeled the pictures as a "feather duster" (the dart), a "fencer's mask" (the tennis racquet), and a "rose twig with thorns" (the asparagus). These results show that C.K. cold recognize parts of objects but couldn't integrate them into a meaningful whole. But despite his inability to name pictures of objects, C.K. was able to draw objects from memory in rich detail, a task that depends on imagery. d) Studies in which activity is recorded from single neurons in humans are rare. But Gabriel Kreiman and coworkers were able to study patients who had electrodes implanted in various areas in their medial temporal lobe in order to determine the source of severe epileptic seizures that could not be controlled by medication. They found neurons that responded to some objects but not to others. For example, the records show a particular neuron that responds to a picture of a baseball, but does not respond to a picture of a face. not only does this neuron respond to seeing baseballs but not faces, it also fires to baseballs and not faces when the person closes his eyes and imagines a baseball (good firing) or a face (no firing). Kreiman calls these neurons imagery neurons. What's especially significant about these imagery neurons is that they respond both to perceiving an object and to imagining it.

The results of Gauthier's "Greeble" experiment illustrate ______________________

an effect of experience-dependent plasticity

The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of ______________ in problem solving

analogy

Have you ever tried to think of the words and hum the melody of one song while the radio is playing a different song? People have often noted that this is very difficult to do. This difficulty can be understood as ___________________

articulatory suppression

According to levels of processing theory, deep processing results in better memory. however, studies have shown that shallow processing can result in better memory when the individual encodes ________________ and is tested __________________

auditorially; auditorially

In which neurological disorder might mirror neurons be most likely to be implicated as a potential cause of the disorder?

autism

The typical purpose of subgoals is to __________________

bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state

If participants are asked to imagine an object, such as a dog, information that will be prominent in the mental image ____________________________ (hint: concerned about the image that you bring to mind)?

corresponds well with the information that is prominent in an actual picture

Neurons receive information from other neurons through the: ________________

dendrites

When recording from a single neuron, stimulus intensity is represented in a single neuron by the _____________________

firing rate of the action potentials

Convergent thinking ___________________ (is open ended; has a large number of potential solutions; has no correct answer; has a correct answer)

has a correct answer

A difference between a heuristic and an algorithm is _________________

heuristics do not result in correct solution every time as algorithms do

Divergent thinking is most closely associated with ________________ problems (ill defined; well-defined; source; or target)

ill-defined

Shepard and Metzler's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated __________________________

imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms

According to your text, imagery enhances memory because ________________________

imagery can be used to create connections between items to be remembered

It is difficult to apply means-end analysis to an insight problem because it is difficult to define _______________ for an insight problem

intermediate states

A high threshold in Treisman's model of attention implies that ___________________________

it takes a strong signal to cause activation

The solution to the candle problem involves realizing that the ________________

match box can be used as a shelf

The main difference between early and late selection models of attention is that in late selection models, selection of stimuli for final processing doesn't occur until the information is analyzed for ___________________

meaning

Some neurons respond when we watch someone else do something. These are known as _____________________

mirror neurons

The smallest units of language that carry meaning are called _____________________?

morphemes

In ordinary speech production, the boundaries between syllables or between words are usually ______________________________ (hint: related to speech segmentation)

not marked, so they must be determined by the perceiver

To reduce the likelihood of design fixation when completing a creative design task, you should _____________________. (Hint: when choices are limited then creativity goes down)

not present a sample design

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n) _________________

novel object (new object)

The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT ________________

operators

The story in the text about the balloons that were used to suspend a speaker in mid air was used to illustrate the role of ______________ in memory

organization

Speech segmentation is defined as ______________________

organizing the sounds of speech into individual words

A 10-month-old baby is interested in discovering different textures, comparing the touch sensations between a soft blanket and a hard wooden block. Tactile signals such as these are received by the ____________ lobe

parietal

Research on monkeys has shown that the part of the brain most closely associated with working memory is the _________________

prefrontal cortex

The fusiform face area (FFA) in the brain is often damaged in patients with _________________

prosopagnosia

Information remains in sensory memory for ___________________

seconds or a fraction of a second

If you remember something in terms of its meaning, the type of encoding you are using is _____________________

semantic

What type of coding is not characteristic of WM/STM?

semantic coding

The three structural components of the modal model of memory are ___________________

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

The code for short-term memory is most commonly based on the _________________ of the stimulus

sound

The process of "slicing" the stream of speech into successive syllables or words is called _____________________?

speech segmentation

Experts _____________ than novices

take a more effective approach to a problem

Broadbent's model is called an early selection model because __________________________________

the filtering step occurs before the meaning of the incoming information is analyzed

Participants are given a task that requires them to zoom in on a mental image in order to inspect a detail. Evidence indicates that ____________________

the greater the distance to be zoomed, the more time is required

When a sparkler is twirled raidply, people perceive a circle of light. This occurs because _____________________

the length of iconic memory (the persistence of vision) is about one-third of a second

Shallow processing of a word is encouraged when attention is focused on _________________ (number of vowels in a word; meaning of a word; pleasantness of a word; or category of a word)

the number of vowels in a word

The word-length effect reveals that ___________________

the phonological loop of the working memory model has a limited capacity

A synapes is ___________________

the space between neurons

Insight refers to ___________________

the sudden realization of a problem's solution

Hermann Ebbinghaus use to measure his own forgetting how?

trials to relearn

For fluent speakers of a language, rules of the language such as how to create new words are often _________________________

unconscious yet they are reliably followed by speakers of the language

Recent research on memory, based largely on fear conditioning in rats, indicates that ______________________

when a memory is reactivated, it becomes fragile, jst as it was immediately after it was formed

What is the connection between risk aversion and people's ability to predict their emotions?

A basic characteristic of research on decisions is the phenomenon of risk aversion - the tendency to avoid taking risks. Expected emotions are one of the determinants of risk aversion, because one of the things that increase the chance of risk aversion is the tendency to believe that a particular loss will have a greater impact than a gain of the same size

A sudden loud noise clears contents of WM. You hear a list of nouns, 20 different fruits, followed by an unexpected loud noise. What results?

A diminished recency effect

What is neuroeconomics?

A new approach to studying decision making, called neuroeconomics, combines research from the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and economics. This research shows that decisions are often influenced by emotions, and that these emotions are associated with activity in specific areas of the brain

What is the psychological definition of a problem?

A problem occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle. Thus, a problem, as defined by psychologists, is difficult, and the solution is not immediately obvious

What is a prototype?

A prototype is a 'typical' member of a category