Final

Paul Cuffee

What: He was a free wealthy black man involved in the shipping industry and an advocate for African slaves. Where: Massachusetts When: most notably between 1810 and 1820 Why: He had a problem that the blacks didn't connect to the culture of Africa and helped to build the American nation, both of which were not African. He also didn't want to leaved the enslaved families. He set sail to Sierra Leon with 38 black colonists, yet they had a low level of enthusiasm for this. Part of Colonization Scheme - back to Africa.

Domestic Slave Trade

What: The termination of the Atlantic Slave Trade in 1808, thus intensified the Domestic Slave Trade. They would walk by foot in coffels and then taken to action blocks where they were looked at and sold on author blocks. Primarily due to increased production of cotton - cotton gin. Where: From Old South to the Deep South and Western Territories When: Started during Atlantic Slave Trade in 1760s and intensified during Antebellum Period in 1860s Why: It put a stain on the relationships of slaves as 32% of slaves were sold without families, however the rest stayed together.

Radical Reconstruction

What: This was the 3rd stage of reconstruction. Radical republicans in Congress wanted a complete reconstruction of the South (political, economic and cultural) to help black adjust and integrate. This included Freedman's Bureau (create schools, contracts, food, clothing, hospitals), the Civil Rights Act of 1866 (to stop black codes), the Reconstruction Act of 1867 (divide South into military districts to be easier to police), the Tenure of Office Act of 1867 to curve veto powers when firing public officials and the 14th and 15th amendments which give blacks citizenship and the right to vote. When: 1867-1877 Where: South Why: The Radical Republicans believed blacks were entitled to the same political rights and opportunities as whites. They also believed that the Confederate leaders should be punished for their roles in the Civil War. President Johnson stood in opposition, but now they represented 2/3 of Congress and could override his vetoes. He vetoed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill, claiming that it would bloat the size of government. He vetoed the Civil Rights Bill rejecting that blacks have the "same rights of property and person" as whites.

James Marion Sims

Who: Father of gynecology. He found connections to vaginal/bladder fistulas, which contributed t painful urine droppings and a severe complication of obstructed childbirth. Where: South Carolina When: 1845 Why: he operated on 10 black women and finally reported success. But he did not use anasthasia. on blacks, only on whites. Showed how slaves were experimented on and little respect for them and their feelings were taken into consideration during their harsh treatment.

Emmett Till

Who: He was a 14 year old boy who was kidnapped, lynched and dumped in the Tallahassee River for supposedly whistling at a woman. When: 1955 Where: Florida Why: The two men who committed this crime went on trial and were found innocent. However, the physical stand-offs were unfolding on a national level through the TV, radio = media. Furthermore, a picture of his dead body was published in newspapers throughout the country. The retelling of this story showed the disfiguration, which shifted people's consciences. People couldn't deny the horrors, and this was enough to propel the nation toward the Second Reconstruction.

"An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World"

What: David Walker addresses the black people as citizens. He was a free man and was comfortable in the northern intense environment. He sewed pamphlets into the sailors coats to take to South, which advocated for violence and willing to sacrifice himself. Kill or be killed. e says for black people to take action and criticizes the missionaries, Thomas Jefferson, the school system and education. Where: Massachusetts When: 1829 Why: As part of the 4th stage of abolitionism, the pamphlet served as a rallying point in the South. It helped encourage and strengthen those engaged in the struggle for freedom. And it made clear that many blacks in the North knew about the suffering of the slaves in the South, and were committed to helping them and ending slavery forever. The North gloried "in its principles as if it were a star in the east, guiding them to freedom and emancipation." Overall it had an impact on the debate of slavery by pushing it in a more radical direction and inspired black leaders of all backgrounds.

Emancipation Proclamation

What: Issued by Abraham Lincoln, it abolished slavery in the Confederate States as part of the 1st phase of reconstruction, wartime reconstruction. Where: applied to Southern States When: 1863 Why: In a sense, Lincoln did not issue the Emancipation Proclamation to end slavery, but rather to politically and economically weaken the Confederate states, since hopefully this would have made their free labor force/a majority of their population leave/escape. However, this had various consequences such as the Conscription Act of 1863, where all male citizens were subjected to military duty via the lottery system. Since blacks were not citizens, whites were fighting for blacks freedoms during the beginning of the Civil War.

Plessy V. Ferguson

What: Plessy, a Louisiana creole, was jailed for sitting in the the front of the bus, as he tried to pass as white. However, under Louisiana law, he was considered black. When: 1896 Where: Louisiana Why: This Supreme Court case stated "separate but equal" (separate facilities, but equal qualities). It also implied the one-drop rule, which stated that if you were one drop black, you were totally black (Nella Larsen 1929). In a sense, this kept the blacks subservient, as they maintained a race-based hierarchy. The needed to keep the whites as the elites (even though white planters raped black women which caused biracial babies = their fault) to keep a form of slavery alive even with the change. Needed to make it somewhat constitutional.

Angela Davis

Who: HSe was born in Birmingham, Alabama. In 1983, she was UCLA's assistant philosopher, but was fried due to her membership to the communist party and Black Panther Party. Furthermore, her associations landed her on the FBI's most wanted list where she was arrested for her gun being used in a murder. When: 1970s Where: Los Angeles Why: She served as a academic, scholar, intellectual to the Black Power Movement, as she was a prominent voice for black power, feminism and the prison community. Davis did, however, have strong connections with the party and taught political education classes for it. She initially gained notoriety in 1970 when then governor of California Ronald Reagan led the Board of Regents in refusing to renew Davis's appointment as lecturer in philosophy at the University of California, Los Angeles, because of her politics and her association with communists.

Double V Campaign

What: African Americans sought for democracy abroad and at home. The United States was seeking to protect freedom and democracy abroad but were not willing to afford the same to thousands of African American men, and women fighting in their military. There were also thousands of African American civilians working in the wartime industries directly supporting the war effort, who worked in segregated conditions unable to advance via promotion. When: 1948 Where: the U.S. Why: It was embedded in the experience of black soldiers, they they witnessed being placed upon minority people in which they were sent to fight and take down, for this reason specifically. At home, they were frustrated with the mounting Jim Crow laws. The Double V Campaign's goals were simple, illustrated by their Double V logo. The two-front war's aims were to end racism at home and to defeat the Axis Powers. It provided a firmer ground for black people to advocate for their political rights.

Terrible Transformation

What: Changed from a society with slaves (not dependent on slaves) to a slave society (dependent on slaves). This was termed by Peter Wood. Where: Transported from Africa to North America through the Middle Passage. When: 1450 - 1750 Why: This was a forced migration of Africans who were abducted from their homes and transported to an unknown place, with unknown people and oppressed to a life of labor and inhumane conditions. (refer to Middle Passage and Equiano's story). Contributed to a new social and economic system: one where the color of one skin would determine whether they lived as a free citizen or be enslaved for life.

Market Revolution

What: Drastic change in the economy: birth and growth of capitalism. (included textile mills - Slater Mill - women and children were the laborers) (created a division of labor - each know how to do own parts of certain jobs - i.e. shoes) (also increased industrialization - steam power (up/down river), new infrastructure and railroads) Where: Northern states, especially big metropolises When: 1815 to 1840 Why: Northern cities started to have a more powerful economy, while most southern cities (with the marked exception of free labor metropolises like St. Louis, Baltimore, and New Orleans) resisted the influence of market forces in favor of the region's slave system. Capitalism created a loss of servitude and government let go of regulation.

Dred Scott Decision

What: He was born a slave and moved around a lot. In Wisconsin he met a girl, under his master Emerson, and sues for freedom since they are in a free state. Ends up before Supreme Court where they decide 1) blacks are not citizens, 2) the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, and 3) Congress had no power to bar slavery in any state/territory. Where: Illinois to Wisconsin When: 1857 Why: Also a precursor to the Civil War because it inflamed regional tensions.

The New Negro Movement

What: It encompassed accommodation, integration and unification by representing a broad umbrella of blacks who signified new ideas that show they had no fear. The roots of the movement included violence, racial uplift, unification, industrialization, the great migration, WWI and the Harlem Hellfighters. It occurred during the Harlem Renaissance, as the New Negro worked to turn artists dreams of freedom and equality into reality. For instance, Langston Hughes, who was an integrationists, showed that they had no fear and advocated for black political rights. Also, Sterling Brow, also a poet, focused on the masses of blacks rather than the elites and public officials. When: 1920s Where: New York Why: It defined what it meant to be a negro in the United States, as they had no fear. It was about ripping racism out of society and creating a totally new frame of mind for people of that era. The New Negro, above all else, was a black person who was finally able to feel pride in herself, in her race, and in her race's culture. New Negro movement of the 1920s, epitomized in The New Negro (1925), an anthology edited by Alain Locke that featured the early work of some of the most gifted Harlem Renaissance writers, including the poets Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, and Claude McKay (aftermath of WWI and a commitment to racial change) and the novelists Rudolph Fisher, Zora Neale Hurston, and Jean Toomer. The "New Negro," Locke announced, differed from the "Old Negro" in assertiveness and self-confidence, which led New Negro writers to question traditional "white" aesthetic standards, to eschew parochialism and propaganda, and to cultivate personal self-expression, racial pride, and literary experimentation.

Lord Dunmore's Proclamation

What: It guaranteed freedom to slaves if they joined the British military. This was in response to the news that colonies started forming armies and attacking British troops. However, only 2,000 slaves actually made it. He believed slaves would actually rise up against their master, but many slaves supported their masters. Slaves only joined to secure freedom, not to fight for the British cause. Where: Virginia When: 1775 Why: This split the some slave families and friendships, as well as white's: to join cause or not. They wondered if they were really fighting for themselves and their liberty because they still didn't have the same rights as white planters had under the British oppressors.

Brown V. Board of Education

What: It was a Supreme Court case that gradually changed the course/composition of schools due to the 14th amendment that prohibited the states from denying equal protection of the laws to any person within their jurisdictions. It proved that separate but equal was unconstitutiontal/ overturned Plessy v. Ferguson, thus desegregating school systems. When: 1954 Where: Topeka, Kansas Why: The decision declared that separate educational facilities for white and African American students were inherently unequal. It thus rejected as inapplicable to public education the "separate but equal" doctrine, advanced by the Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), according to which laws mandating separate public facilities for whites and African Americans do not violate the equal-protection clause if the facilities are approximately equal. Although the 1954 decision strictly applied only to public schools, it implied that segregation was not permissible in other public facilities. Considered one of the most important rulings in the court's history, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka helped to inspire the American civil rights movement of the late 1950s and 1960s.

Blackface Minstrelsy

What: It was a form of entertainment for a majority of the population where white men would burn cork and place it on their face. Later songs (Oh Susanna) and contortions (twists of body) arose too. Where: North When: 1800s Why: Thus people only saw blackness constructed by white men, which made people only see a falsified story of what black people dressed like and did. They thought it was comical, like black people trying to fit into white society.

Dyer Bill

What: It was an anti-lynching bill that never passed. First, it would define a mob, then punish the mobs for participating in the extra legal acts of violence and third punch local governments that turned a blind eye to this hateful crime When: 1918 Where: enforced throughout entire nation, especially in the South where lynchings were common Why: It was directed at punishing lynchings and mob violence. However, its passage was ultimately halted by a Southern Democratic filibuster. This goes to show how Percy Quin of Mississippi, an many other Southern Democrats believed blacks were barbaric and deserved to be lynched. There needed to be some kind of protection for women against the black brutes, thus lynching was believed to be necessary.

Moral Suasion

What: It was an attempt to advocate for emancipation by shifting the way in which people saw humanity black people using rhetoric. People needed to see blacks humans and get them to change their heats and minds. Where: mainly implemented in Northern colonies When: 1800s Why: These new strategies shifted the perception because now white men were seen as the real evil. This new kind of black political activism to advocate for emancipation desperately sought for whites to see blacks as humans too. It also drew similarities between the two races - "Am I Not a Brother" (to see blacks not as threatening anymore) (Douglas and Truth).

Racial Uplift

What: It was an ideology that African American's material and moral progress would diminish segregation, which was articulated and supported by the educated black middle class. When: late 19th century and early 20th century Where: expressed throughout the states Why: This was a response to the new forms of segregation (Jim Crow and violence/lynching) and the larger problem of continued white supremacy. In order to resolve this problem, African Americans believed race progress could be achieved by embodying respectability. Newspapers and magazines were crucial vehicles in spreading the message of racial uplift. The goal of racial uplift, however, was not so easily achieved as issues like colorism, gender oppression, and classism pervaded African American life and further hindered efforts for race progress.

AME Church

What: It was founded by Richard Allen with 8 clergy and only 5 churches, and rose to 176 clergy, 296 churches and 17,375 members. Where: Philadelphia (North and Midwest) When: 1815-1846 Why: This provided the bedrock/foundation for growth of the black community for social, political and economic reasons. It was a site for organizing and anti-slavery activism (Denmark Vessey).

SNCC - Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

What: It was part of Second Reconstruction. The first meeting, organized by Ella Baker, was one of the most important organizations of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. Black college students dedicated to overturning segregation in the South and giving young Blacks a stronger voice in the civil rights movement in America. SNCC, as an organization, advanced the "sit-in" movement, protest technique. For example, they even supported the Freedom Riders who would sit on buses as they drove from D.C. to the south, enduring whatever form of abuse people would give them, including being beaten, to test out os segregation was still considered legal on public transportation. When: 1960 Where: Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina Why: This form of nonviolent protest brought SNCC to national attention, throwing a harsh public light on white racism in the South. As SNCC became more active politically, its members faced increased violence. In response, SNCC migrated from a philosophy of nonviolence to one of greater militancy after the mid-1960s, as an advocate of the burgeoning "black power" movement, a facet of late 20th-century black nationalism (black power). In 1966 SNCC officially threw its support behind the broader protest of the Vietnam War, as they said they should not fight for the white man's freedom.

Presidential Reconstruction

What: It was the 2nd phase of reconstruction. First, Abraham Lincoln's plan included the 10% plan, to entice the South to surrender, rather than continuing an on-going war that would never peacefully end. 10% of the voting population in the Southern States would have to sign a loyalty oath & draft state constitutions that recognized the abolition of slavery. Then, pardons (for all but the highest ranking officials) would be issued and the southern war debt (from the damage to their soil) would be forgiven. Next, Andrew Johnson's plan also focused on the political and economic reunification/ reconstruction, since he was not interested in incorporating blacks in the whole body politic, such as with the antebellum period's paternalism. He continued to offer pardons and authorized them to create new governments, but left no role to blacks in this process. When: 1865-1869 Where: Throughout the entire nation, especially Southern States Why: These plans were mean to unify the North and the South and stop the war as peacefully as possible. Their intention was to reunite the once-united states by rallying northern support for the war and hopefully persuading weary Confederate soldiers to surrender. However, many Northern's saw this plan fail as the Southern states found themselves disregarding the rules: members of the old Southern elite (Confederate army) returned to power and the Mississippi Black Codes of 1865 passed, which severely limited the former slaves' legal rights and economic options so as to force them to return to the plantations as dependent laborers. Some states limited the occupations open to blacks. None allowed any blacks to vote, or provided public funds for their education.

Bleeding Kansas

What: It was the guerilla warfare on the question of Kansas entering the war as a free state of a slave state. First, this state was introduced as a way to build a RR continuing the Market Revolution in the north. This repealed the Missouri Compromise but led to violence as 1,200 Northern Free Soilers came to fight for Kansas to become a free state. Eventually John Brown, a radical abolitionists, went there and believed and advocated that armed insurrection was the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery in the United States. Where: Kansas When: 1854 - 1861 Why: Led to popular sovereignty under Kansas Nebraska Act in 1854. Precursor to the Civil War.

Paternalism

What: It was the policy and practice of treating and governing people in a fatherly manner providing for their needs without giving them rights and responsibilities. Where: Southern plantations When: Antebellum Period 1820s to 1860s Why: The web of paternalism now encompassed the relationship of slaves to all white people: the elite, yeoman farmers, Cherokee Indians and women, as the planter elite now only consisted of 1% of the population. This intricate family structure was a defining difference between people of the North and of the South, as it gave a justification to perpetuate slavery, slaves would treat masters and overseers with respect, thus masters would act as their guardians/protectors (well-clothed, fed, housed) and treat them with less severity. In turn, this ideal sought to promote the (fake) happiness of the working-class slaves as so slaves would become complacent with slavery, which is far from what happened.

UNIA - Universal Negro Improvement Association

What: Marcus Garvey founded the UNIA in 1914 in Jamaica. It was attractive to northern blacks, however it attracted blacks across the diaspora to become economically self-sufficient. New York City also served as a hub for a flourishing black community that were frustrated by the mismatched ideals of moving to the North and having violence and racial serration still implemented. They were very popular as they had more than 200 offices outside the U.S. and grew to have more than 700 in the U.S. When: founded in 1914 and continued throughout 1916 in New York City Where: New York Why: This organization was dedicated to racial pride, economic self-sufficiency, and the formation of an independent black nation in Africa. The two primary goals became the establishment of a shipping company, which would expand the commercial possibilities and wealth of the race, and the founding of an industrialized nation in Africa with the representation of interests from the African-decended people.

Letter from Birmingham

What: Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested and sent to jail because he and others were protesting the treatment of blacks in Birmingham, Alabama. A court had ordered that King could not hold protests in Birmingham, however it was a hard place for blacks to live in. Everything was segregated, from businesses to churches to libraries. Blacks faced constant discrimination and the constant threat of violence. Thus MLKJ protested. In jail he wrote a letter that defends the strategy of nonviolent resistance to racism, which he was employing. When: 1963 Where: Birmingham, Alabama Why: The letter served as a tangible, reproducible account of the long road to freedom in a movement that was largely centered around actions and spoken words. Written in response to eight white local clergy who criticized his work and ideas as unwise and wrong, the letter is King's explanation of the importance of civil rights protesting. It was seen as one of the best justifications for nonviolence as a political strategy ever articulated, as he used love to overthrown the violent hatred of white racists.

Mass Incarceration

What: President Nixon declared the "War on Drugs" the number one public enemy. Between 1960 and 1967, there was an increase drug relevance in violence and drug related crimes being committed. So the DEA was created in 1973. Then there was the crack epidemic in the mid-1980s in the black impoverished communities, which led to mass incarceration, most predominately black people. When: mid-1980s Where: in the entire U.S. Why: The increase from in drugs from the crack epidemic in black communities was a result of the deindustrialization, as many of the blacks lost their jobs. In order to support themselves, their families, and pay their bills, they had to do something. Not to mention, mass incarceration was harsher on blacks (crack) that whites (cocaine). A system that never ends.

Margret Garner

What: She was a mulato women who escaped from Kentucky and fled to Cincinnati, Ohio with other family members including a baby by the Underground RR. She was captured and jailed. Where: Kentucky to Ohio When: 1867 Why: She committed infanticide (slit the throats of infant child) to stop the life of slavery from being forced upon it. This story was used as evidence for abolitionist movement by decocting true horrors. She was radical abolitionist - impatient with the "gradualist" attempts at negotiation preferred by anti-slavery reformers. Radical abolitionist.

Sojourner Truth

What: She was first known as Isabella Vanwagner and was a moral suasionist, abolitionist and women's rights activist. She was born into slavery, but escaped to freedom. She fought for emancipation. relating to race and gender and gave a speech at women's rights convention - The Negro Woman's Appeal. Where: Ohio; North When: 1797-1883 Why: She criticized double jeopardy- they did all of the work of a man, yet didn't not get any of the credit. By preaching to the Northerners, they would hope to gain their support to fight against the South, who was unwilling to change their position without the voice of the Union. Used rhetoric.

3/5 Clause

What: Slaves count for 3/5 of a person, which was needed for more representation in slave states (House of Representatives). Where: slave states When: 1787 Why: Determined more representative for the House of Representatives and increased their state power. It was one of the reasons for the start of the Civil War.

15th Amendment

What: The 15th Amendment to the Constitution part of the radical reconstruction, granted African American men the right to vote by declaring that the "right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." When: 1870 Where: the entire nation Why: This was supposed to equate black men to white men, however it only proved to be a failure of the reconstruction era because of the Property Tests, Literacy Tests, and Grandfather Clauses. It further excluded poor whites who could not pass these tests. The federal government was not protecting the people from casting their vote.

Deindustrialization

What: The deindustrialization was economic process/the shift from a manufacturing based economy to a service based economy. This was backlash to the Civil Right/s Black Power Movements. haircutting, bus driving and other services were surpassing factory workers in the steal and motor industries. When: 1980s and 1990s Where: in the entire U.S. Why: With this, there decreased the private employment sector, where manufacturing decreased from 30% to 15% and service increased from 23% to 42%. This contributed to the new types of ghettos that arose after the 1980s, as African Americans found themselves without jobs (in poverty) as 33% of blacks were in poverty as opposed to 10% of whites (50% of children).

March on Washington

What: The march on Washington for Jobs and Freedom was the largest mass walk (200,000 people) coordinated by two key figures, Bayard Rustin and A. Phillip Randolph. Collectively they took a pledge to social peace through social justice (a pledge for personal sacrifice which would be taken back to the communities). They rallied against both the injustices of Jim Crow segregation and job equality, a campaign for the poor. When: 1963 Where: Lincoln Memorial, Washington D.C. Why: The central messages were poverty, class and race, synonymous with I have a Dream speech. The main goal was to show class-based inequalities bound up in race inequalities. The power of mass nonviolent demonstrations inspired Americans fighting for equal rights and access to opportunities regardless of race, gender, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, or disabilities (considered turning point). Furthermore, it was designed specifically to advocate passage of the Civil Rights Act then stalled in Congress, which was passed in 1964, which outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which outlawed discriminatory voting practices.

Executive Order 9981

What: This Executive Order, issued by Truman, prohibited segregation in the U.S. military. He was the first president who would desegregate any part of the government. When: 1948 Where: the entire U.S. Why: African-Americans fought in every branch of the military during World War II. But throughout the war, the U.S. armed forces remained segregated. However, this order was not permanent, signifying the need for more political activism to guarantee their total equality. In essence, it was the start of when black people began to use WWII as an example to advocate for political action - the Double V Campaign.

10 Point Plan of the Black Panther Party

What: This plan was seen as radical for this time period and was drafted by Huey Newton & Bobby Seale. It was the ideals of the Black panther Movement and a list of demands for the white society to abide by. The party's original purpose was to patrol African American neighbourhoods to protect residents from acts of police brutality. The Panthers eventually developed into a Marxist revolutionary group that called for the arming of all African Americans, the exemption of African Americans from the draft and from all sanctions of so-called white America, the release of all African Americans from jail, and the payment of compensation to African Americans for centuries of exploitation by white Americans. Poverty and reduced public services characterized these urban centres, where residents were subject to poor living conditions, joblessness, chronic health problems, violence, and limited means to change their circumstances. Such conditions contributed to urban uprisings in the 1960s (such as those in the Watts district of Los Angeles in 1965, among others) and to the increased use of police violence as a measure to impose order on cities throughout North America. When: 1966 Where: Oakland, CA Why: It established the direction and goals of the Black Panther Party for Self Defense. To Black people, the ten points covered are absolutely essential to survival. The Black Panther Party distinguished between racist and nonracist whites and allied themselves with progressive members of the latter group. The Black Panther Party believed that African American capitalists and elites could and typically did exploit and oppress others, particularly the African American working class. The Black Panther Party believed that such symbolic systems, like language and imagery, though important, are ineffective in bringing about liberation. (To initiate national African American community survival projects and to forge alliances with progressive white radicals and other organizations of people of colour. A number of positions outlined in the Ten Point Program address a principle stance of the Black Panther Party: economic exploitation is at the root of all oppression in the United States and abroad, and the abolition of capitalism is a precondition of social justice.

Double Jeopardy

What: This was a book written by Francis Beale, which stated the misconceptions and troubles which came about when one tried to analyze the role of a black female in society, as they are described as being a slave of a slave (black and a woman) When: 1969 Where: applied to all women facing these situations Why: She wanted to show how the capitalists system today contributes to racism, and how especially black women are economically exploited and physically assaulted. In the end, she wanted to change to traditional routines established as a result of living in a totally corrupt society. They must also be liberated alongside the rest of the population. And they must develop a high political consciousness to understand the system that enslaves them and what actions they must take to resolve it. (She was an academic responding to the degrading ways of women which have been perpetuated over time).

American Colonization Society

What: This was a society created to assist the newly freed black people to move to Africa to become missionaries and spread Christianity. Where: Founded in Washington D.C.; dealt with Africa, special Sierra Leon and Liberia When: 1816 Why: Some abolitionists thought these Africans would be better suited in Africa where they could better organize their own society and achieve equality. However, these black people had no recollection lion of what their past ancestors perceived a traditional African society was. Part of Colonization Scheme.

Compromise of 1877

What: This was part of the radical reconstruction. Since Louisiana, Florida and South Carolina were among the only states left in the South to represent the reconstruction era Republican governments, tis greatly affect the outcome of the 1876 election. In order for Republicans and democrats to negotiate an acceptance to the election of Hayes, the Democrats agreed not to block block Hayes' victory on the condition that Republicans withdraw all federal troops from the South, thus consolidating Democratic control over the region. When: 1877 Where: South, specifically Florida, South Carolin and Louisiana Why: As a result of the so-called Compromise of 1877 (or Compromise of 1876), Florida, Louisiana and South Carolina became Democratic once again, effectively marking the end of the Reconstruction era and one of its many failures.

Jim Crow Laws

What: This was the intro to racial segregation. In Alabama, white nurses could not be in the same hospitals where black men were. In Florida, whites and Negros could not be in the same room at night unless married or there would be a $500 fine. Furthermore in Florida, juvenile delinquents could not be housed together. In Georgia, metal health patients be together in metal hospitals and they could not be buried in the same cemeteries. Education was segregated as were public facilities such as hotels and restaurants under Jim Crow Laws. In fact, the United States military was segregated until integrated by Harry S. Truman after World War II. When: the early 1880's throughout the early 20th century Where: throughout the states Why: These laws kept power in the hands of whites, while keeping black Americans from being able to get the same benefits of society as their neighbors. In theory, it was to create "separate but equal" treatment, but in practice Jim Crow Laws condemned black citizens to inferior treatment and facilities.

Moore's Bridge Lynching

What: Two couples were lynched together, Dorsey and Malcom. Rumors circulated around Dorsey about being with a white woman. Malcom had stabbed a white farmer and had already been in prison. Harrison bails them out, then they are ambushed by a white mob of 30 people. Then, they are dragged, tied to trees and shot. When: 1946 Where: Atlanta Why: Even though they were veterans, this shows the violence demonstrated to all black people. In total, 56 African Americans were killed by lynching after the end of WWII. In South Carolina, a veteran complained about the Jim Crow segregation and had his eyes touched out. There was a wave of anti-black terror, as most of these victims were black. However this mounting frustration leads to the Double V Campaign (all the hopes of equality gained from their service only to return to sameness injustices - short-term) and Civil rights Movement (increased political action - long-term).

13th Amendment

What: Under the Lincoln Presidency, this was passed to abolish slavery across the nation. It was also under the 1st phase of reconstruction, wartime reconstruction. When: 1865 Where: In all parts of the nation (North and South) Why: Now there was a constitutional amendment that outlawed slavery in all states. In Union states that were not rebelling, such as Tennessee, Maryland and West Virginia for example, slaves were not required to be freed under the Emancipation Proclamation. made to protect the rights of the newly freed people, expansion of the Emancipation Proclamation and then there was the 14th and 15th amendment.

Atlantic Creoles

Who: 1st charter generation to come to the Americas who mainly had roots in Africa. In Africa coastline, they served as intermediaries in trading factories within the transatlantic trade, employing their linguistic skills and familiarity with the Atlantic's diverse commercial practices, cultural conventions, and diplomatic etiquette to mediate between African merchants and European sea captains. Where: Atlantic coastlines to North America (Dutch New Amsterdam with specific communities in St. Augustine and Fort Moes) When: Began arriving in the 16th century and continued to the 17th century. Why: (same results as Middle Passage - The treatment of slaves was inhumane: no clothes, little food, low qualitative state, which would lead to more harsh treatment on land. (Refer to Equiano's story) However, this had a great affect in Africa as it impacted their economy (no people to work) and led to a general imbalance (mainly took young and strong men). It leaked the political, economic and social levels in Africa.) However, they found themselves at home in this new environment as they discovered that the value of their gift for intercultural negation was appreciated. Only transported these communities to new sites: able to baptizing children, sued and were sued in courts, fought alongside Dutch militiamen, traded independently and accumulated property (kept same identity plus gained new attributes).

Maclom X

Who: At first advocation for black nationalism by solving the internal problems within the black community, he emerged as a black power supporter and leader, which embraced self-determination. Though his early life was filled with bad decisions (drugs and robbery) and racist remarks (can't be a be lawyer but a carpenter), he went to prison and converted to follow the Nation of Islam and became an intellectual (read lots of books). He met and followed Muhammad Ali and preached the inherent evil of whites and the natural superiority of blacks (based on childhood). When: 1960s Where: Lansing to Mason Michigan to Roxbury Boston to New York, Boston, Philadelphia and LA Why: The most important issues he believed were black identity, integrity, and independence. In contrast to King's strategy of nonviolence, civil disobedience, and redemptive suffering, Malcolm urged his followers to defend themselves "by any means necessary." His biting critique of the "so-called Negro" provided the intellectual foundations for the Black Power and black consciousness movements in the United States in the late 1960s and '70s. (black power - Malcolm viewed integration as a surrender to white supremacy, for its aims of total assimilation into white society implied that African Americans had little that was worth preserving. Through his use of candid and fiery rhetoric, which appealed to many urban blacks, he challenged the mainstream civil rights movement and the nonviolent pursuit of integration championed by Martin Luther King Jr. and he he urged followers to defend themselves against white aggression "by any means necessary." - The black people are the original people of the world.

Marcus Garvey

Who: He was a Jamaican, described as flashy and flamboyant, a black militant, and was an advocate for black nationalism. He embodied the ideal of unification and racial separatism through the back to Africa Movement (Pan-Africanism), which he wrote in the Declaration of the Rights of the Negro peoples of the World: The Principles of the Universal Negro Improvement Association speech. He also set up the UNIA and the Black Star Line (had black operators instead of workers and built business around the economic self-suficiancey as they would make money by taking African Americans and imports back to Africa) to help conduct his efforts. By 1927, he was deported back to Jamaica on mail fraud charges within the Black Star Line, however he does usher in a new negro idea of refusing to accommodate and personal fulfillment of full American ideals without fear. When: 1920 Where: New York Why: He became a leader in the black nationalist movement by applying the economic ideas of Pan-Africanists to the immense resources available in urban centers. He believed the U.S. was too intense for African Americans to ever be successful, thus he refused to accommodate or integrate, but to change the entrenched structures of power. He saw that African Americans fought in WWI and then faced discrimination at home. Thus, the UNIA provided salvation, which was met through the autonomous black-led nation in Africa.

Tunis Campbell

Who: He was a radical reconstructionist by serving as a politician/senator. At first, he was asked to help resettle black refugees in the region who had been displaced by Civil War fighting through the Freedman's Bureau. After Johnson pardoned the ex-Confederate landowners of this area, Campbell shrewdly purchased 1,250 acres in Georgia's McIntosh County and established an association of black landowners there to divide parcels and profit from the land. Campbell and over 200 ex-slaves had created a fishing and farming community on St. Catherine's Island. As the colony grew, Campbell served as its justice of the peace and political boss. When: 1866 Where: St. Catherine's Island, Georgia Why: However, despite being elected to the Georgia State Senate and introducing 15 new bills that furthered the rights of blacks, he was arrested, convicted and sentenced to one year of hard labor for defending the rights of black sailors in Darien, Georgia, as many conservative legislators opposed him and his ideals. By trying to set up his own independent government and ultimately getting taken down, this represents the failed promises of the the reconstruction era.

Nat Turner

Who: He was a religious radical abolitionist who was also in the upper class of slaves, but had grown up hating slavery because his mom tried to kill him to keep him away from slavery. He had 7 "disciples" who killed slaveholder's family (except babies) making there way up to Jerusalem. Gathered more slaves and weaponry along the way. However, a militia interfere, resulting in him fleeing for 2 months. Where: Southampton County, Virginia to Jerusalem When: 1831 Why: This caused widespread panic and Virginians even fled the county because of how many people were killed - 57 whites. The nation was also frightened because of how the newspaper portrayed blacks were now on top of whites because they were depicted as monstrous and not sorry for what they did. Thus enacted war laws to which slaves were no longer allowed to read, write, preach and meet.

W.E.B. Dubois

Who: He was born a free man and highly educated (Masters degree in history and PhD from Harvard in sociology). He was also part of the black middle class from the North. He wrote the Niagara Moment Speech, in which he fought the immediate integration of political, social and economic equality into every aspect of American life. He is also one of the founders of the NAACP, was to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate race-based discrimination. He later runs on the socialists political party and embraces Pan-Africanism. He is followed by the FBI, because they believe he is a threat to the government because of his socialists ideals. After losing the race for U.S. Senator of the American Labor party in 1951 and in 1956, and being indicted and tried as an unregistered government agent, he says democracy is dead and leaves the country. he dies in 1963 before the March on Washington. When: 1900 Where: Harper's Ferry, West Virginia for North and South Why: Since discrimination in travel/public accommodation had spread and there were less people willing to defend the rights of the African Americans, he fought for the ideal of integration. He stated that he did not believe in violence, but believed in sacrifice. If they refuse to surrender their manhood for material wealth, they will show their continued push for their cause. This positive attitude also exhibited his attitude that they would not lose - sign of promise. (He fought for the literacy of blacks and whites, as he wanted to make sure the rules applied to every race on the issue of voting. Furthermore, he figured how could blacks vote and lead a nation when they never thought they would be free - needed to be educated). He believed African Americans deserved access to the free body politic now.

Booker T. Washington

Who: He was born into slavery in Franklin, Virginia, and became a famous crater, educator and black leader as he was freed by the Civil War. He argued for accommodation in the Atlanta Compromise Speech, by believing blacks should accommodate to white supremacy, which would lead to their inclusion into the white body politic gradually. When: 1895 Where: Atlanta, Georgia Why: The slow process of accommodating African Americans into a capitalistic system would be through education of trades (Tuskegee Institute established by the Freedman's Bureau). They would train African Americans that recently came from slavery to learn trades, thus calling about the idea of paternalism (not regarding them as artificial forms of segregation). Since, African Americans made up 1/3 of Southern population, this would be beneficial to the friendship of the two races (trust ship anecdote to cast down buckets) as blacks would help with progress of the South and they would receive jobs/be educated (both interests are satisfied). He stated progress/enjoyment came from a server and constant struggle, and there needed to be patience and sympathy for the race, as he is addressing whites.

Ida B. Wells

Who: She embodies the racial uplift movement. At first writing under a male pseudonym, she was trying to persuade Congress to enact anti-lynching legislature through her journalistic talents and educational background. She condemned violence against blacks, disfranchisement, poor schools, and the failure of black people to fight for their rights, such as her experience in the Memphis train where she was rejected her first-class seating accommodations because she was black. After her friend, Tom Barnett, was lynched for deeding his store against whites, she was outraged and attacked the evils of lynching in her newspaper The Free Speech and Headlight. She helped organize the National Association of Colored Women and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. When: 1892 Where: Memphis, Tennessee to England Why: She used her platform as a journalist and educational background to speak out against wrong-doings. She tried to persuade Congress to enact legislature regarding anti-lynching.

Harlem Hellfighters

Who: The 169th infantry famous for entering WWI!. They were the first to go to war (infantry), yet they were a musical band with a group leader. When: 1919 Where: fighting in Germany Why: They contributed to the New Negro Movement through the bravery they displayed (attacked and wounded by Germans, but still fought with any weapons they could. When they returned, they were the first Americans to receive an award (crowned them in a parade/march and were honored). After the parade, they went back to receiving little respect and citizenship. This was part of the reasoning for the Double V Campaign. They also Brough black music to European theater, they spread the Harlem Renaissance.

The Brute

Who: The brute caricature portrays black men as innately savage, animalistic, destructive, and criminal -- deserving punishment, maybe death. This brute is a fiend, a sociopath, an anti-social menace. Black brutes are depicted as hideous, terrifying predators who target helpless victims, especially white women. When: 1915 Where: mainly in the South Why: One of the stereotypes that emerges from this era as was the brute, as it became embedded and perpetuated in American popular culture as a result of the film Both of a Nation. This terms served as a justification for the lynchings, as black men were regarded as being mainly predators to white women. Furthermore, it also arose out of the ranting about the 15th amendment, as white men felt their political power was being threatened.

The Second Great Migration

Who: The widespread migration of African Americans in the 20th century from rural communities in the South to large cities in the North and West. At the turn of the 20th century, the vast majority of black Americans lived in the Southern states. From 1916 to 1970, during this Great Migration, it is estimated that some six million black Southerners relocated to urban areas in the North and West. When: 1940s to 1960s Where: Southern states to East and West Why: The "push" factors for the exodus were poor economic conditions in the South—exacerbated by the limitations of sharecropping, farm failures, and crop damage from the boll weevil—as well as ongoing racial oppression in the form of Jim Crow laws. "Pull" factors included encouraging reports of good wages and living conditions that spread by word of mouth and that appeared in African American newspapers. With advertisements for housing and employment and firsthand stories of newfound success in the North. This particular migration sets the stage for the urban black population with the rise of Malcom X and other black power movements. It allowed for the black power movements to pressure/respond to some of the injustices faced.

Buffalo Soldiers

Who: They were segregated military units of African American soldiers who were told to move the boundaries and tame Native Americans who used American land When: 1872 Where: west Why: they were male black soldiers revered for wildness but made fun of for characteristics, such as their hair. They led to the led groundwork for getting involved in WWII.