Final review ap environmental

List four innovations that led to the Green revolution

(1) artificial selection of GMO (3) Synthetic pesticides/herbicides (2) Irrigation (4) Synthetic fertilizers

Arrange the following foods in order of highest to lowest in terms of global production: corn (maize); rice; wheat.

(1) corn (2) wheat (3) rice

four most populated countries in the world.

(1)China (2)India (3)U.S (4)Indonesia

The percent rate of growth

(crude births+ immigration)-(crude deaths+ emigration)/1000 = r

Temperate Grassland (Prairie)

-40 to 60 N near deserts -Four seasons; precipitation low to moderate Plants - thick grasses- length is dependent on rainfall (shorter with lower rainfall; higher where it borders forests); withstand fire and heat; dies back in winter and enriches soil Animals - lack of trees= ground nesting and many burrowing animals; herbivores common

Temperate Deciduous Forest

-Between 40-60° N -Four Seasons & enough rain 30-60" yearly to support trees Plants - drop leaves in fall and go dormant to survive winter; enriches soil with leaf litter Animals - migrate, hibernate or have thick fur/downy feathers and fat to survive winter

Tropical Grasslands (Savanna)

-Between rainforests and deserts around 0-30; Africa, South America -Dry seasons in winter; wet season in summer; hot year round Plants - grasses; survive droughts and fire Animals - largest collection of herbivores; classic examples of resource partitioning with plant diet and watering hole communities

Desert

-Form at 30 and on leeward side of mountains -Dry and hot; direct sun Plants - succulents store water; build long root systems to absorb water during rain surges Animals - often nocturnal to avoid heat of day; burrowing; conserve water; many ectotherms.

Tropical Rain Forest

-Near the equator -High precipitation and humidity; high temperatures year round Plants - Epiphytes, bromeliads, orchids, palms, rubber trees, large/tall trees form canopies as they compete for sunlight Animals - Rainforests are populated with insects (like butterflies and beetles), arachnids (likespiders and ticks), worms, reptiles (like snakes and lizards), amphibians (like frogs and toads), birds (like parrots and toucans) and mammals (like sloths and jaguars). Different animals live in different strata of the rainforest.

Taiga (Boreal) Forest

-Northern portions of US and Canada; Russia and Eurasia -Cold with snowfall most of the year Plants - coniferous trees; needles conserve water and conical shape and flexible branches help shed snow accumulation without tree damage Animals - Many herbivores; often eat bark, lichen and grasses; migrate, hibernate or have thick fat/fur for warmth

List two environmental benefits of wetlands.

-flood control -natural filter

Explain what two issues can result from over- irrigation of crops in arid regions of the world.

1) erosion- high amounts of water sprayed on the crops can cause erosion of top soil- increases sedimentation and nutrient load in bodies of surface water 2) Often irrigation overdraws from surface or groundwater source causing subsidence (caving/sinking of land) and draws salts from the soil into the water/surface of soil leading to salinization

Tundra (Cold Grassland)

60-90 N; near arctic Dry and cold; indirect sun Plants - low growing plants with short growing (and flowering) seasons stay low to avoid high winds Animals - herbivores; animals migrate here during summer for safer nesting sites,

balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Write an equation for the rule of 70

70/r = doubling time (in years)

Tell me about water on the earth

71% of the Earth is covered with water. Of all the water on Earth 96.5% of it is saltwater, 1.7% is frozen, and 2.5% is available and relatively accessible.

What was the Green Revolution and why is it important?

A large increase in crop production in developing countries achieved by the use of fertilizer, pesticides and high-yield crop varieties; helped provide food security throughout the world; lead to a large spike in exponential human population growth by increasing biotic potential

Mutualism

A relationship between two species in which both species benefit (Rhino and tick bird)

Parasitism

A relationship in which one organism lives on or in a host and harms it. (Emerald ash borer and ash trees)

explain what a watershed is and why it is significant.

A watershed includes all the area of land water travels across on its way to a body of water. It can move via percolation/infiltration and/or surface runoff. The route the water takes determines the water quality. Surface runoff tends to pick up more sediment, nutrients and pollution depending on the land use. The more development and impervious surfaces (paved land) creates more pollution and runoff, typically. The more infiltration and percolation leads to cleaner water since the ground/rock can filter it. This is more common in natural settings, especially those with plants.

What strategies can be used in the following issues to conserve soil nutrients while preventing erosion, desertification and/or salinization?

Agricultural practices -Intercropping (planting in rows between crops); contour planting (planting around hills instead of down); strip cropping (alternating types of crops); polyculture (planting many different types of plants); shelter belts (rows of trees that break wind); crop rotation (season to season alternating types of plants; especially legumes to help replace nitrogen); no-till or conservation tillage (replenishes soil with mulched plants or leaving most of plant in ground and only harvesting portion needed for sale) Urban development- Using porous pavement; Avoiding development on flood plains, urban gardens; phytoremediation (using plants to control/filter water); rooftop gardens; use filters or traps to prevent soil from entering storm drains River channelization- Building levees outside perimeter of flood plains to preserve flood plains; using parks and agriculture for flood plains; stabilize banks of rivers by planting or preserving forests and grasses (maintain a riparian zone); Deforestation- sustainable forestry practices; avoid clear cutting; selective logging thins the forest; only removing the most valuable/useful tree species; Mining- use of covers that hold back soil such as degradable covers or vegetation; use of terraces to minimize slopes; shelterbelt

explain how each of the following anthropogenic issues contribute to erosion

Agricultural practices Conventional tilling practices harvests the crops by removing the entire plant from the soil; can expose soil and remove plants which anchor it. Planting crops in rows down hillsides creates gullies that allow soil to move via water. Urban development- Moving soil to build homes/businesses exposes subsoil and removes topsoil; often sits disturbed for long periods to time leading to erosion; urban areas also have more impervious surfaces (paved) which can carry soil River channelization- Rivers are dredged (dug deeper), straightened, contained by levees (hills that are built along flood plains) and currents are manipulated by dikes that prevent sediment to build up along river edges; makes water swifter and carries more sediment downstream to the mouth of the river. Deforestation- Removing forests by clear cutting or burning exposes soil; No tree root systems to anchor the soil Mining- In surface mining (especially mountaintop removal); large amounts of rock and soil are moved and deposited along hillsides (tailings); these piles can erode easily down the mountain.

What types of factors would determine a species' ecological niche? What is the purpose of a niche?

An ecological niche is the combination of all behaviors that an organism uses to decrease competition and increase access to resources, leading to its survival. Factors include but are not limited to: feeding behaviors- trophic level, interactions with others species (such as mutualism, commensalism, parasitism), predation behaviors, mating behaviors, migration, hibernation, etc.

The acronym GMO refers to Genetically Modified Organism which is

Any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques- Pros- often used as artificial selection for drought/ pest resistant crops; increases crop yield; tolerant to herbicides; produce fruits without seeds, increases shelf life or enrich nutrients, increases food security; can grow GMOs in less than optimal conditions Cons- can threaten biodiversity (especially insects); can lead to antibiotic resistance in bacteria; unstudied health impacts (allergies, cancers, gene ownership of modified seeds creates political and property conflict

Contrast resource use in each demographic stage.

As a country becomes more developed, they tend to acquire more material goods and have more wealth to afford luxuries including a variety of food from many regions of the world. Imported goods are common and overall resource consumption and single use items are used.

How does the solar intensity and atmospheric convection currents influence the location of the major biomes?

As air rises and condenses, it causes precipitation leading to forested regions (trees require more water so you find them in regions with higher precipitation. Deserts typically form at 30 degrees because the dry air sinks there and little water is available to support plant life. This repeats itself with rain at 60 and dry biomes at 90. The temperature is influenced by direct sun so it's hot at the equator and colder at the poles.

How is the stage of demographics directly related to the economy of a country?

As countries progress through the demographic transitions, poverty reduces and economic and social advances progress due to lower family size, women in the workforce, more advanced education and access to technology.

In what regions of the world is population density the greatest concern? How is population distribution a food and water security issue?

Bangladesh, India, China. With dense urban areas, competition for quality food, water and shelter resources is high and pollution builds up creating health issues due to sewage, waste and urban degradation. There tends to be more poverty... wealth equals health

What was the Green Revolution and why is it important?

Beginning of industrial farming- introduction of scientifically breed or selected varieties of grain (rice, wheat, maize) that, with adequate inputs of fertilizer and water, can greatly increase crop yields and food security for more people; large influence on exponential growth world wide due to reduction of environmental resistance for food.

Strengthen this weak statement: "Protecting endangered species like the Giant Panda costs too much and should be stopped."

Biodiversity and the protection of forest habitats in an important factor of stable and productive ecosystems. Preservation of forest leads to greater species richness and species eveness, cleans the air and water through filtration and provides humans with economic services such as food, lumber, and fuel. By investing money to protect the bamboo habitat, you would protect your forest investment while protecting the Panda populations as well. The benefits of this strategy would outweigh the costs involved.

bacteria

Breakdown of organic wastes and other toxins

What climatic patterns determines the type of biome an area will have?

Convection cells for when warm air rises and condenses in the upper atmosphere; the cold air becomes more dense leading to precipitation. As it cools it sinks and moves across the land; this dry cell of air causes drier climates. It evaporates moisture from land and gains water, heating and then rises again. This process repeats itself across the globe. Biomes near the equator receive more direct sunlight and have higher atmospheric temperatures than those at the poles who receive indirect sun and lower temperatures.

Describe how the ocean currents, temperature and gas concentrations are directly related to those of the atmosphere.

Convection currents form in the ocean just as they do with the atmosphere. Warmer water rises (upwelling) and cold water sinks creating currents. Salt in the water makes it more dense, similar to temperature. Cold arctic regions draw large quantities of CO2 from the atmosphere and draws it down to deep ocean. Therefore, CO2 is highest concentration within sinking currents.

Climatic warming

Current increase in carbon dioxide is warming the atmosphere and creating shifts in the climate- changes in average temperature and precipitation. This changes ranges of organisms, increases severe weather and changes availability of resources; putting pressure on organisms (fitness)

Explain what human activities lead to

Desertification- the loss of nutrients in the soil due to overuse; caused often by overgrazing; which removes plants and organic matter from surface that would have decomposed and nourished the soil; also can be caused by monocultures; too many plantings of the same type of crops over many growing seasons removes nutrients from soil; often plants such as corn can be "nutrient hungry" drawing too much of a nutrient from the soil and never replacing it. Salinization- Often due to over-irrigation in arid regions; Overdrawing water from a water source can cause salts to leach up from the subsoil and contaminate water; hinders plant growth

Contrast the types of disease you find in developed countries versus undeveloped countries.

Developed countries have more diseases related to advanced age (cancers), pollution, and heart disease (due to diet and lifestyle). Developing countries tend to have infectious diseases due to contaminated water and under or malnutrition.

Describe how solar insolation shown at the right affects wind currents and precipitation patterns.

Direct sun warms the air, causing it to rise. As it rises, the altitude causes the temperature to fall. The cooler air becomes more dense forming condensation and eventually precipitation. The cold, dry air will sink; creating a convection current.

why freshwater is considered a(n):

Ecosystem service- Include all the benefits humans gain from healthy ecosystems- ecosystem services are food production, water security, control of climate and disease and nutrients available for food. They are benefits the environment gives us for survival. Freshwater is essential for all living organisms making it an ecosystem service. Economic service- economic services are resources from the environment that humans can use for business; to make money. Some water sources are commons but many have private rights and/or are bottled for sale or economically support industry such as hydroelectric dams, irrigation canals or reservoirs. Global security issue- Water is unevenly distributed throughout the world. Some locations have it in excess and others have too little. Many arid countries; especially those with high rates of poverty have poor water security. The water may be contaminated with pathogens and/or too far or too limited to support the population. Natural capital- the world's stocks of all the natural assets in the geology, soil, air, water, living organisms, that provide services to support human life. Water is a valuable resource and rights to water or maintaining water quality so it can be used can be complicate the amount of water that can be used.

The acronym ENSO refers to

El Nino Southern Oscillation a phenomenon that occurs in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean.

environmental resistance and biotic potential.

Environmental resistance- environmental pressures that limit population growth due to lack of essential resources needed for survival; biotic potential is when resources are plentiful and competition is low.

Explain what evapotranspiration is and why it is significant.

Evaporation of water off plants. This water is an important source of water to determine climate.

Earthquakes/formations of canyons

Fault lines and canyons can create gaps in land where animals can no longer access; limits migration patterns and isolates organisms geographically from one another; no cross over in gene pool means they evolve independently from each other.

wetland

Filtration of streams; sediment control; nesting for fish and bird species

If a forest is fragmented due to deforestation, explain how the edge effects impact species diversity and population sizes.

Forest fragmentation reduces the range organisms have to migrate, it reduces the availability of nutrients and resources for the food web. It also changes many abiotic factors- less shade/more sun changes the types of plants that grow on the edges of forests, essentially changing the types of primary producers in the forest, its temperature and can affect water and soil quality with increased erosion and sedimentation. Fragmented forests often have more small, opportunist species and pests which can lead to the spread of disease- for example lyme disease is found in higher rates in fragmented ecosystems due to the increase of rodents who have little to no predators. (The rodent predators need larger territory)

Contrast genetic, ecosystem and species biodiversity

Genetic biodiversity means there is a variety of DNA alleles or variations within a population; ecosystem biodiversity is a variety of microecosystems or habitats for organisms to occupy- more opportunity for specialization and resource partitioning; species biodiversity means that a community has a large variety of different species- creating more complex and healthy food webs and species interactions.

characteristics of a K-selected species

High parental care, low reproductive rate

Explain two reasons why a population can continue to grow even if fertility rates decrease.

Immigration causes increases in population size even if native citizens are having less children (this is why the USA has high populations and lower fertility rate). Population momentum can cause increase in population size- when generations have high fertility rates and then the following generation reduces their rate; there are still a lot of people having children.

Contrast industrial versus integrated pest management strategies of controlling pests.

Industrial methods will use synthetic pesticides (chemicals) which create issues with biodiversity; persistence, resistance and toxicity IPM strategies use first: cultural control- crop choice (rotation), second: biological control- natural predators (like breeding lady bugs), third: mechanical control- monitoring for pests, use of indicator species, trapping and cultivation;, finally: chemical control (pheromones, pesticides)

Explain four methods of sustainable agriculture practices that help reduce erosion and desertification.

Intercropping- plantings between the rows of crops that stabilize the soil and if they are legumes; enrich nitrogen into the soil. Planting - contour planting (planting around hills); terracing (building flat steps on the hill to eliminate the slope); shelter belts- strips of trees planted to block wind and prevent erosion. Crop rotation- changing the type of crops you plant year to year Strip cropping- alternating rows or regions of the type of crops you plant within the same year Tilling- conservation tillage mulches plant to return nutrients to soil; no-till collects only the portion of the plant needed for food and leaving the roots behind to anchor soil

List specific water conservation strategies for the following situations

Irrigation in agriculture- drip irrigation; delivers water directly to plants to reduce surface runoff or evaporation. Municipal use- consumer saving strategies (such as turning off water when brushing; taking shorter showers and only running dishwashers/laundry when full), harvesting rainwater in barrels for grass/plants; auditing fixtures in homes for leaks; reducing use if irrigation by planting native plants/xeriscaping, installing low water demand toilets, faucets and showerheads. Hydroelectric energy production- reducing energy use in the municipality will require the power plant to generate less Industrial use- use systems that recycle water for repeated use; cooling towers to reduce evaporation; modify equipment to reduce water consumption, used recycled materials which use less water to purify the materials

The acronym CAFO refers to Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation which is important because

It is the designation for industrial animal production where large amounts of animals are raised in confinement for food. CAFOs have a significant impact on environmental health including nutrient runoff into water sources, spread of contagious disease due to conditions (and the use of antibiotics and growth hormones). Pros- increases the amount of food available to population (food security); industrialized farming can be accomplished cheaper than other types

Explain what evapotranspiration is and why it is significant.

It is the evaporation of water off the surface of plant leaves. Evapotranspiration contributes to weather and climate.

explain what surface and groundwater issues occur in Aral Sea

Large sea in the middle east that supported a huge fishing industry until the 1960s. In the arid region, farmers began to grow cotton monocultures that overdrew large amounts of water from the sea for irrigation leading to salinization. Today the sea is only 10% of its original size; biodiversity is low- food webs have crashed- and diseases in the region are rampant due to lack of freshwater and food security.

Ice Age

Long term reduction of the Earth's surface temperature resulted in changes in polar ice sheets and glaciers; changed the climate on Earth and lead to extinction of many organisms (such as sabertooth tiger and mammoth) who could not adapt.

Describe some strategies for sustainability in urban regions.

Mass transit in the form of subways, bus systems; green spaces break up impervious surfaces; reclamation of brownfields (hazardous waste sites); use of renewable fuels; urban and roof top gardens for fresh food and reduction of heat island effect; LEED buildings- use of efficient lighting systems; low-VOC emitting carpets and furniture; low flow water systems; ventilation to reduce indoor air pollution; properly placed windows for temperature maintenance and daylight

bat

Mosquito population control; plant pollination; seed dispersal

What are the main types of pesticides? What does it mean when a pesticide is persistent?

Named after the type of pest they kill (herbicides- plants; rodenticides- rodents; fungicides- fungus); first-generation pesticides- used prior to 1940s and banned due to high toxicity or ineffectiveness (arsenic, mercury, lead); Second generation are synthetic organic compounds; persistence- means the chemical persists (doesn't decompose) for in the environment; dangerous because it can travel with erosion into waterways and builds up in the food chain leading to bioaccumulation and biomagnification.

Explain how preserving biodiversity is directly related to the availability of natural capital

Natural capital is all the world's stocks or resources that are available to make life possible. Humans, being organisms, need resources for survival (and take more than that for comfort or collection). This is classified as ecosystem services and include lumbar, minerals, ore, water, food, etc. The more biodiversity= the more variety of quality resources available for us.

Explain how biodiversity increases the survival of a species during the process natural selection and evolution.

Natural selection is the process of fit organisms surviving longer and obtaining resources needed for survival. With survival comes opportunity for reproduction and more offspring. The offspring inherit the fit genes and the cycle repeats. Overtime, the number of organisms with that fit gene are majority of the population leading to evolution. The more biodiversity, the greater the gene pool. Variety within the genetic makeup allow species to have better ability to withstand sickness and adapt to change, making a stronger population.

island formation

New islands offer empty niches that organisms who can migrate to the landforms can fill with little to no competition and threat of predation. Causes adaptive radiation (formation of new species)

explain what an El Niño event is and why it is significant.

Normal conditions: northward flowing currents bring cold water from the Southern Pacific up to South America's tropical west coast. Upwelling occurs along coast of Peru. Along the equator trade winds cause the upwellings to draw deeper ocean water to the surface to cool leading to warmer sea surface in the western Pacific compared to the Eastern Pacific. ElNino: Pressure systems shift leading to little to no upwellings. The cold water weakens or disappears completely causing warm water in Central and Eastern Pacific as well as in the west; leading to more rainfall events.

Japan, Indonesia and the Philippines are examples of volcanic island chains that have formed along subduction zones between plates in the western Pacific. Describe what happens when two tectonic plates collide along a subduction zone

One plate is pushed beneath the other; a trench may be formed at the subduction zone.

Explain how subduction leads to volcanic activity.

One plate is pushed down and melted as molten material/magma rises to the surface near the zone.

Identify three examples organic compounds and three examples of inorganic compounds

Organic: proteins,water, lipids (fats) Inorganic: oxygen,carbohydrate, and nitrogen oxides

What is different about growing plants hydroponically

Plants are grown without soil; in a mineral nutrient rich water solution

honey bee

Pollination of crops and orchards

Contrast what biotic and abiotic factors would be studied in a population, community and an ecosystem.

Population is a group of like species that live in the same habitat (biotic factors only). Community is a collection of all living (biotic) organisms in every trophic level who live in the same habitat. Ecosystem is the only level in this listing that includes abiotic and biotic factors. It includes all living organisms in a habitat and the land, water and air resources that make up their environment

Contrast primary and secondary ecological succession. What types of events cause each? Contrast the pioneer species found in each.

Primary succession begins with rocky land (no soil) such as in a volcanic eruption or retreating glacier. Pioneer species such as lichen must degrade the rock by excreting acids in order to first form soil. Then mosses and short grasses can grow, eventually creating more soil. As larger grasses and shrubs grow, soil grows deeper through mechanical weathering. Conifers replace the shrubs and then deciduous hardwoods (climax community) replace the conifers completing succession (change of an environment overtime). Secondary succession begins with soil due to the loss of plant materials such as with development, fire, etc. Since soil exists, grasses and shrubs will grow right away. Pioneer species are considered opportunists since conditions within the environment are not ideal. More competitive species subsequently replace the opportunists.

forest

Purification of air, water runoff and soil; prevention of erosion and excess sedimentation

water cycle

Purification; filtration of pollution from contaminated water sources

How does a species' range of tolerance directly relate to competition?

Range of tolerance represents the gap of acceptable conditions the species will feed, live, migrate to. Defines the upper and lower limits where a species cannot survive. These might be physical ranges of territory, preferred temperatures, water availability, etc. Often competing species will have ranges that do not overlap in order to avoid competition or organisms with very wide ranges adapt that way to increase their options.

Explain the rock cycle. What are the three types of rocks and the forces that convert one form to another?

Soil settles overtime creating layers. Upper layers apply pressure to lower layers pressing them into sheets/stratified rock= sedimentary rock. As sedimentary rock gets pushed deeper it heats up. The heat and pressure melts and molds it into metamorphic rock. Magma and molten rock reaches the surface such as a volcanic eruption and cools forming igneous rock.

coral reef

Storm protection and habitats for fish

Explain how the law of conservation of matter relates to the cycling of carbon through a food web.

The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity cannot be added nor removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time. Therefore, when carbon is converted- say from glucose to carbon dioxide, the total mass is never lost; it just changes state.

Carbon Cycle(building blocks)

The long organic circulation of carbon from the atmosphere into organisms and back again -Largest reservoir is rock

phosphorus cycle(used for minerals, bones and ATP)

The movement of phosphorus atoms from rocks through the biosphere and hydrosphere and back to rocks. -Methods of transport No atmosphere! Erosion, soil, assimilation, decomposition -The largest reservoir is rock

What causes seasons to occur in temperate zones?

The tilt of the earth of its axis

Nitrogen Cycle(Important in Dna)

The transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere -Methods of transport Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, denitrification -The largest reservoir is the Atmosphere

How do organisms use resource partitioning to avoid competition?

This is when species feed in a separate territory or region to avoid competition. For example, different species of birds may feed on different levels or heights of a plant.

Types of survivorship curves

Type 1- late loss; juvenile survival is high; longer life spans Type 2- constant loss; individuals die at equal rates regardless of age Type 3- early loss; high mortality of young, lower mortality in elderly

Contrast the national policies of the United States, China and India that directly impact the population growth rates of those countries.

US- provides citizens with health care systems that give options for family planning; reproductive health is taught in schools; avenues that make legal immigration possible- creates a low fertility rate but population is still growing due to immigration China- One child policy (now being phased out)- families are only to have only one child in exchange for government incentives including better job and education opportunities, access to healthcare and food security; fined for having more than one child; lead to high abortion/adoption rates for girls (culture prefers men) but overall an effect program to reduce fertility rate. India- largely unsuccessful family planning policy; aggressive female sterilization and family planning campaigns for poorly educated women;

Water Cycle

Universal solvent; drives chemical reactions within the body for metabolism and energy production. -method of transport Evaporation/ transpiration→ condensation →Precipitation → surface runoff /infilatration/percolation -largest reservoir is the ocean

percent change

Use the formula (new-old)/old

Contrast the processes of weathering and erosion.

Weathering is the breakdown of rock into soil by a physical/mechanical force (such as tree roots or freezing/thawing cycles), chemical reaction (such as through oxidation or acids). Erosion is the movement of rocks and soils often caused by wind or water.

What is a monoculture? What issues result from planting monocultures.

When farms grow only one type of crop year after year; creates an increase in pests (due to constant source of food) and often leads to the need for more pesticides; the crop will consistently need the same nutrient leading to desertification (loss of nutrients) in the soil and requiring fertilization; Often examples (like cotton in the Aral Sea regions) require irrigation and overdrawing from water source.

Tectonic plate movement (Pangea)

When the continents were linked together about 335 million years ago, there were larger gene pools because animals had greater range overlap; the continents began to drift apart around 175 million years ago, isolating species and changing climates; this lead to evolution on the continents in unique ways.

Nitrification

ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO3-).

Two islands, different distances from the mainland have different rates of extinction, this is explained by the theory of island

biogeography. (Isolated populations without gene flow will evolve in different ways in response to their unique environments. The closer the island is to the mainland, the greater species richness it'll have.

Arrange the particles in order of smallest to largest

clay, silt and sand

Which horizon do you find the following layers

illuviation layer B- mineral horizon that accumulates salts, clay and/or iron; often exposed due to erosion or development. Top soil A- Mineral horizon that forms at the surface; contains the most nutrient rich soil due to decomposition at the surface. Can experience leaching of nutrients to clay horizons below. Parent material C- material that hasn't had exposure to weathering Sub soil B Leaf litter O- organic material such as leaf litter exist at surface; may cover topsoil. *Some biomes have an R layer= bedrock or E layer- clay layer common in forests

explain what surface and groundwater issues occur in Ogallala Aquifer

in the Midwest; Large aquifer spans many Midwestern states within the breadbasket. The water from the aquifer is being withdrawn faster than it can recharge- causes subsidence (collapse of land/sink holes) and water shortages.

explain what surface and groundwater issues occur in Colorado river basin

lack of water; The Colorado river basin has many dams and irrigation canals that draw water from the river. This creates water shortages and even prevents the river from reaching the ocean. Since the Colorado river moves through arid portions of the country, there is greater pressures for water rights and use.

characteristics of an r-selected species

low parental care, high reproductive rate

Commensalism

one organism benefits and the other is unaffected (Epiphytes and tall trees in rainforests)

Denitrification

produces N2 (nitrogen gas)

Ammonification

produces ammonia

Nitrogen fixation

produces nitrates

Assimilation

produces proteins

Predation

the preying of one animal on others. (Owl hunting a mouse)

Competition

the struggle between organisms to survive in a habitat with limited resources (Animals of the savannah using the same water hole)