Final Quiz Practice

what is bilingual and multilingual language acquisition?

Bilingualism is speaking of two languages and multilingualism is speaking of many languages, by an individual or a group.Bilingualism is common in more than 50% of the world's population. Bilingualism given speakers the option to think in a different way, from a different cultural perspective. Bilingual infants are mentally more agile and more efficient at various tasks and better protected against dementia in old age.

what are the names of the 4 cultural patterns dimensions/orientations we have been studying in ELL210?

-Hofstede's Value Dimensions -Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Value Orientations -Hall's High-context and Low-context Orientations -Lewis' Linear-active, Multi-active and Reactive Styles

what is the Speech Accomodation Theory?

-We do not just speak a 'standard' code all the time, with all interlocuters. Instead, we manipulate language "to maintain integrity, distance or identity". -We converge towards or diverge away from the speech of others (verball and non-verbally) e.g. our choice of accent, pronunciation, vocabulary conversational styles shows how much we are accomodating. -e.g. Welsh learners broadened their Welse accent when they were challenged by a posh English-speaker as they had no wish to accommodate towards the interlocutor (they diverged).

what are the types of families?

-nuclear -extended -adoptive -single-parent -childless -common-law (unmarried) -gay (with or without children) -families with foster and surrogate parents

what are the different fields of linguistics?

-phonetics and phonology (sound) -morphology (word) -semantics (word meaning) -syntax (grammar) -pragmatics (utterance meaning) -discourse analysis (text-level meaning and organisation/styles) -1st and 2nd language acquisition (how we learn languages)

what are Acts of Identity?

-speaking is an act of identity. Your way of using language reflects your multifarious social identities. -Any one or more identities can be 'performed' and avowed at any time: language expressed affiliation with a social group (self-categorization) -Pronunciation or accent may carry most of the load in marking social identity. Words/vocab may carry a lighter load. -Identities emerge from and is constituted by linguistic practice and linguistic performance "you are how you talk" e.g. African American drag queens can shift between linguistic styles that index multiple identities: African Americans, gay men, men, women, drag queens

how does the history of a community/country connect to the values of that institution?

-stories of the past give us our identity and teach group values, loyalty, and goals and can influence perception of other groups -the deep-structure institutions of religion, history, and family enculturate us, socialize us, give us our beliefs and values, and shape how we behave and communicate -the external, visible traits of culture that an outsider 1st consciously observes need to be linked to these basic institutions in order to be understood properly -by studying these aspects, we gain insight into the sources of cultural differences, and can react to differences with fewer emotions and judgemental attitudes -we can all identify with how these fundamental institutions can change, but also don't change easily. It helps us understand change (e.g. religion and families in the West) and resistance to change (many traditional cultures)

define non-verbal communication, it's importance and its functions

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describe Austin and Searle's Speech Act Theory

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describe cultural relativity in politeness

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describe the 4 main reasons for miscommunication

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describe the intertwining concepts of social class, language and education

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discuss the use of 'small talk' in intercultural communication

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in reference to discourse analysis, how are NVCs used?

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what are Brown and Levinson's 4 strategies?

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what are adjacency pairs/sets in reference to discourse analysis?

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what are different schemas and scripts at the discourse-pragmatic level?

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what are schemas in reference to discourse analysis?

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what are some examples of the CP?

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what are the classifcations/categories of non-verbal communciation?

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what are the differences between an accent, a dialect and a language?

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what are the differences in multinational or transnational business contexts?

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what are the discourse-pragmatic styles across cultures?

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what can the consequences be of breaking pragmatic conventions?

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what differences can you often find in intercultural business settings?

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what do different cultures teach in school?

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what is linguistic politeness?

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what is positive and negative face and some linguistic markers used to differ the two?

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what is receptive multilingualism?

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what is the difference between indirect and direct speech acts (use key terms illocution, perlocution and locution)?

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what is the importance of linguistic intercultural competence?

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what is turn-taking in reference to discourse analysis?

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within co-cultures, define argot, jargon and slang

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how does the understanding of world views help avoid intercultural communication failure?

1 to avoid saying or doing the wrong thing and 2 more importantly, to understand how and why people believe, feel and act differently from you- understand their values, the underlying fundamentals; helps you feel closer to them and hence gives you a more successful communication. Things affected/dictated by religion: nonverbal communication, sense of 'modesty', gender roles, food choices/prohibitions, attitudes toward sex, health care, death, disease etc. Languages are also affected: contain religion-based terms and sayings-part of the literature and part of way of thinking and talking about the world.

how do different cultures teach in school? (learning styles and discourse differences)

1) cognitive styles: field-independent (analytical) vs. field-sensitive (holistic), trial and error vs. watch then do 2) communicative/discourse styles: direct vs. indirect, formal vs. informal, topic-centered style vs. topic -associating style 3) relational styles: dependent vs. independent, passive vs. particpatory, aural/visual or verbal 4) motivation styles: intrinsic (doing what you love) vs. extrinsic Australian Aboriginal= oral history narrative Spain =learning is more cooperative than competitve Japan = memorisation and cramming

what is plurilingualism?

The competence in more than one language whereby the person can switch from one language to another according to their circumstances at hand for the purpose of coping with a social situation.

what is intercultural pragmatics?

The study of contextualised meaning, and how hearers interpret utterance meanings in intercultural encounters where a common code is used (intercultural in terms of different co-cultures, languacultures, or dialects)

what is the difference between cross-cultural and intercultural perspectives?

cross cultural= macro, comparative, broad/abstract intercultural= micro, interpersonal-interactional, narrow/specific

how does language and thought interact?

linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism, languages grammatically encode "gender", space, information, status, etc. in different ways. This becomes habit of thought which is common to people within that languaculture.

list and describe the overall conversational styles and describe the German vs. English dimensions of language diferences

1) direct vs. indirect (getting to the point/talking in circles e.g. USA vs East Asians) 2) heated vs. hesitant (arguing/politeness e.g. Italy vs USA) 3) high-involvement vs. high-considerateness (Russian vs Asian) 4) ping-pong vs. bowling (back and forth/waiting e.g. USA vs. Japanese) The dimensions of German speakers is directness, orientation towards self, orientation towards context, explicitness and ad-hoc formulation. English is the opposite- indirectness, orientation towards other, orientation towards addressees, implicitness, verbal routines.

what are they key concepts in 2nd language Acquisition (SLA)?

1) positive and negative language transfer 2) critical period hypothesis 3) motivation: integrative vs. instrumental 4) interlanguage and fossilization

what are the 3 types of health care belief systems

1) scientific: western medicine. In this framework, illness is the result of abnormal and bodily functions or structure. Disease is a deviation from established norms, based on biomedical science. Treatment involves destroying or removing bio-physical causes of illness, using drugs, surgery, nutritional supplements (but also adjusts to fit religious/spiritual beliefs). 2)supernatural: In this framework illness is a personal attack by a god, supernatural force or human agent (e.g. a witch or sorcerer). Treatment is usually done by expelling evil spirits from body, or atone for sin, call folk healers, shamans or priests. 3)holistic: in this framework illness is caused by impersonal forces/conditions, including the cold, heat, winds, dampness, imbalance of the body elements, yin vs yang, etc. Treatment is restoring the balance between forces of nature or imbalance in individual's relationship with the environment, emotional or social factors; using herbs to balance things or 'hot' vs 'cold' foods.

what is the importance and function of schools?

1) to provide intellectual knowledge and skills 2) to shape the student's personal and social identity 3) to informally pass on the 'hidden curriculum' = social values, attitudes and behaviour

what are the 4 areas of competence within communicative competence?

1. Grammatical competence (accuracy) 2. Sociolinguistic competence (social appropriateness) 3. Discourse competence (ability to organize a message cohesively and coherently across clauses) 4. Strategic competence (appropriate use of communication strategies e.g. repetition, paraphrasing, using a dictionary)

what are the characteristics of culture?

1. It is learnt (through enculturation, proverbs, the arts, food, mass media) 2. It is transmitted from generation to generation 3. It is symbolic in essence 4. It is dynamic/subject to change 5. It is an integrated system

what are the 6 major religious traditions and what are their fundamental beliefs and values?

1. Judaism: make up 1% of the world's population, Judaism is a faith and a culture and is non-proselytising (not aimed at gaining converts). The basic beliefs of Judaism is that God is one, no humans will ever be divine (including Jesus), humans have free will, humans are the pinnacle of creation, Jews are specially chosen as a nation or group to serve God and humans must be obedient to the laws in the Torah and assume personal responsibility. Judaism also governs justice, friendship, kindness, intellectual pursuits, courtesy and diet. Jews believe that (1) oppression and persecution is to be expected, (2) learning/education is important, (3) justice is important and (4) family is very important. 2. Christianity: main belief is that the God of the Jews appeared on earth in human form (Jesus); died on a cross, and was resurrected. This death was punishment by proxy to cleanse humanity of its past and future sins. The key belief is in monotheism and the Trinity. Some values that Christians have include relgion as a social/group experience, ethics as Bible-based, especially the 10 commandments, individualism, future orientation, iconoclastic tendency, importance of words/language and complex gender relations. 3. Islam: the fastest-growing religion in the world, Muhammad preached that he was the last prophet. The core beliefs of Islam include the divine unity, the prophets, revelation (through scriptures), Angelic agency (there are angels all around), the last judgement and life after death, and the supremacy of God's will (predestination). The 5 pillars of faith of Islam include (1) the repetition of the creed (2) prayer (3) Almsgiving (4) fasting (5) pilgrimage. Islams value a dependency on God, gender rules, art and architecture: must be geometric. 4. Confucianism: based on teachings by Confucius (551-478BC, its focus is on social order and harmony. The Analects, written by Confucius' disciples are a collection of his sayings and have a deep influence on the culture of Asian countries. Some important Confucian teachings include 1 benevolence, 2 righteousness 3 propriety 4 knowledge 5 integrity/trustworthiness. Other Confucian virtues include loyalty, forgiveness, filial piety, self-restraint and shame. Fonfucianism affects interpersonal relationships by valuing empathy, status awareness, adherence to protocol/etiquette, indirectness in communication to ensure social harmony. Confucianism naturalises unequal relationships and values the family as the prototype for social organization. 5. Buddhism: A religion established across South and East Asia, founded in 563 by a prince who became "enlightened". The basic assumption is that humans are responsible, through personal effort, for 'saving' themselves. Although there is no 'god' concept, there does seem to be an above human levels system of cosmology (karma). THe 4 noble truths in Buddhism is: (1) Life is dukkha (suffering) (2) dukkha is caused by desire, craving or greed (3) escape from dukkha is possible (4)the solution is through the Noble 8fold path; the goal is nirvana. The 8-fold path includes: having the right 1 view/knowledge 2 intention/motivation/commitment 3 speech 4 action/behaviour 5 livelihood 6 effort 7 mindfulness 8 concentration. Important teachings of Buddhism includes enlightment to be found within yourself through living a right life, all things are impermanent, karma is an action-consequence chain, you are responsible for your own 'salvation' (not God) and you should concentrate on daily human life, not supernatural speculation. 6. Hinduism: a complex of differnent philosophical points of view rather than a fixed common set of beliefs. No single founder or prophet and is said to be pantheistic (all is God) or polytheistic (many gods) but there is no fixed view of 'god' among the different philosophies. Basic Hindu teachings include: (1) alternate reality (2) Brahman (divine ultimate reality) (3) discovery of self (meditation, good deeds, karma) (4) multiple paths. Hindus are tolerant of other religions, Hinduism may have an effect on the caste system in India, and may play a role in colllectivism. Hunduism has many powerful female deities and female gurus. Male and female are seen as complementary.

what are the functions of culture?

1. To improve the adaption of people to a particular ecology, including the knowledge people need to function effectively in their social environment 2. To filter and interpret the physical and social worlds into more predictable, less perplexing patterns i.e. beliefs, values, customs language etc. 3. To satisfy basic needs (food, shelter, physical contact), derived needs (organization of work, distribution of food, deference and social control) and integrative needs (psychological security, social harmony, purpose in life).

what are genre structures and scripts in reference to discourse analysis?

A genre is a speech event that has a communicative goal shared by the members of a particular discourse community. A script is a sequence of communicative events and sub-events tied to a particular communicative situation, including routinized sequences linked with a schema. Not every script is universal: e.g. in some countries, cashiers don't greet or thanks, and some turns may be non-verbal.

what is the difference between a homogeneous and heterogeneous culture?

A homogeneous culture is made up mostly of one group where members are very similar whereas a heterogeneous culture is a collective of varied distinguishable groups where the members are not all the same.

what are Hockett's features of language?

1. Vocal auditory channel (criticized for not recognizing sign language) 2. Rapid fading (message does not linger in time or space) 3. Interchange-ability (the utterance can be produced by different speakers) 4. Total feed-back (speakers can perceive what they are transmitting and make corrections if they make errors in communication) 5. Semanticity (the meaning of words are not accidental but denote particular concepts) 6. Arbitrariness (there is no logical connection between the words we use and their meaning -unlike onomatopoeic words) 7. Discreteness (there is an abrupt difference in meaning caused by each separate element in a word) 8. Specialization (the main function of the signal is to communicate) 9. Displacement (linguistic messages may refer to things remote in time and space) 10. Productivity/Creativity (new words can be created and language is open-ended) 11. Cultural/Traditional transmission (the convention of a language is learned socially) 12. Duality (of patterning) (a large number of words are made up of a small number of meaningless but message-differentiating elements) 13. Prevari-cation (linguistic messages can be false, deceptive, or meaningless) 14. Reflexive-ness (one can communicate about the communication system (language) itself) 15. Learnability (a speaker of one language can learn another language).

describe how our belief systems can shape a person's set of values?

1. practical considerations: not working on fridays, religious holidays, gender interaction 2. socio-philosophical and communication considerations: Confucian societies value hierarchy and respect for elders; nepotism may be viewed positively.

define prejudice

A biased view, pre-judgement or negative opinion of an individual or group, based on characteristics or historical factors rather than individual, present and actual grounds. E.g. Germans

define ethnicity

A co-culture derived from a shared sense of history, heritage, traditions, values, similar behaviours, area of origin and in some instances language, E.g. The Basques or the Roman Gypsies.

what are Hall's high-context and low-context orientations?

A culture's tendency to use high-context messages over low-context messages in routine communication. High-context: less/non-verbal/implicit communication, long-term relationships, multiple ties with others, face-saving important, decisions made face-to-face, shared/coded /implicit knowledge and rules, strong boundaries between insider-outsider. E.g. Japan, Native-American, Latin-America Low-context: verbal/explicit communication, shorter-term connections, task-centred decisions (guided by rules and divided by responsibilities), power asserted with knowledge, weak boundaries between insider/outsider. E.g. German, Swiss Australia

describe indulgence vs restraint

A dimension involving how much a society allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. High restraint is when a society suppresses gratification of those needs and regulates it using social norms. E.g. East Asia, Eastern Europe and Muslim world. High indulgence is correlated with sexual freedom and a call for human rights and free expression of opinions. E.g. Latin America, parts of Africa, Anglo world and Nordic Europe.

describe masculinity vs femininity

A masculine culture is one that is dominated by male-oriented values such as ambition, competition, strive for material success and respect for whatever is big, strong and fast. In this society there are defined social roles for men and women. This dimension is negatively correlated with the percentage of women in democratically elected governments. E.g. Japan, Austria, Italy, Switzerland. A feminine culture is one that values relationships and quality of life. People in this kind of culture are modest, caring, emotional and nurturing. E.g. Scandinavia, the Netherlands.

what are Lewis' linear-active, multi-active and reactive styles?

A model for analyzing broad cultural differences in conversation, such as when to be polite or direct, how often one should talk, when to interrupt, the value of patience/truth, what builds trust etc. The three styles are: 1. Linear-active: talks half the time, does one thing at a time, plans ahead step by step, polite but direct, partly conceals feelings, confronts with logic, dislikes losing face, rarely interrupts, job-oriented, uses mainly facts, truth before diplomacy, sometimes impatient, limited body language, respects officialdom, separates the social and professional. E.g. Germany, Switzerland, Luxembourg. 2. Multi-active: talks most of the time, does several things at one, plans grand outline only, emotional, displays feelings, confronts emotionally, has good excuses, often interrupts, people-oriented, feelings before facts, flexible truth, impatient, unlimited body language, seeks out key person, interweaves the social and professional. E.g. Mexico, Colombia, Italy. 3. Reactive: listens most of the time, reacts to partner's action, looks at general principles, polite/indirect, conceals feelings, never confronts, must not lose face, doesn't interrupt, very people-oriented, statements are promises, diplomacy over truth, patient, subtle body language, uses connections, connects the social and professional. E.g. Vietnam, China, Japan.

describe Grice's Cooperative Principle?

A principle that rational conversational participants assume each other is obeying, and which speakers may explote to generate implicatures. It's based on the assumption that in most exchanges participants are cooperating with one another. The four maxims are quality, quantity, relation and manner. The maxim of quality means to be truthful and do not say that which you lack adequate evidence. E.g. A: "did you enjoy the meal?" B: "Um, the rice was good, but the meat was overcooked." The maxim of quantity means to make your contribution as informative as is required but do not make your contribution more informative than is required. E.g. "where is the post office?" The maxim of relation means simply to be relevant. E.g. "how are you doing in school?" The maxim of manner means to be clear, avoid obscurity and avoid unnecessary prolixity. E.g. "can you clean the kitchen please?"

define race

A social construction commonly associated with external physical traits such as skin colour, facial appearance and eye shape arising from efforts to categorize people into different groups. E.g. The "Asian" race

what does 'mosaic' refer to?

A society where ethnic groups retain their separate identities but together form a community. In this culture there can be some integration or complete separation.

what does 'melting pot' refer to?

A type of society where ethnic groups blend harmoniously and something new is created out of the mix.

what are Kluckhohn and Strodbeck's value orientations?

A way to distinguish cultures on the basic of how they orientate towards or address five common human concerns (considered core values): 1. Human Nature: evil/mixed/good 2. Man-nature relationship: submissive/harmonious/dominant 3. Time sense: past/present/future 4. Activity: being/becoming/doing 5. Social relations: hierarchical/collateral/individualistic

define acquisition and learning and how they differ

Acquisition is the subconscious and almost incidental learning where the learner is focused more on communicating than on the language. Learning, however, is conscious; where the learner focuses on language rules and grammar. Errors are often corrected. It is similar to school learning/formal instruction).

what is the difference between an ascribed and avowed identity?

An ascribed identity is one which is "pushed from the outside" or foisted onto people using easily visible features such as race (based on government/police need for categories) or sex (based on biology). An avowed identity on the other hand is an internal self-appellation that is accepted from within and enacted in specific contexts. E.g. ethnicity (based on how you see your own sociocultural background) or gender (how you feel about yourself).

what is the difference between an emic and etic approach?

An emic approach is an insider's understanding of all parameters of the communication event e.g. participant observation, interviews, questionnaires, designed to gain an 'insider's view'. An etic approach is an outsider's view or a culture-neutral view.

define communicative competence vs. linguistic intercultural competence

Communicative competence is a focus on the social and actual practice of language. A person who is communicatively competent must have social knowledge about what type of language to use and when and for what purpose/effect and appropriateness. It includes grammatical, socioloinguistic, discourse and strategic competence. Linguistic intercultural competence on the other hand deals with different linguistic and cultural norms in situations that are not monolingual or cannot assume shared discourse norms. To be linguistically interculturally competent, regardless of your proficiency of language, you are aware that your communicative norms may be different from your interlocutor's and you are able to adapt successfully, negotiate a middle ground or at least communicate about the differences.

describe communciative norms

Communicative norms is a general term for the conventions regarding: a) whether certain social functions should be conducted verbal or non-verbally (e.g. apologising for bumping into a stranger; thanking a cashier) b) how talk and silence are differently valued; ratio of verbal to non-verbal communication; the role and nature of questions c) how discourse norms are conventionalised (what should be said in a particular social situation (e.g. answering a phone call, bidding farewell,) in what sequence, by whom

how are implicit values shaped through language?

Concepts that matter more are used more frequently, or frozen into fixed expressions or common idioms (e.g. Wierzbicka's Australian Key Words)

define mainstream culture

Culture made up of the values, beliefs and behaviour of the dominant group in a society. E.g. the mainstream culture of Australia is white Anglo-Saxon and Christian

what dimensions can we pick up in the function of family?

During family life, people can pick up the notion of gender roles, collectivism/individualism, perception of age/seniority, social skills (e.g. politeness), behaviour towards out-groups, rules of eye contact and NVCs, cooperative or competitive behaviour, attitude towards the law and accountability for mistakes, value of education and self-sacrifice (e.g. Asian parenting)

what is the difference between ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism?

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view your own culture as superior to any other. E.g. The White Australia Policy. Ethnorelativism is the tendancy to view your own ethnic's attitudes, behaviour and values as not the only normal or correct ones.

what is face, facework and face-threatening acts?

Face is an individual's public self-image including the emotional and social sense of self that every person has and expects everyone else to recognise. Facework is the management of face concerns and face needs in interaction, personal and social well-being. FTA's are acts that represent a threat to a person's self image.

describe directness and indirectness in reference to conversational styles in discourse analysis?

In conversational style, directness refers to a habitual way of talking in which speakers do not avoid issues but 'get to the point'. E.g. US An indirect communicative style is a habitual way of talking in which speakers tend to avoid issues, hesitate and talk in circles. E.g. East Asians/Mexicans/high-context cultures- try to preserve face of others

describe individualism vs. collectivism

Individualism is a cultural pattern that values each person as unique, special and completely different from all other individuals. The interests of the individual are paramount and all values, rights and duties originate in individuals. This dimension is correlated with national wealth and intergenerational mobility in social class. E.g. USA, Australia, UK. Collectivism is a cultural pattern that values community, collaboration, shared interest, harmony, tradition, the public good and mainting face. The defining factor is their concern with relationships. These relationships form a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups and the people rely on in-groups to look after them, and in exchange they owe loyalty to the group. E.g. Asia, Africa, Pakistan.

what are Hofstede's value dimensions?

Individualism vs. collectivism, Uncertainty avoidance Power distance Masculinity vs. femininity Long-term vs. short term Indulgence vs. restraint

what is interlanguage and fossilization?

Interlanguage is the emerging linguistic system of a non-fluent second language learner or the linguistic system that is in between the two languages; drawing on both, but operating independently. Absolute beginners might simply translate word-for-word and learners might exploit the logic of the still-developing interlanguage grammar. Fossilization is a common process or state of stagnation in language learning. Learners can become stuck at the interlanguage level. You can get past this plateau only through exceptional motivation and effort. Fossilization describes non-proficiency even after years of exposure.

what is languaculture?

Languaculture melds the two concepts of language and culture, signifying the inextricable intermeshing of the two. When humans are socialised/enculturated into language, it is loaded with culture. When being acculterated to L2, it is normal to learn a new languageculture.

describe the term 'language crossing' and the notions of style shifting and code-mixing/-switching

Language crossing is a particular kind of code-switching that has to do with the strategic doing of an 'act of cultural identity' (i.e. marking group identity) to show solidarity or distance towards interlocutors or particular languacultures. E.g. using Chinese to sound more persuasive to a mainly Chinese audience on a critical point, then using English to express modernity. Style shifting is shifting in lexis and accent e.g. radio interview between two African-American DJ's and an African-American singer. Code-switching is the interchanging of language in conversation.

define the power and functions of language

Language functions as: -phatic communication (non-informational discourse used for social bonding) -emotive expression -thinking (formulation of concepts and links between them) -control of reality (speech acts can cause things to happen, or cause people to act) -keeping of history (oral tradition or written archives) -enculturation (learning of world views, practices and values) -expression of identity (consciously and unconsciously: language reveals information about your age, sex, regional origins, level of education, occupation etc.

how is language different from a communication system?

Language is the basis of human culture: through language we construct social institutions such as religion, family, and history, and through language we conduct economic and scientific activity and intercultural encounters.

what is linguistic pragmatics?

Linguistic pragmatics is the study of context-dependent meaning, i.e. the study of the interpretation of utterance/sentences in actual contexts of use. Linguistic pragmatics involves Austin and Searle's speech act theory, Grice's Cooperative Principle and speech acts across cultures.

describe long term vs short term orientation

Long-term orientation is a view that values long-range goals, actions and attitudes that bring future rewards, e.g. persistence, adapting to changing circumstances and saving money. E.g. China, Japan, South Korea Short-term orientation is where actions or attitudes of people are affected by the past or present and there is no need to make decisions that affect the future i.e. no need to save money. E.g. Australia, UK, Nth America

what is the difference between integrative and instrumental motivation?

Motivation is a key factor in learning a L2. Integrative motivation is a desire to interact with or become part of a target culture, due to appreciation for that target culture and having incentives to learn the language of that culture. Using language for social interaction is important. This form of motivation produces successful language learners. Instrumental motivation is wanting to learn a language for the purpose of obtaining some practical goal such as a job, graduation, or the ability to read academia. It is less likely to lead to success, but still has the ability.

what does 'culture as a perceptual framework' refer to?

Perception is the process of selecting, organizing and interpreting sensory data in a way that enables us to make sense of our world. The process includes: Selection: consciouusly seeing only what we are paying attention to and selectively retaining information if it is consistent with our beliefs, attitudes and cultural values. During the selection process, we have the tendency for (i) closure: filling in the gaps even when they're incomplete (ii) familiarity: recognizing the familiar aspect of things rather than unfamiliar (iii) expectation: seeing what we expect to see, and hearing what we expect to hear 2. Categorization: using cognitive shortcuts to group people, things, and events based on perceived familiarities 3. Interpretation: attaching meaning (strongly influenced by what you already know and believe)

describe positive and negative language transfer

Positive language transfer is when two languages may share some grammatical features (e.g. adjectives in front of nouns; subjects before berbs) or lexical items (e.g. accompagnare Italian = accompany English). Negative language transfer includes false friends that are negatively transferred (e.g. confrontare Italian does not = pconfront. preservative English does not = preservatif French)

describe power distance

Power distance is the extent to which an unequal distribution of power is accepted by members of a society. High-power distance is where individuals accept power as part of a society and members are taught that people are not equal and everybody has a rightful place (this can be taught consciously or unconsciously). This cultural pattern highlights the importance put on status and rank, and there is a larger proportion of supervisory personnel and a structured value system that determines the worth of each job. This cultural pattern is correlated with the use of violence in domestic politics and with income inequality. E.g. Malaysia, Mexico, Arab countries. Low-power distance entails the belief that inequality should be minimized and power is guided by laws and norms. People in power (supervisors, managers, government officials) try to look less powerful than they really are. E.g. Austria, Israel, Denmark.

describe the concept of pragmatic failure (pragmalinguistic vs sociopragmatic failure)

Pragmatic failure is the inability on the part of the hearer to understand the intended sense/reference of the speaker's words in the context in which they are uttered. It is when the hearer perceives the force of the speaker's utterance as other than the speaker intended he/she to perceive it.

give examples of speech acts across cultures

Requests: indirect/directness E.g. English-speaker "could you tell me the way to X street?" Israeli people "where is X street?" or German-speakers "can you move up a bit? other people also need to board" (normal part in German script, different pragmatic force) Acknowledgements: E.g. English-speaker -verbal acknowledgement, Singaporean speaker -non-verbal. Accepting offers: Koreans- eventually accept. Refusing offers: Asian cultures- say yes anyway Compliments: different across cultures- 'your hat really suits you' Japanese

define the term sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationships between language and social structures/groups.

define stereotypes and generalizations and differ between the two

Stereotypes are an exaggerated belief often based on a lack of information or actual contact but believed to be true of all members of a group. It is often applied to an individual and is usually used in order to be negative. E.g. Asians are smart. In contrast, a generalization is a careful statement of average tendency that is usually based on empirical evidence and used with the knowledge that it does not apply all the time. E.g. 80% of X are found to...

what is discourse analysis?

The analysis of language that goes beyond the clause or sentence, especially texts, including the sequencing of utterance or sentences that makes up a text. It incorporates both speech and writing. The two broad areas of discourse analysis are: 1) the organisation or structure of texts including sequencing/turn-taking/rate/pause/flow of information/overall conversational style and 2) The ideology, identity, culture or power embedded in texts (as structured through and reflected in language choices)

what is multiculturalism?

The doctrine that several different cultures (rather than one national culture) can coexist peacefully and equitably in a single country. E.g. Australia

define discrimination

The expression of prejudice where a person is treated differently based on the grounds of race, age, sex or other things. E.g. treated a woman differently in the workplace simply based on the fact that she is a woman.

what are the functions of family?

The functions of family life include primary enculturation and the formulation of identity.

describe the critical period hypothesis (CPH)

The idea that one must learn language within a certain critical window of time beyond which language acquisition is much more difficult and effortful. Learning a language depends on: 1) emotions/affect 2) motivation 3) time 4) input

what is a contextualisation cue?

The linguistic marker of a language crossing. It may be verbal, prosodic (stress, rhythm, intonation), paralinguistic (gestures, facial language) and non-verbal that help speakers hint at or clarify or guide their listener's interpretations of what is said. The cues contextualise or put the utterances within a framework of interpretation that tell interlocutors something. These are emic cues. Some cues, however, are unintended or due to interference from a different languaculture.

what are the elements of culture?

There are many elements of culture including religion, history, values (including value dimensions, orientations, styles), social organization and domains (including family, business, education, health care contexts where cultures interact), and language (including pragmatics and communication styles).

how is language the basis of human culture?

Through language we construct social institutions such as religion, family, and history, and through language we conduct economic and scientific activity, and intercultural encounters.

describe uncertainty avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance describes the tolerance a society has for uncertainty and ambiguity. High-uncertainty avoidance is a cultural pattern where the society needs established social, behavioural and communication protocol such as written rules, planning, ceremonies and regulations. In these cultures there is an intolerance of deviant ideas and behaviours and there is resistance to change. This dimension is associated with Roman Catholicism and with the legal obligation in developed countries for citizens to carry identity cards. E.g. Greece, Portugal, Peru. Low-uncertainty avoidance is a cultural pattern where uncertainty is easily accepted as inherent in life. This type of culture tends to be more tolerant of the unusual and is not as threatened by different ideas and people. E.g. Singapore, Jamaica, Denmark.

what are values?

Values are enduring attitudes about the prefereabiulity of one belief over another. Values are normative (based on and enforce average behaviours) and evaluative (used to critique/judge) and can be non-rational (bypassing your logic and consciousness. We have values about what is evil, dangerous, beautiful, normal, rational, dirty, decent, natural, immoral.