FIS 100 - Chapters 6 to 10 - REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR FiNALS

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 1. DEFINE UNITY OF COMMAND, SPAN OF CONTROL, AND DIVISION OF LABOR.

1.1 UNITY OF COMMAND Unity of command is the organizational concept that states a person can only report to one supervisor. Each subordinate reports to one superior up through the organizational structure. The chain of command is the organizational structure by which a pathway of responsibility is followed from the highest to the lowest level of the department. The fire chief may issue an order that filters through the chain of command until it turns into an assignment at the appropriate level. Unity of command ensures that all personnel within the chain of command are aware of an order. In this way, orders may be given for specific assignments without loss of accountability or control. In cases where unity of command is not followed, firefighters may be placed into a situation that requires them to report to more than one supervisor. Reporting to more than one supervisor may be potentially dangerous for the firefighter on the fireground, and it may result in other difficult situations for the firefighter. 1.2 SPAN OF CONTROL Span of control refers to the number of personnel one individual can effectively manage. There are situations in which span of control may vary slightly based on the complexity of the assignment and level of training and experience of the supervisor and subordinate. General Guidelines for Span of Control A general guideline for the fire service is that an officer can effectively supervise three to seven subordinates during emergency operations. However, officers may have responsibility for an additional number of subordinates in administrative applications. 1.3 DIVISION OF LABOR Division of labor is the practice of subdividing large jobs into smaller areas of responsibility that may be assigned to specific groups or individuals. The division of labor concept is used in the fire service for the following reasons: • To assign responsibility • To prevent duplication of effort • To assign specific goal-oriented tasks • To provide expertise regarding an assigned task

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 7. List factors that affect fire development.

A number of factors influence fire development within a compartment, including: • Fuel type • Availability and location of additional fuels • Compartment volume and ceiling height • Ventilation • Thermal properties of the compartment • Ambient conditions • Fuel load

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 9. What are the three classes of standpipe systems?

A standpipe system is an installation of wet or dry pipes used in large single-story or multistory buildings to provide water supply for fire fighting. An exterior fire department connection is used to allow fire department pumpers to supply water or augment the pressure and volume of the system to enhance fire fighting efforts. Hose connections are located at specific points within the building in a cabinet, hose station, or stairwell. Depending on the needs of occupancy, a standpipe system may be simple, consisting of a vertical pipe (riser) with hose connections and an Fire Department Connection (FDC). In other instances, a system may be quite complex, consisting of many risers, multiple fire pumps, and reservoirs located on upper floors for water storage. Standpipes may be designed to supply various diameters of hose based on the classifications that are discussed in the following section. Classes of Standpipe Systems NFPA® 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems, is often used for the design and installation of standpipe systems. This standard recognizes three classes of standpipe system: Class I, Class II, and Class III. Class I Standpipe Systems Firefighters trained in the operation of large 2 1⁄2-inch diameter handlines are the primary users of a Class I standpipe system. These systems are designed to supply effective fire streams for use during more advanced fires. Class I systems feature 2-1⁄2 inch hose connection attached to the standpipe riser (Figure 8.25). Class II Standpipe Systems Building occupants with no specialized fire fighting training are the intended users of a Class II standpipe system. These systems often feature a hose cabinet with 1 1⁄2-inch single jacket fire hose and a lightweight twist type shutoff nozzle. The hose connection on the standpipe riser is 1 1⁄2 inches in diameter. These installations are sometimes referred to as house lines. Class II systems are not as prevalent as they once were, however, firefighters may still encounter them (Figure 8.26). Class III Standpipe Systems A Class III standpipe system combines the features of Class I and Class II systems. These installations provide both a 2 1⁄2-inch connection and 1 1⁄2-inch connection. The design of the system should allow both to be used simultaneously (Figure 8.27).

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 6. Explain wet pipe and dry pipe applications of sprinkler systems.

Applications of Sprinkler Systems The following sections highlight the major applications of sprinkler systems. Firefighters should have an understanding of each type of system: 1. Wet pipe 2. Dry pipe 3. Preaction 4. Deluge 5. Residential Wet-Pipe System A wet-pipe sprinkler system is used in locations that will not be subjected to temperatures below 40° F (4°C). This is the simplest type of sprinkler system and generally requires little maintenance. This system contains water under pressure at all times and is connected to a public or private water supply. When a sprinkler head is activated, water discharges and an alarm is actuated. Dry-Pipe System Dry-pipe systems are used in locations where the piping may be subjected to temperatures below 40°F (4°C). In this system, air under pressure replaces water in the piping. When a sprinkler is activated, the pressurized air escapes first. Once the pressure is released, the valve will open, allowing water to flow into the piping system and discharge through any heads that may have fused.

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 4. What are some types of automatic alarm systems?

Automatic Alarm Systems Some alarm systems are designed to transmit a signal to an off-site location that will monitor the system and contact the fire department upon receipt of a signal. Types of alarm systems include the following: • Auxiliary systems • Remote receiving stations • Proprietary systems • Central station systems The protected property owns and operates the proprietary systems. These systems are often used to protect large industrial buildings, high-rises, and groups of commonly owned buildings, such as a college campus or industrial complex. Each building has its own system that is wired into a common receiving point at the facility. A trained staff on duty twenty-four hours a day monitors the system for alarms and notifies the fire department upon activation Central station systems have some similarities to proprietary systems. However, the major difference is that instead of having a receiving point on site that employees of the protected property staff, the receiving point is an off-site facility that maintains contracts to monitor alarms for numerous customers. Upon receipt of an alarm at the central station, an employee contacts the appropriate response agency and may also contact a responsible party for the protected property Auxiliary Services Emergency signaling systems in some major occupancies feature the ability to control environmental services (HVAC), security cameras, property access controls, elevators, and other features. This capability may allow remote control of fire doors and dampers, pressurization of stairwells to exclude smoke, and control of access to areas of hazardous material storage.

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 5. Describe the four common types of indicating valves used in sprinkler systems.

Automatic sprinkler systems Automatic sprinkler systems consist of a series of sprinklers (also called heads) arranged so that the system will distribute sufficient quantities of water directly onto a fire. This purpose is to contain a fire until the fire department can arrive for final extinguishment. Water is supplied to individual heads through a system of piping. Sprinkler heads may extend from exposed pipes or protrude from a ceiling or wall from hidden pipes. Sprinkler coverage may protect all areas of a building or only certain areas, such as high hazard sections or exit routes. The authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) can mandate through fire codes and/or local ordinances what level of protection is required for various occupancies. In order to ensure reliability, the sprinkler and its components should be listed with a nationally recognized testing laboratory, such as Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Underwriters Laboratories of Canada, or FM Global. Sprinkler Systems and Their Effect on Life Safety Sprinkler systems help enhance the life safety of building occupants as they discharge water directly onto a fire while it is still relatively small. With the fire contained in the early growth stages, the products of combustion are limited. Sprinklers are also effective in the following situations: 1. Preventing fire spread upwards in multistory buildings; 2. Protecting the lives of occupants in other parts of the building by confining the fire to the area of origin; 3. Protecting means of egress. Sprinklers Sprinklers begin to discharge water with the release of a cap or plug that is activated by a heat-responsive element. The sprinkler head may be viewed as a fixed-spray nozzle operated individually by a thermal detector. There are numerous types and designs of sprinklers for use with various occupancies and installation requirements. An exterior connection, known as a fire department connection (FDC), allows a fire department pumper to augment the pressure and water supply of the sprinkler system for more effective operation. Three of the most common release mechanisms for sprinklers include fusible links, frangible bulbs, and chemical pellets. All of these mechanisms fuse (melt) or open in response to heat. Sprinkler Position Pendent, upright, and sidewall are three basic mounting positions for sprinklers. These types are not interchangeable, as they are each designed with a specific spray pattern based on their intended installation. In addition to these common types, there is various special purpose sprinklers used for specific applications. Control Valves A sprinkler system must be equipped with a main water control valve. Control valves within the system may be used to shut off the water supply in order to replace sprinkler heads, perform maintenance, or discontinue operations. The main control valve is located between the source of the water supply and the sprinkler system. The control valve is usually located under the sprinkler alarm valve, the dry pipe, or deluge valve, or outside the building near the sprinkler system that it controls. The control valve should always be returned to the open position after any maintenance is complete. These valves should be secured in the open position and monitored to be sure they are not tampered with. Main water control valves are manually operated indicating valves. An indicating control valve shows at a glance whether it is open or shut. The following are the four common types of indicating valves used in sprinkler systems: 1. Outside stem and yoke (OS&Y) valve — Has a yoke on the outside with a threaded stem that controls the opening and closing of the gate. The threaded portion of the stem is out of the yoke when the valve is open and inside the yoke when the valve is closed. 2. Post indicator valve (PIV)—Hollow metal post that is attached to the valve housing. The valve stem is inside this post, and a moveable target is located on the stem with the words "Open" and "Shut" to indicate the valves status. 3. Wall post indicator valve (WPIV) —Similar to a PIV, except that it extends through a wall with the target and nut on the outside of the building. 4. Post indicator valve assembly (PIVA) — Does not use a target with words to indicate valve status, but has a sight area that is open when the valve is open and shut when the valve is shut.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 6. What are the stages of fire development?

Both confined and unconfined fires will progress through stages or phases. These stages include: · Incipient, · growth, · fully developed, and · decay.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 4. Explain the differences between an air purifying respirator (APR) and a supplied air respirator (SAR).

Breathing apparatus: Firefighters must use breathing apparatus to perform their duties safely when working in environments that are oxygen deficient (less than 19 percent oxygen) or those environments contaminated by chemical releases or products of combustion. Air Purifying Respirators (APR) Air purifying respirators (APR) use filters attached to a face mask to protect the wearer from harmful particles, vapors, or gases. An APR mask may be partial or full-face covering. Some of these respirators feature powered fans to create positive pressure in the facepiece. The higher pressure in the facepiece helps to keep contaminants out if the seal between the wearer's face and the APR facepiece becomes slightly dislodged. Supplied Air Respirators (SARS) A supplied air respirator (SAR) consists of a source of breathing air (air cylinder or compressor), a facepiece with a regulator, and up to 300 feet (91 m) of air hose. The system also features an emergency breathing air cylinder should the primary air supply fail. These respirators allow emergency responders to operate in hazardous environments without having to carry a large air cylinder.

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 12. WHY IS CRITICAL INCIDENT STRESS MANAGEMENT NEEDED IN THE FIRE SERVICE?

CRITICAL INCIDENT STRESS MANAGEMENT/EXPOSURE TO POTENTIALLY TRAUMATIC EVENTS Responders who have participated in any incident, or a number of incidents over a period of time, may become victims of critical incident stress. Firefighters respond to emergencies that can have a severe impact on people, including traumatic injuries and death, and emergency responders may be physically and emotionally affected. Because individuals react to stress in different ways, and the effects of unresolved stresses tend to accumulate, firefighters should seek out counselors who specialize in critical incident stress management to assist after incidents involving mass casualties, loss of a co-worker, loss of a child, or other serious incident. Not everyone needs to seek professional help after an incident, but every firefighter should know help is available and the proper avenue to seek assistance. If firefighters are called to respond to a major incident where conditions exist that are likely to produce emotional stress for those involved, a briefing may be conducted prior to deployment to prepare members for what they may encounter. This may help firefighters mentally prepare themselves for a difficult assignment. Critical Stress Management Research Research is conducted on a regular basis concerning the possible effects on firefighters who are exposed to potentially traumatic events. Several national organizations, including the International Association of Firefighters, International Association of Fire Chiefs, National Volunteer Fire Council, and National Fallen Firefighters Foundation, may be able to provide additional resources. Recent studies involving critical incident stress management include stress first aid, debriefing, and expanded employee assistance programs.

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 7. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE CURRENT CHALLENGES FACING FIRE PROTECTION?

CURRENT CHALLENGES FACING FIRE PROTECTION In addition to the expected hardships found on the fireground and at other emergency operations, the fire service has always faced a multitude of challenges from sources other than incident response. The constraints of funding, maintenance of equipment, inadequate infrastructure, and personnel issues plague many fire departments throughout North America. 7.1 FUNDING/BUDGET CONSTRAINTS Many fire departments face serious budget issues that threaten to affect the level of service provided as well as the safety of firefighters and civilians in the jurisdiction. The financial health of some cities has led to drastic cuts in municipal department budgets, including those of public safety agencies. Firefighters have been laid off, when on-duty personnel levels fall beyond a certain point. In some cases, firehouses have been permanently closed and companies disbanded for lack of funding. The federal government has attempted to provide some relief in the form of a FEMA Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response (SAFER) grant. This grant provides some amount of funding for firefighter positions with specific jurisdictional commitments in regard to continuation of funds beyond the life of the grant. In an effort to maximize efficiency, fire departments sometimes cooperate to acquire selected apparatus or other specialized resources that may be too costly for a single jurisdiction to purchase or maintain. However, by funding the expenditure jointly and sharing limited resources, each department may benefit from its utilization during an incident. 7.2 OUTDATED EQUIPMENT With the rapid pace of technological advancement and changing safety concerns in the fire service, many fire departments are facing challenges in keeping apparatus, protective equipment, and other tools and appliances up to date with safety standards. The Assistance to Firefighters Grant (AFG) program, administered by FEMA, was established to provide funding to some of the nation's fire departments that are deemed to have a great need for equipment upgrades, facility improvements, or training requirements. While helpful, this funding is not currently sufficient to address the needs of every fire department struggling with budget issues. Grants may not allow for the maintenance and continued certification of equipment subsequent to purchase, limiting the usability of the equipment. Some departments have purchased new equipment or received used equipment as a donation from other jurisdictions. While this used equipment may still be serviceable, it seldom features the most recent technology or safety innovations. 7.3 RECRUITING PERSONNEL In the career fire service, most jurisdictions have little difficulty in recruiting applicants for firefighter positions. During turbulent economic conditions, public sector careers have typically been popular choices among applicants because of their relative security and competitive compensation with similarly skilled private sector employment. In the volunteer fire service, many departments are facing an acute membership shortage. In many communities around the country, conditions have changed since the last generation of volunteer firefighters began their service. Citizens who once worked close to where they lived now often commute miles to their workplace. Citizens commuting to work leaves few available people in so-called "bedroom communities" during work hours. In some cases, those who are employed in the community may be unable to leave their jobs to respond to emergencies due to company policies. Compared to life a generation ago, people generally have less time due to family or social responsibilities and commitments. In some cases, adults in a household work two jobs, leaving little time for volunteer efforts. Combining the time constraints of modern life with the increased training required of today's volunteer firefighter places a major burden on some communities to assemble an adequate fire fighting force. In some volunteer departments with budget shortfalls, the cost of mandated training classes may be placed on the firefighters, creating a financial hardship. 7.4 RETAINING PERSONNEL Retention of personnel is important to both the career and volunteer fire service. When firefighters leave the department, they take with them their training, experience, and knowledge of department operations. A significant amount of money is often invested in training programs, and the value of experience and organizational knowledge is an intangible, yet critical factor in daily fire department operations. While some career firefighters leave to pursue other career paths or other fire service organizations, often the most dramatic effect on the personnel of a department occurs when a large number of veteran firefighters and officers retire within a short period of time. Personnel retirement may leave a fire department scrambling to fill leadership positions and cause the overall experience level of company officers to decline until newly promoted members gain experience in their positions. Volunteer fire departments have a high turnover rate due to a number of factors that affect people's ability and desire to volunteer. The turnover rate is sometimes greater. Many times, young people will become volunteer firefighters in order to determine if a position as a career firefighter might be of interest. These members sometimes leave to take jobs with career departments. In other cases, volunteers may move away, change jobs, or need to take a second job, limiting their availability to be firefighters. Some volunteer departments have turned to various forms of incentives to retain trained personnel. These programs may offer a stipend for the number of calls or training sessions they attend. Other departments may pay for their volunteers to attend advanced fire fighting or emergency medical training programs. 7.5 ADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY Responding with a sufficient number of highly trained personnel onboard a modern fire apparatus will be of little use if an adequate, sustained water supply is not available for fire fighting efforts. The potential for a deficient water supply may exist in rural, suburban areas, or even cities fully served by fire hydrants. Some common causes for lack of sufficient water supply in pressurized (hydrant) systems include: • Sediment buildup in water mains • Small diameter mains in older neighborhoods • Drawing from a number of hydrants simultaneously in the same area. In areas not served by fire hydrants, the fire department must draft water from a static source, such as a lake, pond, cistern, or a neighborhood swimming pool. If remote from the fire location, water tenders (mobile water supply apparatus) must deliver the water supply to the scene. Factors affecting this supply source may include a scarcity of water due to weather conditions, the distance from the source to the fire, as well as the accessibility of the water source. Fire departments in jurisdictions using static supply sources must have an adequate number of mobile water supply apparatus available to ensure efficient delivery of water from a remote source to the incident location. This may be a labor-intensive and time-consuming process. Preplanning and frequent training will enable firefighters to quickly and efficiently locate water sources and fulfill water supply objectives.

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 2. DESCRIBE THE CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE IN THE FIRE AND EMERGENCY SERVICES.

DISCIPLINE Discipline is often understood to refer to corrective action or punishment. However, in this context, the term discipline involves an organization's responsibility to provide the direction necessary to achieve identified goals and objectives. This direction is often supplied by standard operating procedures, guidelines, and/or regulations. Whatever terminology is used, these documents should be clearly written and available for review by all personnel.

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 10. WHAT IS THE TAG SYSTEM OF PERSONNEL ACCOUNTABILITY?

EMERGENCY OPERATIONS In order to properly manage firefighter safety during emergency operations, Incident Commanders should follow departmental procedures and perform the following: • Conduct an initial size-up and risk assessment of an incident prior to com- mitting to operations. • Maintain accountability of personnel operating at the scene by location and function. • Establish Rapid Intervention Crew(s) (RIC) and position them for immediate response to a firefighter(s) emergency. PERSONNEL ACCOUNTABILITY SYSTEMS Personnel accountability systems are critical to the safety of firefighters. These systems identify and track the assignments and location of all personnel working at an incident. The system should be standardized throughout the department, allow for integration of mutual aid from other jurisdictions, and used at every incident. Personnel accountability must also include individuals who may respond to an incident in vehicles other than fire apparatus. If the IC or Accountability Officer does not know who is on the fireground and where they are located, it is impossible to determine who and how many may be trapped inside or injured. 10.1 TAG SYSTEM Based on department policy, some fire departments use a tag system to provide accountability for members operating at an incident. Firefighters are issued a personal identification tag they leave at a designated location or with a member who is responsible for accountability at a designated location. Some departments collect firefighters' tags from a board at the Command Post or in an apparatus. The Incident Commander or other officer may consult the board to determine who is on the fireground. Firefighter tags may be arranged on the board according to assignment in order to provide functional accountability. Firefighters retrieve their tags upon relief from the fireground. 10.2 SCBA TAG SYSTEM An SCBA tag system provides for closer accountability for members working inside a hazardous atmosphere, such as a fire or hazardous materials incident. All personnel entering a hazardous atmosphere must wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including SCBA. A tag that is independent of any other accountability system is provided with the air pressure in the SCBA and the user's name. As the firefighter enters the hazardous environment, a designated entry control person takes the firefighter's tag. At this point, entry control person may complete a safety check to ensure that the firefighter has donned the appropriate equipment and it is functioning properly. Monitoring the estimated usage of air supply, relief crews may be sent into the hazardous area well before the current team runs low on air. Upon leaving the hazardous area, firefighters retrieve their tags, maintaining an accurate account of personnel still engaged in operations. 10.3 COMPUTER-BASED ELECTRONIC ACCOUNTABILITY Wireless computer-based tracking systems are widely used to maintain accountability of personnel working at emergency incidents. Systems may use barcode technology with scanners and readers and GPS transmitters placed on a firefighter's PPE for tracking purposes. These systems allow for detection and rapid notification of members who are immobile or call for assistance. In addition to the capability of firefighters to transmit a mayday alarm through these systems, the Incident Commander can send an evacuation alarm directly to firefighters at the scene. Although electronic accountability systems offer enhanced firefighter safety, manual systems, such as personnel lists, face-to-face or radio roll calls, and other methods of incident accountability, should be maintained and supplemented by the additional coverage of an electronic system.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 6. What effect does fire and exposure to high temperatures have on masonry?

Fire and exposure to high temperatures have minimal effect on masonry. Bricks rarely show signs of serious deterioration, although stones may spall or lose small portions of their surface when heated. Blocks may crack, but usually retain most of their structural stability. However, the mortar between bricks, blocks, and stone may be subject to more aggressive deterioration and should be inspected for signs of weakening (Figure 7.11). Rapid cooling with water, as may occur during fire fighting operations, may cause bricks, blocks, or stone to spall and crack. This result is a common problem when water is used to extinguish a chimney fire. All masonry products should be inspected for this damage after extinguishment has been completed.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 1. Describe four types of fire department apparatus.

Fire apparatus are designed to perform specific functions at emergency incidents. Some apparatus perform only one major function, while others are designed to be multifunctional. Fire Department Apparatus · The Engine (Pumper) · Smaller Fire Apparatus · Mobile Water Supply Apparatus · Wildland Fire Apparatus · Aerial Apparatus · Quintuple Aerial Apparatus (Quint) · Rescue Apparatus · Fire Service Ambulances · Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Apparatus (ARFF) · Hazardous Materials Response Unit · Mobile Air Supply Unit · Fireboats and Search and Rescue Boats · Power and Light Unit · Mobile Fire Investigation Unit · Fire Fighting Aircraft · Other Special Units

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 5. LIST TWO REASONS FIRE DEPARTMENTS ENTER INTO AUTOMATIC OR MUTUAL AID AGREEMENTS.

Fire departments enter into automatic aid and/or mutual-aid agreements for a variety of reasons. Mutual aid agreements allow fire departments to: • Allow sharing of limited or specialized resources by jurisdictions within a region. • Address the need for neighboring fire protection agencies to assist one another when a response requirement exceeds the primary jurisdiction's capabilities. • Address the National Fire Protection Association® (NFPA®) standards or Insurance Services Office (ISO) recommendations and other possible requirements for staffing, apparatus, or response times. • Provide quicker response times to an incident when other departments' resources may be closer to an incident than those of the primary jurisdiction. • Define a response model for agencies within a jurisdiction, such as a military base or industrial facility, with its own fire department that may necessitate automatic aid. • Define response models for areas that may lie between neighboring jurisdictions. Automatic and mutual aid agreements should undergo periodic review to ensure that they continue to efficiently serve the needs of all communities involved. Because these agreements will result in personnel from different agencies working together at incidents, joint training exercises to review policies and equipment should be conducted on a regular basis in order to ensure compatibility between agencies.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 12. Describe three types of fire department facilities.

Fire departments may operate various facilities to service and support daily functions. Depending on the size of the department, some or all of these facilities may be found at one location or dispersed throughout the jurisdiction. Some of these facilities include: • Fire stations • Administrative offices and buildings • Telecommunications centers • Training centers • Maintenance and repair shops Fire Stations Fire stations, known in some regions as firehouses or fire halls, are used to house apparatus, personnel, and equipment. The required number and size of fire stations vary with the needs of the jurisdiction. Small communities may utilize one small building to house all of its apparatus, while a large city may operate many stations of various sizes to strategically locate apparatus and personnel throughout response areas. Although the size and layout may vary widely, some components are present in almost all fire stations. Administrative Offices and Buildings Office space for administrative purposes may be attached to a fire station, or it may be in a separate building. Typically, these offices house the administrative chief officers of the fire department as well as staff for other support functions and clerical personnel. Space may be allocated for storage of records, conference rooms, and offices for other divisions within the fire department, such as inspection, training, and communications. Telecommunication Centers The telecommunication center is the focal point for fire department communications. Depending on jurisdictional requirements, it may be located at the fire department's administrative offices, a fire station, or a separate facility. In some jurisdictions, the telecommunications center is a joint facility that dispatches many different fire departments or public safety agencies in a region. Training Centers Some fire departments have dedicated facilities for education and training activities. Some of these facilities may be shared by more than one jurisdiction. Training centers often feature an administration building that may contain any of the following: • Administrative offices • Classrooms • Auditorium • Cafeteria • Exercise equipment • Locker, shower, and dressing areas • Storage for apparatus, equipment, and supplies Burn Building A burn building is designed and constructed to allow firefighters to practice interior structural fire attacks repeatedly under controlled conditions. Typically, burn buildings are designed to burn either piped-in natural gas or propane or straw and wood products. Buildings that use natural gas or propane allow for greater control over fire extinguishment should a problem arise. Live burn training evolutions must comply with NFPA® 1403, Standard on Live Fire Training Evolutions. NOTE: The judicial system has used NFPA® 1403 in several jurisdictions as the defining minimum industry standard for live fire training. Fire service instructors have been prosecuted or sued for noncompliance to this standard. Drill Tower Drill towers are usually between three and seven floors in height and are equipped with interior stairs that allow access to upper floors (Figure 9.58). These structures may be used to train with ladders, ropes, aerial devices, or high-rise tactics. Some drill towers are equipped with safety nets around the outside of the tower to catch a firefighter in case of a fall during training. Smokehouse A smokehouse provides a simulated smoke condition for firefighter training. This type of environment helps firefighters develop confidence in their SCBA and build proficiency in search and rescue techniques. Some smoke houses are designed to replicate the interior of a house, while others are designed with obstacles or movable partitions to change the interior layout. A machine that uses a water-based or vegetable oil fluid to produce a nontoxic smoke product supplies the smoke in these structures. Construction of smoke houses should include a venting system to quickly clear smoke and adequate exit points from which firefighters may be removed during an actual emergency. Training Pads Training centers may feature one or more pads or outside areas designed for a specific purpose or training prop. These purposes may include the following: • Flammable and combustible liquid and gas fire fighting • Driver/operator training • Pump testing and drafting facilities • Vehicle extrication • Hazardous materials props • Trench and confined space rescue props Maintenance Facilities Proper maintenance of fire apparatus and equipment requires special facilities and trained personnel. Some fire departments have maintenance facilities located at a fire station, while other jurisdictions may operate a separate building to house these support activities. Apparatus maintenance and repair shops are equipped much like a commercial truck repair facility. Maintenance of other firefighting equipment, such as SCBA, hose, ladders, and saws, may be conducted in an area of the apparatus maintenance shop or at another location. However, many fire departments conduct all maintenance and repair functions in a central location to consolidate tools and other specialized equipment.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 9. Explain the difference between supply hose and attack hose

Fire hose is manufactured in a variety of diameters and lengths for use in different fireground operations. Although it is commonly found in 50 or 100 foot (15 m or 30 m) sections, it may be specified in shorter or longer lengths. Supply hose is generally used to carry water from a source to a fire apparatus or portable pump, while attack hose is used to deliver water from a pumper or portable pump to suppress a fire. Fire hose is manufactured in diameters ranging from 3⁄4-inch to six inches (20 to 150 mm) and is commonly composed of a rubber interior liner with a rubber or woven fiber outer covering. Either threaded or unthreaded couplings are used to connect multiple lengths of hose or attach sections to pump fittings or nozzles.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 13. What are the four ways of extinguishing a fire?

Fire is extinguished by limiting or interrupting one or more of the essential elements of the combustion process (fire tetrahedron). This process may be accomplished in the following ways: 1. Reducing its temperature 2. Eliminating available fuel 3. Eliminating available oxygen 4. Stopping the self-sustained chemical chain reaction 1. Temperature Reduction · Cooling with water is one of the most common methods of fire extinguishment. This process causes a reduction in temperature of a fuel to the point where it will not produce sufficient vapor to burn. · In addition to cooling fuels, water may also be used to control burning gases and reduce the temperature of hot products of combustion in the upper layer. This application slows the pyrolysis of combustible material, reduces radiant heat from the upper layer, and reduces the potential for flashover. 2. Fuel removal · Removing the fuel sources effectively extinguishes some fires. A fuel source may be removed by stopping the flow of a liquid or gaseous fuel or by removing the solid fuel in the path of a fire. Another method that may be appropriate depending on the fuel package involves allowing the fire to burn until all the fuel is consumed. 3. Oxygen Exclusion · Reducing the oxygen available to the combustion process reduces the growth and may extinguish a fire over time. · A simple example of oxygen exclusion is the extinguishment of a stove top fire by placing a cover over a pan of burning food. · Oxygen content in a compartment may be reduced by flooding an area with an inert gas, such as carbon dioxide. This action displaces the oxygen and disrupts the combustion process. · Oxygen may also be separated from fuel by blanketing the fuel with fire suppressant foam. 4. Chemical Flame Inhibition · Extinguishing agents, such as dry chemical, Halon, and Halon-replacement agents, interrupt the combustion reaction and stop flame production. · This method of extinguishment is effective on gas and liquid fuels because they must produce flaming combustion to burn. · These agents do not work effectively to extinguish non-flaming fires because there is no chemical chain reaction to inhibit. The high agent concentrations and extended time necessary to extinguish smoldering fires in this manner make these agents impractical for application on such a fire.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 10. Define fire load.

Fire load is the amount of fuel within a compartment expressed in pounds per square foot. It is used as a measure of the potential heat release of a fire within a compartment. Heavy fire loading is the presence of large amounts of combustible material in a building. The quantity and arrangement of the building's contents should be considered when determining the possible duration and intensity of a fire. Heavy content loading is a critical hazard in commercial and warehouse occupancies because a fire may quickly overwhelm the capabilities of a fire sprinkler system if material storage is excessive or poorly arranged. Buildings overloaded with contents may also hamper firefighters in gaining access or hinder civilians making egress during a fire. Vigilant code enforcement and preincident surveys may minimize the occurrence and effect of heavy fire load occupancies.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 8. What is the function of ground ladders in the fire service?

Firefighters often use ground ladders to access points above or below ground level. Ground ladders are not permanently mounted on an apparatus and may be carried to the location where they will be raised. Ground ladders are manually raised and positioned and provide relatively quick access to windows, balconies, rooftops, and other points above or below grade. To perform specific fireground tasks, ground ladders are manufactured as single ladders or extension ladders of various lengths. Ground ladders may be constructed of wood, fiberglass, or aluminum. Firefighters must become familiar with the various components of each ladder and be able to position and raise each type safely and efficiently.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 9. What are the two primary types of danger that a building may pose during fire fighting efforts?

Firefighters should be aware of dangerous conditions caused by the effect of the fire on a structure, as well as the dangerous conditions that may result from actions taken during fire suppression efforts. There are two primary types of danger that a building may pose during fire fighting efforts: · Conditions, such as large quantities of combustible materials, that may contribute to fire spread. · Conditions such as type of construction, renovation, demolition, or poor maintenance, that make a building susceptible to collapse.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 8. What are the indicators of flashover?

Flashover (DEFINITION): (1) Stage of a fire at which all surfaces and objects within a space have been heated to their ignition temperature, and flame breaks out almost at once over the surface of all objects in the space. (2) Rapid transition from the growth stage to the fully developed stage. INDICATORS OF FLASHOVER: • Building indicators: Flashover may occur in any building; interior configuration, fuel load, thermal properties, and ventilation will determine how rapidly it can occur; • Smoke indicators: Rapidly increasing volume, turbulence, darkening color, optical density, and lowering of the hot gas level • Air flow indicators: High velocity and turbulence, bi-directional movement with smoke exiting the top of a doorway and fresh air moving in at the bottom, or pulsing air movement • Heat indicators: Rapidly increasing temperature in the compartment, pyrolysis of contents located away from the fire, darkened windows, or hot surfaces • Flame indicators: Isolated flames In the hot gas layers or near the ceiling

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 8. Why does gypsum have excellent heat and fire-resistant properties?

Gypsum is an inorganic product from which gypsum board, plaster, and plasterboard are constructed. Gypsum is unique because of its high water content, which requires a great deal of heat to evaporate, giving this material excellent heat and fire-resistant properties. Gypsum is commonly used to provide insulation to steel and wood structural members that may be exposed to fire conditions.

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 2. How do fixed-temperature heat detectors and rate-of-rise heat detectors operate?

Heat Detectors Heat detectors initiate an alarm when the ambient temperature near the detector reaches a predetermined level. There are numerous designs of heat detection devices, but all are either fixed temperature devices or rate-of-rise detectors (Figure 8.3). a) Fixed-Temperature Heat Detectors Fire detection and alarm systems using heat-detection devices are among the oldest still in service. Fixed- temperature heat detectors are relatively inexpensive compared to other types of systems and are the least prone to false activations. While these devices are reliable, they are typically the slowest to activate under fire conditions. These devices also are not typically resettable and must be replaced after activation. A fixed temperature heat detector activates when it is heated to the temperature at which it is rated. If the ambient temperature in a room is low to begin with, a fire would burn undetected until it raised the temperature of the heat detector to its activation point. Depending on the size of the room and fuel load, a fire may burn for quite some time before activating a fixed- temperature heat detector. Because heat rises, heat detectors are installed at the highest portion of a room, usually the ceiling. The various types of fixed devices described in this section activate by one or more of the following mechanisms: • Expansion of heated material • Melting of heated material • Changes in electrical resistance of heated material b) Rate-of-Rise Heat Detectors A rate-of-rise heat detector operates on the principle that fires rapidly increase the temperature in a given area. Typically, rate-of-rise heat detectors are designed to send an alarm when the rise in temperature exceeds 12°F to 15°F (7°C to 8°C) per minute. If properly installed, rate-of-rise heat detectors are reliable and not subject to false activations. However, if these devices are placed in a location subject to rapid increases in temperature, such as a small enclosed kitchen, a false activation may occur due to cooking. There are several types of rate-of-rise heat detectors in common use, including: • Pneumatic rate-of-rise line detector — Monitors large areas of a building • Pneumatic rate-of-rise spot detectors—Monitors a small area surrounding the device; • Rate-compensated detector — Used in areas normally subject to regular temperature changes, which are slower than those under fire condition; • Thermoelectric detector—Operates on the principle that when two wires of dissimilar metals are twisted together and heated at one end, an electrical current is generated at the other end.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 11. What are some purposes of hose appliances?

Hose appliances consist of hardware, such as valves and fittings, through which water flows. These appliances may serve to split or connect hoselines, control water flow, or connect hoselines of dissimilar thread pattern or diameter. Firefighters also employ various tools to loosen or tighten hose couplings, secure hose to an object, or protect hose from damage at an incident scene. Tools differ from appliances in that water does not flow through them.

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 9. DEFINE AT LEAST THREE TERMS USED IN THE NATIONAL INCIDENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM The National Incident Management System - Incident Command System (NIMS-ICS) is designed to safely and efficiently manage the operations of a variety of incidents of all sizes. Fire departments and other response agencies are mandated by Homeland Security Presidential Directive/HSPD-5 to adopt the National Incident Management System in order to be eligible for federal funds. Emergency response organizations operating under NIMS use common terminology and command structures to ensure the ability to interface with "outside" organizations during an emergency. In 2004, the U.S. government officially adopted the Incident Command System (ICS) as the national model management system for coordinating equipment, personnel, and communications within a common organizational structure. NIMS-ICS combines command strategy with organizational procedures. This system may be used during single-agency or multi-agency incidents and is applicable to emergency and nonemergency events alike. The following components function interactively to provide an effective operational platform: • Common terminology • Modular organization • Integrated communications • Unified Command structure • Consolidated action plans • Manageable span of control • Predesignated incident facilities • Comprehensive resource management FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF ICS The five major organizational positions are identified as sections within NIMS-ICS. Each section is responsible for a major function as it pertains to management of the overall incident. These components will be described in the following paragraphs: • Command • Operations • Planning • Logistics • Finance/Administration COMMAND The person in overall command of the incident is designated the Incident Commander (IC). The IC is ultimately responsible for all incident activities, including the development and implementation of a strategic plan. The IC has the authority to request additional resources to the scene and release personnel and equipment that are no longer necessary. Depending on the complexity of an incident, the IC may form a Command Staff with whom authority for decision-making may be delegated. Positions within the Command Staff may include the Safety Officer, Liaison Officer, and Public Information Officer. OPERATIONS The Operations Section is responsible for direct management of all tactical activities that directly affect mitigation of the incident. The Operations Section Chief implements the Incident Action Plan as outlined by the Incident Commander. The Operations Section may be divided into branches in order to maintain a manageable span of control over complex or large scale operations. PLANNING The Planning Section is responsible for gathering, evaluating, processing, and disseminating information needed for effective decision-making during an incident as well as preparing and disseminating the Incident Action Plan (IAP). Planning, under the direction of the IC, is also responsible for tracking incident status as well as the resources assigned to the incident. The Planning Section Chief is responsible for identifying potential incident requirements in concert with the Logistics Section and preparing to obtain resources to meet those needs. The Planning Section also serves to streamline information sources for the Incident Commander coordinating and clarifying pertinent data for command review. LOGISTICS The Logistics Section serves as the support mechanism for incident operations. The responsibility of logistics consists of a support branch that includes supply, ground support and facilities, and a service branch that includes communications, medical, and food. Long-term or complex incidents often rely heavily on an efficient Logistics Section to maintain continued operations. FINANCE/ADMINISTRATIVE Finance/Administrative Unit has the responsibility for tracking and documenting all costs and financial aspects of an incident. This section is usually activated only during large-scale, long-term incidents. Ordinary incidents that are of limited scope and duration do not usually require financial tracking as expenditures may be limited and considered a matter of routine operating costs. The Finance/Administration unit is also responsible for addressing legal issues that may result from incident activities. NIMS-ICS may add the Intelligence Section to gather information related to an incident. However, in many cases, the Planning Section will be responsible for gathering information at an incident as well. In mitigating incidents where the cause determination may require extensive investigative efforts, this section may be assigned within NIMS-ICS to fulfill that responsibility. NIMS TERMS The National Incident Management System (NIMS) uses a number of terms with which firefighters should be familiar. The terms explained in the following section are widely used in the fire service. INCIDENT COMMANDER (IC) The Incident Commander is the individual at the top of the incident chain of command and is in charge of the overall incident. The primary responsibilities of the IC include formulating the Incident Action Plan (IAP), coordinating resources to implement the plan, and ensuring that the goals and objectives are met in a safe and efficient manner. COMMAND STAFF Command staff positions may be established to assume responsibility for key functions that may develop based on the size and scope of an incident or the requirements established by the IC. These positions allow for a manageable span of control at the command level. Specific staff functions include: • Public Information Officer • Safety Officer • Liaison Officer INCIDENT ACTION PLAN (IAP) An Incident Action Plan should be formulated for each incident. The plan should identify the strategic goals and tactical objectives required to mitigate the incident. Incidents that are small-scale, short-duration events may not require a written IAP. However, complex or long-duration emergencies require the creation and maintenance of a written plan to guide each operational period. SECTION A Section is defined as the organizational level having responsibility for a major functional area of Incident Management. The Section is maintained organizationally between a Branch and Incident Command. Sections include: • Operations, • Planning, • Logistics, • Finance/Administration, • and Intelligence. SECTION CHIEF A Section Chief is responsible for overseeing the function of a Section within the ICS. The individual in this position reports to the Command authority for all established Branches under the functional responsibility of that Section. BRANCH A Branch is the organizational level with functional or geographic responsibility for major parts of the operations or logistics functions. The Branch level is placed between Sections and Divisions or Groups in the Operations Section, and between the Section and Units in the Logistics Section. BRANCH DIRECTOR Branch Directors are responsible for the functions of the Branch to which they are assigned. This may include supervision of several Groups or Divisions with geographic and/or functional assignments or units serving Logistics needs. A Branch Director may also be established for each agency with a particular specialty operating at a multijurisdictional incident. DIVISION A Division is a geographic designation that assigns responsibility for all operations in a particular area. Divisions are assigned clockwise around an outdoor incident with Division A at the front (address side) of the incident. During operations in multistory buildings, Divisions are often identified by the floor to which they are assigned (first floor Division 1, second floor Division 2). In a single-story structure, the entire floor may be assigned as a Division (Interior Division). Organizationally, the Division level is between Single Resources, Strike Team or Task Force, and a Branch (if functioning) or Section. DIVISION SUPERVISOR The Division Supervisor is responsible for the activities of resources assigned to the geographic area in which the Division is located. The Division Supervisor reports to the Branch Director if that position has been established. In cases where a Branch or Section designation has not been established, the Division Supervisor may report to a Section Chief or the Incident Commander. GROUP Groups are an organizational level responsible for a specific functional assignment. Examples of Group assignments include Salvage Group, Search Group, and Ventilation Group. The Group level is organizationally placed between Single Resources, Task Forces, or Strike Teams, and the Branch, or Operation, or Command level, depending on the establishment of NIMS resources. GROUP SUPERVISOR The Group Supervisor is parallel to the Division Supervisor in the Incident Command System. However, the Group Supervisor is responsible for oversight of a specific function, as opposed to a geographical area. Close coordination between Division Supervisors and the Supervisors of Groups operating in their location is essential to maintain safety and the continuity of the Incident Action Plan. UNIT A Unit is an organizational element having responsibility for a specific function in the Planning, Logistics or Finance/Administration Section. A Unit may serve to address communications, medical, food, or supply needs, as well as other responsibilities deemed necessary by the IC. UNIT LEADER A Unit leader is the individual responsible for managing a particular activity in the Section to which the Unit is assigned. Some of these activities may include Triage in the Medical Group of the Operations Section, Supplies in the Logistics Section, or Cost Analysis in the Planning/Administration Section. STRIKE TEAM/TASK FORCE A Strike Team consists of a specified combination of the same kind and type of resources assembled for a particular purpose. For example, in some jurisdictions, a Strike Team of water tenders (mobile water supply apparatus) may be used to meet the water supply needs of an incident. A Task Force is comprised of single resources assembled for a tactical need. In some jurisdictions, a Task Force consisting of a specified number of engine and ladder companies may be assembled to respond together for mutual aid to a neighboring city for a major incident. STRIKE TEAM/TASK FORCE LEADER The leader of either a Strike Team or Task Force must have communications established with the members of the Strike Team or Task Force as well as their immediate Supervisor. If multiple jurisdictions are involved, the leader may be a member of any of those involved. However, it is important that all personnel are familiar with the strategy and tactics that will be employed at the incident. RESOURCES Resources are considered personnel and major items of equipment, supplies, and facilities that are maintained for assignment to incident operations. Resources are described by the kind and type and may be used in operational support or supervisory capacities. NIMS-ICS TRAINING NIMS-ICS training is available from the National Fire Academy, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, or other state or local agencies. It is important for firefighters to maintain up-to-date training of this material to maintain proficiency.

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 10. What are the two basic types of standpipe systems?

In addition to the classes of standpipes, there are two basic types of systems: • A wet standpipe system maintains water in the risers at all times. It is capable of automatically supplying water when a valve at the riser connection is opened. • A dry system does not have a permanent water supply. The fire department at the FDC must supply water. • A wet system with an automatic water supply is desirable, as it provides the constant availability of water at a standpipe connection. However, a wet system is more costly to install and maintain, and it cannot be used for applications where it will be exposed to temperatures that are below freezing.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 4. What is the difference between flaming combustion and smoldering combustion?

In flaming combustion, the oxidation involves fuel in the gas phase. Heat is required to convert liquid or solid fuels into gases. When heated, both types of fuels will give off vapors that can mix with oxygen and burn, producing flames. Some solid fuels, especially those that are porous and can char, may undergo oxidation at the surface level of the fuel. This process is known as non-flaming or smoldering combustion, such as burning charcoal, smoldering fabric, and upholstery. Flaming combustion is an example of a chemical chain reaction. Sufficient heat will cause fuel and oxygen to form free radicals and initiate self-sustained chemical reaction. The fire will continue to burn until fuel or oxygen is exhausted or an extinguishing agent is applied in sufficient quantity to interfere with the ongoing reaction. In some cases, extinguishing agents deprive the combustion process of fuel, oxygen, or sufficient heat to sustain the reaction.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 5. List the four components of the fire tetrahedron.

In order for combustion to occur, four components are necessary (figure below): • Heat • Fuel (reducing agent) that oxidizes another Oxidizing Agent — Substance • Oxygen (oxidizing agent) • Self-sustained chemical chain reaction.

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 6. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT MEANS OF FUNDING FIRE DEPARTMENTS?

In order to conduct operations, all fire departments must have a reliable source(s) of revenue. Fire departments may be funded by a variety of means depending on their composition and the jurisdiction they protect 6.1 TAX REVENUES A portion of funds collected from sales or property taxes may be allocated to finance the operation of a fire department. These departments may be under the authority of a municipal, county, or other form of government authority. A fire department may also operate as a fire district that collects a tax specifically for the purpose of fire protection. An Emergency Services District is a similar organization created by voters for the purpose of funding fire protection, EMS, or both services. In many cases, the governing body for the jurisdiction maintains ultimate control over the fire department budget. 6.2 TRUST FUNDS Establishment of a trust fund within a fire department's budgetary system may serve several purposes, depending on the nature of the revenue and purpose of the trust. Some jurisdictions attach a tax within their boundaries to be held in a trust fund specifically for capital improvements for the fire service or other public safety entities. In other systems, a trust may be funded by private donations or charities to be used at the discretion of the fire department or for very specific purposes, such as maintenance of historic fire houses, purchase of medical equipment, or other earmarks. 6.3 ENTERPRISE FUNDS An enterprise fund may be established for a fee-charging government service. Some fire departments may choose this system for use with a fee-for-service component such as EMS transportation. In this way, a separate accounting of cost and revenue is maintained for that aspect of service. The establishment of separate funding may be intended to direct the program for which it was created to operate in the same manner as a private business earning revenue to justify continued operation. 6.4 BOND SALES A government may use bonds to raise funds to support projects. The government agency will pay back the money it has borrowed with interest. Bonds are usually issued to finance long-life projects such as buildings or vehicles. The assets purchased with the bond money should have the same or longer useful life than the time frame of the bond. Because bonds normally have lower interest rates than other types of financing, they are an attractive way for a government agency to finance a capital expense. Bonds cannot be used to finance operational expenses such as salaries. 6.5 GRANTS/GIFTS Grants are issued to fire service organizations through government agencies, such as the Federal Emergency Management Agency as well as many private foundations that seek to provide assistance to agencies in local communities. Some private sources for grants may be a non-profit group, while others may be affiliated with a for-profit corporation. Many types of grants exist that may be awarded to fund specific programs or equipment. The entity that is sponsoring the grant usually has an application process that must be completed for review by a committee or board. This review ensures the legitimacy of the request and pairs it with the guidelines established for an award. Funding sources have diverse backgrounds and may have a variety of requirements to be satisfied before funds are awarded. An agency should attempt to match their needs with a funding organization that closely matches their goals. Some charitable and for-profit corporations also give monetary awards to community organizations that serve the public. These are often one-time donations to aid with a special project or current need. 6.6 FUNDRAISERS The fire service, in particular the volunteer sector, has a long tradition of holding a wide variety of fundraisers to increase revenue for its operations. Events ranging from raffles to car washes to bingo games have helped many local departments purchase new apparatus and protective gear or meet operating expenses. The fire department membership plans and operates many events so that the maximum amount of proceeds goes into the coffers of the organization. The limitations on fundraising efforts are local laws and ordinances and the by-laws of the fire department. Fire service organizations should have an understanding of Internal Revenue Service laws before embarking on any fundraising efforts. 6.7 SUBSCRIPTIONS/FEES Some jurisdictions may implement a subscription fee for fire protection or emergency medical response. In addition, departments may charge a fee for: • Providing emergency services to interstate highways • Mitigating a hazardous materials incident • Providing technical rescue

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 3. DESCRIBE AT LEAST TWO FORMS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE The structure of local governments may vary. Regardless of the organizational structure, taxpayers remain at the top of the organizational chart. Funding for the department is derived from the taxpayers of the community. Governing bodies make decisions that often have an impact on the operations and services of the fire department in that jurisdiction. Forms of local government include the following: • Commission • Council (Board) Manager • Mayor/Council • Fire Districts 3.1 COMMISSION In a Commission form of government, voters elect a Board of Commissioners who conduct the legislative and executive functions of government. This Board may appoint officials to oversee various governmental needs. The Commission may also select one of its own to serve as the Chair. Department heads within this organization are often elected positions that are not appointed by the commissioners. 3.2 COUNCIL (BOARD) MANAGER In the Council (Board) Manager form of government, voters elect a council or board of officials to conduct legislative responsibilities. These officials hire a professional manager to oversee executive (administrative) matters. The manager appoints department heads within each area of governmental responsibility. 3.3 MAYOR/COUNCIL Voters in the Mayor/Council form of government elect both a mayor and members of a council to govern the community. The mayor acts as the chief executive officer, and the council performs legislative duties. In the capacity of chief executive, the mayor appoints department heads to manage government responsibilities (Figure 10.4). 3.4 FIRE DISTRICTS A fire district is not directly tied to a municipal or county jurisdiction. The district is a state-authorized governing body established to provide fire protection and other emergency services within a specific area that may overlap other jurisdictional boundaries. Generally, a fire district is governed by an elected Board of Commissioners or trustees who represent the residents of the district.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 1. What are the three states of matter?

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass (weight). The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. A fuel may be founded in any of three states of matter: solid, liquid, or gas.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 2. What are the characteristics that work wear should meet?

Members of the fire and emergency services wear a variety of uniforms and protective clothing. As mentioned in Chapter 1, uniforms identify the wearer as a member of the fire service. Personnel assigned to a particular function wear uniforms most suitable to their specific duties. Different types of personal protective clothing may be designed to protect firefighters from a variety of hazardous conditions to which they will likely be exposed. Uniforms Fire service uniforms may range from station/work uniforms to Class A dress uniforms. Casual uniforms usually consist of polo shirts, trousers, and steel-toed shoes or boots. Station/work uniforms consist of button down shirts, work trousers, and steel-toed shoes or boots. Full dress or Class A uniforms include a department cap, formal coat, dress shirt, tie, pants, and shoes. Some fire departments may specify a uniform for physical fitness training that may include shorts or sweat pants and a t-shirt as well as athletic footwear. All station/work uniforms should meet the recommendations of NFPA® 1975, Standard on Station/Work Uniforms for Emergency Services. The purpose of the standard is to provide a recommendation for work wear that is functional and will not contribute to firefighter injury and will not reduce the effectiveness of outer protective clothing

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 10. What are nozzles used to create?

Nozzles are used to create fire streams appropriate for a particular firefighting operation. Nozzles feature a shut-off mechanism to control the flow of water and may belong to one of two broad categories: smooth bore or fog. A smooth-bore nozzle features an open waterway that allows water to travel directly through the nozzle in a solid stream. Fog nozzles contain mechanisms to deflect water into a pattern of droplets that may be delivered out of the nozzle tip in a straight stream pattern of one of a variety of narrow or wide fog pattern settings.

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 8. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A POLICY AND A PROCEDURE?

POLICIES AND PROCEDURES Firefighters should become familiar with their department's policies and procedures to help ensure safe and efficient operations at emergencies and during routine functions. In order to understand the purpose of policies and procedures, it is important to identify their similarities and differences, as well as how they are used in the fire service. POLICY: A policy is a guide to decision-making within an organization. Policy originates with the top management of the fire department and outlines the types of decisions that must be made by officers or other management personnel in specific situations. PROCEDURE: Whereas a policy is a guide to decision-making, a procedure is a formal communication that is a detailed guide to action. A procedure describes in writing the steps to be followed in carrying out department policy for a specific situation or condition. STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES (SOPs) / GUIDELINES (SOGs) Many fire departments have predetermined written procedures that outline actions in response to routine or emergency situations that may occur. In some organizations, the procedure is fairly rigid and is expected to be followed unless extenuating circumstances preclude its viability. Other organizations may choose to adopt standard operating guidelines (SOGs), which are generally less rigid in their application and may give firefighters more latitude in choosing a method of implementation. In either case, the operating policy or guideline may vary by jurisdiction, but the principle is usually the same. During fire fighting operations, the Incident Command System is a means of coordinating a fire attack. However, policies do not attempt to replace size-up, professional judgment, or Command decisions. SOPs should be established to follow the most commonly accepted order of fireground priorities: • Life safety • Incident stabilization • Property conservation The primary concern during all fire department operations is the life safety of firefighters and civilians. In conjunction with the life safety goal, the SOPs should also address how to bring a fire under control or mitigate another type of emergency incident. In addition, firefighters should use appropriate tactics and loss control techniques to minimize damage to property. In addition to their role at an emergency scene, standard operating procedures are often used to conduct routine administrative functions in the fire service. The issues addressed by administrative SOPs may include uniforms, conduct, station duties, and other routine matters. DISCIPLINARY PROCEDURES Fire departments should adopt and enforce written disciplinary procedures for members who may neglect established policy. Disciplinary measures enacted against an individual may vary depending on several factors: • Severity of the offense • Number of occurrences for a specific offense • Previous record of the individual • Precedence on similar occurrences • Subject to the provisions of a collective bargaining agreement in some jurisdictions • Based on jurisdictional rules and regulations Disciplinary procedure may vary based on the department's organization. Many career departments have specified levels of action that may start with a verbal warning and proceed to time off without pay, demotions, and termination of employment. Volunteer departments may warn members, suspend them for a period of time, demote them, or terminate their membership. FORMAL COMMUNICATIONS Communication is the exchange of ideas and information that conveys an intended meaning in a form that is understood. The fire service operates under a paramilitary chain of command, or scalar structure, having an uninterrupted series of steps. Authority is centralized at the top of a pyramid type of organization. Major decisions are directed from the top of the pyramid, down through intermediate levels, and to the base of the organization. Likewise information may be transmitted to the top of the chain of command using the same channels of communication. Each level through which information must pass may act as an unintended filter, reducing the quality and intent of the original message. For this reason, verbal communication is not the most effective means for transmitting information on a large scale throughout the fire department. Verbal orders will be necessary during emergency incidents and for some routine duties. However, to create and maintain efficient and safe operations, fire service organizations should release policies, procedures, and other important information as formal written communication. Fire service organizations should use a system of two-way written communication to maintain a smooth flow of information throughout the chain of command.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 3. What is the purpose of personal protective clothing?

Personal Protective Clothing Firefighters rely on personal protective clothing (PPC) and personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect themselves from hazardous conditions. Some common types of protective clothing include the following. • Structural • Wildland • Proximity • Hazardous materials Each type of personal protective clothing is composed of components that will protect the wearer from specific hazards for which the ensemble was designed.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 3. What is the difference between a physical change and a chemical change?

Physical Change: A physical change occurs when a substance changes one of its observable properties, such as size, shape, or appearance, but remains chemically the same. Chemical Change: A chemical change occurs when a substance changes from one type of matter into another. A chemical change often involves the reaction of two or more substances to form other types of compounds.

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 7. What are the characteristics of preaction systems and deluge systems?

Preaction System A preaction sprinkler system is a dry system that employs a deluge-type valve (see following section), fire detection devices, and closed sprinklers. This type of system is installed in occupancies where preventing water damage is criti- cal. The sprinkler pipes remain dry until a heat or smoke detector is actuated. In response to detection device activation, the sprinkler pipes will be filled with water and any fused heads will discharge onto a fire. Deluge System In a deluge system, water flows from all sprinklers in a designated area where the system has been activated. Along with open sprinklers, this system is generally equipped with a deluge valve. When the deluge valve is activated, water flows from each open sprinkler that is controlled by the specific valve that was activated. A deluge system is often used to protect extra hazardous occupancies, such as aircraft hangars. Such systems may also be used to sup- ply other fire suppression products, such as foam.

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 11. WHAT IS A RAPID INTERVENTION CREW?

RAPID INTERVENTION CREWS (RIC/RIT) The purpose of a rapid intervention crew / rapid intervention tem (RIC/RIT) is to provide a dedicated team of firefighters standing by to rescue other firefighters who may become lost, trapped, or injured while engaged in interior operations. The RIC concept provides for immediate deployment of a rescue team while allowing other firefighters to remain engaged in fire fighting efforts that may result in aiding the success of the RIC mission. Ideally, a rapid intervention crew should respond with first alarm units. All crew members should be fully equipped with PPE and SCBA as well as lights, radios, forcible entry tools, search ropes, and any incident specific equipment they may need to perform a rescue. The officer of the RIC should report directly to the IC and pre-position the team nearby. The minimum number of personnel for an initial RIC is two firefighters. However, the actual size and number of RIC teams required at an incident depends on its size and complexity. Numerous studies have been conducted to illustrate the need for a relatively large number of firefighters to complete a successful rescue of a single member trapped in a structure.

Chapter 10 - Fire Department Organization and Management 4. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN AUTOMATIC AID AND MUTUAL AID.

RESPONSE CONSIDERATIONS Regardless of governmental structure, the fiscal limitations under which the department must operate are a primary consideration affecting the ability of a fire department to provide services to the community. Availability of funds typically results in creating a balance of overall services to meet jurisdictional needs. The fire department leaders' main goals are to use the available resources most efficiently to provide effective fire protection for residents and the safest operating conditions for firefighters. Many fire departments employ a strategy that consists of the following parts: • Deploy resources that are funded. • Reach contractual agreements with other agencies to supplement local resources for incidents that are beyond the agency's ability to control. Outside aid agreements may be established with public agencies or private contractors that perform a specific, specialized service beyond the capabilities of the jurisdiction in which an incident may occur. These specialized services may include hazardous materials incident response, technical rescue, or other specialized discipline. 4.1 AUTOMATIC AID Automatic aid is a formal, written response agreement between fire departments as well as specific facilities (such as airports, refineries, or chemical plants) initiated under predetermined conditions. For example, automatic aid between departments may be dispatched whenever an emergency is reported in a predetermined response area or when specific resources are required that the requesting department does not have available. This type of agreement may also provide for automatic aid upon the transmission of a given number of alarms at an incident. 4.2 MUTUAL AID Mutual aid is a reciprocal agreement between two or more fire protection agencies. These agreements may be local, regional, statewide, or interstate, meaning that the agencies may not have shared boundaries. The agreement defines how each agency will provide resources in various situations and how the shared resources will be monitored and directed during operations. Responses under a mutual aid agreement usually are initiated only upon request of an agency that is a party to the agreement. This typically occurs when a large incident or a number of smaller incidents deplete the resources of an agency. The response for such a request may be at the discretion of the providing agency, subject to provisions of an agreement or state law.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 9. What are types of hazardous conditions on the fireground that impact incident safety?

Rapid Fire Development: The fire service has used numerous terms to describe various fire events that result in rapid fire development. Among the more common terms are: • Flashover • Backdraft • Smoke explosion Special Considerations: The fire service has used numerous terms to describe various fire events that result in rapid fire development. Among the more common terms are: · Rollover · Thermal Layering Gases · Backdraft · Smoke Explosion · Products of Combustion

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 8. What is a residential sprinkler system designed to prevent?

Residential Systems Residential sprinkler systems may be found in some single-or two-family dwellings. This type of system is designed to prevent total fire involvement in the room of origin, giving occupants an opportunity to escape. Constructed as either wet or dry systems, the recommendations for these installations may be found in NFPA® 13D, Standard for Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One and Two Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 7. What are the two categories of rope used in the fire service?

Ropes, webbing, related hardware, and harnesses Firefighters and other emergency responders may use ropes to raise or lower tools, equipment, personnel, and victims. In addition, a rope may be used to prevent firefighters from becoming lost during fireground search operations. Rope is classified into two categories of use: life safety or utility. Ropes made of synthetic fibers may be classified for use as life safety ropes, while natural fiber (hemp or cotton) ropes are used for utility purposes. Firefighters may employ either flat or tubular webbing made from the same synthetic materials as life safety rope. Other types of hardware serving specific functions may comprise rope systems along with webbing. Carabiners, rescue harnesses, and other devices to aid in the raising and lowering of people or equipment are often integrated with rope to perform technical rescue operations.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 5. List the basic types of self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) used in the fire service.

Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) A self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) supplies breathable air from a supply that the wearer carries. The fire service uses two basic types of SCBA: open circuit and closed circuit. Open-circuit SCBAs, commonly used by firefighters during fire suppression and other emergency operations, consist of a compressed air cylinder that supplies breathable air to the wearer. Exhaled air is expelled to the outside atmosphere through special vents in the facepiece. In contrast, closed-circuit SCBA reuse exhaled air by filtering out carbon dioxide and supplementing the air with oxygen from a source within the breathing apparatus. Closed circuit SCBA generally provides a longer duration of air supply than open circuit SCBA provides. Hazardous material response teams sometimes use closed circuit SCBA. Breathing apparatus used by the fire service should meet NFPA® standards and be tested and approved by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 3. What are some of the different types of smoke detectors and smoke alarms?

Smoke Detectors and Smoke Alarms Smoke detectors and smoke alarms are actually two distinct types of devices. A smoke alarm detects the presence of smoke and sounds an alarm to alert occupants. A smoke detector also detects the presence of smoke; however, it must transmit a signal to another device to sound the alarm In many cases, the devices in large residential, commercial, or industrial buildings are smoke detectors. Meanwhile, those devices in single-family or small multifamily dwellings are smoke alarms a) Photoelectric Smoke Detectors A photoelectric smoke detector uses a photoelectric cell coupled with a tiny light source. The photoelectric cell functions in one of two ways to detect smoke: beam application and refractory application. Photoelectric smoke detectors work satisfactorily to detect all types of fires and are generally more sensitive to smoldering fires than the ionization detectors that will be discussed in the next section A refractory application photocell uses a light beam that passes through a small chamber to a point away from the light source. Under normal conditions, the light will not strike the photocell, no current is produced, and the switch will remain open. When smoke enters the chamber, it causes the light beam to be refracted (scattered) in all directions. A portion of this light will strike the photocell, which, in turn, causes current to flow and the switch to close. Occasionally, when foreign objects such as dust and spiders enter the detector, they have been known to initiate false activations of these devices. b) Ionization Smoke Detectors During the process of combustion, minute particles and aerosols too small for the naked eye to see are produced. Ionization detectors use a tiny amount of radioactive material to ionize air molecules as they enter a chamber within the detector. The ionized particles allow an electrical current to flow between negative and positive plates in the chamber. When particulates from the combustion process enter the chamber, they attach themselves to electrically charged molecules of air, making this air within the chamber less conductive. The decrease in current flowing between the plates transmits an alarm initiating signal. Although ionization detectors respond satisfactorily to most fires, they generally respond faster to flaming fires than smoldering ones c) Other Detectors The following section provides basic information concerning other types of detectors a firefighter may encounter, including: • flame detectors, • combination detectors, • carbon monoxide detectors, • and indicating devices. The following are the three basic types of flame detectors (also known as light detectors): 1. Those that detect light in the ultraviolet wave spectrum (UV detectors) 2. Those that detect light in the infrared wave spectrum (IR detectors) 3. Those that detect both types of light. § These types of detectors are sensitive and usually positioned in areas where other light sources are unlikely since sunlight, welding, or other bright light sources may cause activation. Depending on the requirements of the occupancy, various combinations of detection equipment are available to protect a premise. Some detectors may combine two types of detection into a single device. Some combinations include fixed-temperature/rate-of-rise heat detectors, combination heat/ smoke detectors, and combination smoke/fire gas detectors. This versatility makes detectors more responsive to a variety of fire conditions Carbon monoxide (CO) detectors are often the cause for fire department response. These devices may have a single purpose to detect the presence of carbon monoxide or combined with smoke detection capability in a single unit CO detectors monitor an area for the presence of the colorless, odorless gas that is both toxic and combustible. Formed as a result of incomplete combustion of carbon, the source for these alarms is often poorly designed or maintained heating equipment, generators, grills used indoors, or idling automobiles. Many jurisdictions require the installation of CO detectors as well as smoke alarms in residential occupancies. When a CO detector alerts occupants of a building, they typically call the fire department to investigate. Each jurisdiction may establish its own policy for responding to such alarms, but typical actions include evacuating occupants and contacting the local gas utility provider. There are a variety of audible and visual alarms indicating devices in use to warn occupants of fire alarm activation. Many indicating devices combine an audible warning, such as a horn or chime, with a visual indication, usually a strobe light. Depending on the occupancy, alarm indicating devices may use a pre-recorded message with evacuation instructions or an extra loud signal in high noise work areas.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 2. Define specific gravity and vapor density.

Specific gravity: is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of liquid compared with the mass of an equal volume of water. Vapor density: is defined as the density of a gas or vapor in relation to air.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 7. What factors determine the temperature at which a specific steel member may fail?

Steel is the primary material used for structural support in the construction of large modern buildings. Firefighters should be aware that steel structural members elongate when heated. If a beam is restrained from movement as when it is part of a roof assembly, it may buckle and fail near the middle or push out load-bearing walls, causing a collapse. For practical purposes, steel can be expected to fail at temperatures in the vicinity of 1,000° F (540° C). The temperature at which a specific steel member may fail depends on numerous variables, including: Steel is the primary material used for structural support in the construction of large modern buildings. Firefighters should be aware that steel structural members elongate when heated. If a beam is restrained from movement as when it is part of a roof assembly, it may buckle and fail near the middle or push out load-bearing walls, causing a collapse. For practical purposes, steel can be expected to fail at temperatures in the vicinity of 1,000° F (540° C). The temperature at which a specific steel member may fail depends on numerous variables, including: · Size of the member · The load it is under · Composition of the steel · Geometry of the steel · If it is protected from direct exposure to fire Firefighters should be aware of the type of steel members that are in a building and the length of time they may have been exposed to fire. Lightweight steel construction may be expected to fail quickly when exposed to fire. Water may be applied to structural steel members in an effort to cool them and reduce the risk of failure.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 12. What conditions may indicate the potential for building collapse?

Structural collapses at an incident have killed or injured many firefighters. Collapse often occurs as a result of damage to the building's structural system caused by the progression of fire, firefighting operations, or a combination of both. Fire begins to weaken the structural support systems of a building until it becomes incapable of holding its own weight in addition to the weight of any contents. The longer a fire burns, the more likely the building will collapse. The timeframe for collapse varies with the severity of the fire, the fire loading, type of construction, and the overall condition of the building (Figure 7.22, page 228). Some buildings are more inclined to collapse than others. Those structures featuring lightweight truss construction will fail more quickly than a heavy timber structure. Older, poorly maintained buildings that have had severe weather exposure will be expected to fail before a newer well-maintained building. Information concerning building construction and age should be obtained during a preincident survey. The following conditions may indicate the potential for building collapse: · Cracks or separations in walls, floors, or ceilings (Figure 7.23, page 228) · Evidence of preexisting instability, such as the presence of tie rods and bearing plates to hold walls together · Loose bricks or blocks falling from the building (Figure 7.24) · Deteriorated mortar between the masonry · Walls that appear to be leaning · Structural members that appear to be distorted · Fires beneath floors or roofs that support heavy machinery, HVAC units, or other heavy loads · Prolonged fire exposure to structural members · Unusual creaks or cracking noises · Structural members pulling away from walls · Excessive weight of building contents Firefighting operations may also increase the risk of building collapse. Improper vertical ventilation techniques may result in cutting structural sup- ports that may weaken the roof system. The water used to extinguish the fire adds extra weight to floors if measures are not taken to drain it off. A hoseline flowing 250 gallons per minute (1 000 L/min) can add one ton (0.9 T) of water to a building every minute. Water that is not drained or converted to steam by the fire will add to the collapse potential of an already weakened structure.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 12. What are the five classifications of fires?

The classification of a fire is important to a firefighter in determining the safest, most efficient method of extinguishment. Each class of fire has unique properties and extinguishing requirements. · Class A Fires: Fires involving ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, cloth, and similar material. · Class B Fires: Fires of flammable and combustible liquids and gases such as gasoline, kerosene, and propane. · Class C Fires: Fires involving energized electrical equipment. · Class D Fires: Fires of combustible metals, such as magnesium, sodium, and titanium. · Class K Fires: Fires in cooking appliances that involve combustible cooking media, such as vegetal or animal oils and fats; commonly occurring in commercial cooking facilities such as restaurants and institutional kitchens.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 1. List the five types of building construction.

The five types of building construction are as follows: Type I construction (also known as fire-resistive construction) Type II construction (also known as non-combustible or limited-combustible construction Type III construction (also known as ordinary construction) Type IV construction (also known as heavy timber or mill construction) Type V construction (also known as wood-frame construction)

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 11. Why might the furnishings and cosmetic finishes in some occupancies create dangerous conditions during a fire?

The furnishings and cosmetic finishes in some occupancies may contribute to fire spread and production of toxic smoke and fire gases. Rapid fire spread and toxic smoke have been identified as major factors in the loss of many lives in fires. Some codes regulate furnishings found in occupancies, such as hospitals, theaters, and detention facilities. Code enforcement activities in these occupancies may aid in the recognition and remedy of many of these hazards.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 5. What two factors determine the reaction of wood to fire conditions?

The reaction of wood to fire conditions depends mainly on two factors: dimension and moisture content. Dimension: The smaller the wood size, the more likely it is to quickly lose structural integrity. Larger dimension lumber, such as those used in Type IV construction, retains much of its original structural integrity even after extensive exposure to fire. Gypsum may protect smaller dimensional lumber in the form of drywall or plaster to increase its resistance to heat and fire. Moisture content: The moisture content of wood also has a bearing on the rate at which it will burn. Wood with a high moisture content (sometimes called green wood) does not burn as fast as wood that has been dried or cured. In some cases, fire retardants may be added to wood in an attempt to reduce the speed at which it ignites or burns. The moisture content found in wood also affects its strength. In a living tree, wood has high moisture content. When a tree is cut, the water begins to evaporate. As the water content diminishes naturally or through curing, the wood begins to shrink in size and increase in strength. Most structural lumber has a moisture content of 19 percent or less. Wood may be treated to reduce its combustibility. Building codes may permit the use of fire-retardant-treated wood in certain building applications. Although this wood resists ignition and has increased fire endurance compared to non-treated wood, it should not be confused with materials that are fire resistive. The two methods of fire-retardant treatment are pressure impregnation and surface coating.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 13. Why are lightweight trusses a hazard under fire conditions?

The use of lightweight and truss-supported building systems have become more common in many types of buildings, including houses, apartments, and commercial buildings. The two most popular types are lightweight steel trusses lightweight wood trusses. Steel trusses are constructed from a long steel bar that is bent at 90-degree angles with flat or angular pieces welded to the top and bottom. Lightweight wood trusses are made of 2 x 3 or 2 x 4-inch (50 x 75 mm or 50 x 100 mm) dimensional lumber connected by small plates with 3⁄8 inch (metrics) teeth called gusset plates. Some newer wooden trusses are manufactured using finger joint bonding (glue) and have no gusset plate connectors (Figure 7.25, p. 230) Lightweight trusses, whether wood or steel, will fail quickly under fire conditions. Steel trusses fail at approximately 1,000° F (540° C), and gusset plates in wood trusses quickly warp and fall out upon exposure to heat or fire. Trusses may be protected with fire-retardant material to increase their survivability, but most are not protected in this manner. Other types of trusses may be found in various buildings in virtually every community. One such design, the bowstring truss, is often used in structures that require large open spaces, such as car dealerships, factories, bowling alleys, and supermarkets. Bowstrings are often identified by their rounded appearance, although they may be hidden behind a parapet wall from above and a suspended ceiling from below. In those instances, it may only be possible to identify the type of roof system by performing a visual inspection of the rooftop. Wooden I-beams are also used in lightweight construction. These members have characteristics similar to wood trusses, and similar precautions should be taken when these beams have been exposed to heat or fire conditions (Figure 7.26, page 230).

Chapter 8 - Fire Detection, Alarm and Suppression System 1. What are some reasons for installing fire detection, alarm, and suppression systems?

There are a number of reasons for installing fire detection, alarm, and suppression systems in residential buildings and other properties. In some jurisdictions, codes require such systems to be installed in various properties based on code requirements or for insurance purposes. The systems installed in these occupancies may fulfill one or more of the following functions: · Notify occupants of a building to take necessary action to escape a fire; · Summon organized assistance and/or assist in fire control actions; · Supervise fire control systems to ensure that operational status is maintained · Initiate required auxiliary functions involving environmental, utility, and building system controls (elevators, HVAC systems). Fire detection, alarm, and suppression systems may incorporate one or all of these features. Such systems may operate mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or electrically (Figure 8.1). Automatic sprinkler systems remain the most reliable form of fire suppression systems for commercial, industrial, institutional, or residential occupancies. Fires in buildings equipped with automatic sprinklers generally result in less water damage than those extinguished by traditional fire attack methods. A majority of fires in sprinklered buildings are controlled by the activation of five or less sprinkler heads.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 14. List new building construction technologies that firefighters may encounter.

There are many new building construction technologies that firefighters may encounter. Some of these construction features include: · Alternative energy sources, such as solar panels mounted to the roof of a building (Figure 7.27) · Styrofoam foundation forms · Energy efficient windows · Hurricane or tornado-resistant windows · Building access and security features, such as electronic magnetic locking doors and window systems, that may hamper access or egress by civilians and firefighters. Each of the previously mentioned features may impact firefighters during suppression operations. Solar panels mounted on a roof add weight to the roof system, which may already be weakened by a fire. In addition, these panels may hinder vertical ventilation by obstructing a portion of the roof that is most advantageous to cut. The panels and associated wiring may also be energized as long as the panels are receiving sunlight. In addition, light towers or other lighting used during incident operations may energize these panels. Security access systems and window and door bars may also delay entry and egress as well as complicate forcible entry operations.

Chapter 9 - Fire and Emergency Services Apparatus 6. List the two categories of tools used in the fire service.

Tools and equipment Fire department operations depend on the safe and efficient use of a wide variety of tools and equipment. Some of these items, such as saws and pry bars, are also used in trades outside the fire service, while other types of equipment are unique to emergency responders. Firefighters must learn the purpose and operation of each tool and piece of equipment they may be required to use. Safe operation and proper maintenance are priorities for all fire service tools and equipment. Tools and equipment in the fire service generally fall into one of two categories: hand tools (nonpowered) or power tools. Each category will be described in the following sections. Hand Tools Hand tools can be identified by their specific function, such as striking, cutting, or prying. Many different types of hand tools perform similar fireground functions. Some jurisdictions may prefer one style over another based on prevalent conditions in specific districts. Power Tools The fire service employs many different types of power tools. These tools may be described by their source of power and their purpose. Power tools may be used for tasks such as vehicle extrication, ventilation, forcible entry, and technical rescue. Equipment Fire service equipment includes any number of articles used to aid in accomplishing an objective at an incident. The types of equipment that individual fire departments use may vary according to the needs of the jurisdiction. However, typical pieces of fire service equipment include items such as salvage covers, smoke ejectors, cribbing blocks, basket stretchers, and electrical cords and adapters.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 2. Which type of construction provides the highest level of protection from fire development and spread?

Type I construction (also known as fire-resistive construction) provides the highest level of protection from fire development and spread as well as collapse. All structural members are composed of noncombustible or limited combustible materials with a high fire-resistance rating. Components such as walls, floors, and ceilings must be able to resist fire for a period of three to four hours depending on the component.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 3. What is the main characteristic of Type IV construction?

Type IV construction (also known as heavy timber/mill construction) is characterized by the use of wooden structural members that are generally greater than 8 inches (.20 meters) in dimension, with a fire-resistance rating of at least two hours. Any other materials used in construction and not composed of wood must have a fire-resistance rating of at least one hour. Originally constructed with a lack of void spaces to help prevent fire travel, Type IV buildings are stable and resistant to collapse due to the sheer mass of their structural members. When involved in a fire, the heavy timber structural elements form an insulating effect derived from the timber's own char that reduces heat penetration inside the beam. In the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, Type IV construction was used extensively in factories, mills, and ware-houses. It is not commonly used in new construction for multistory buildings, although many buildings of this type remain in use. Many old Type IV warehouse and industrial buildings have been converted to residential use. Today, heavy-timber wood frame construction is encountered primarily where it is desired for appearance. The primary fire hazard associated with Type IV construction is the massive amount of combustible contents found in the building as well as the heavy timbers used in construction. These timbers give off a tremendous amount of heat and often pose a serious threat to any other buildings in the vicinity.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 4. What type of construction is the most commonly used method for construction of single-family residences?

Type V construction (also known as wood frame) consists of exterior walls, bearing walls, floors, roofs, and supports made completely or partially of wood or other approved materials of smaller dimensions than those used in Type IV construction. Type V construction is the most commonly used method for construction of single-family residences. This method presents almost unlimited potential for fire spread within the building of origin or similarly constructed nearby structures. Modern Type V construction often includes the use of prefabricated wood truss systems for roof and floor construction. Roof systems may include 2 x 4 inch (50 x 100 mm) dimensional lumber manufactured into trusses using gusset plates for connectors. Floor joists may be comprised of wooden I-beams constructed of thin plywood or wood composite and glued to two 2 x 4 inch (50 x 100 mm) pieces that form a top and bottom of the truss. Under fire conditions, truss systems fail and burn more rapidly than solid lumber.

Chapter 7 - Building Construction 15. What hazards are present in buildings under construction, undergoing renovation, or undergoing demolition?

When buildings are under construction, renovation, or demolition, the risk of fire or other emergencies generally increases. The increased fire load associated with equipment and raw materials, as well as the potential for ignition sources from welding, cutting, and grinding, pose a serious threat. While under construction, a building may be subject to rapid fire spread as protective features, such as drywall, firewalls, fire doors, and automatic sprinkler systems may not yet be in place (Figure 7.28). Buildings under renovation or demolition may have similar issues with fire spread as breached walls, open stairwells, missing doors, and disabled fire protection systems may also increase hazards to firefighters operating in these structures (Figure 7.29). Additional hazards at construction sites may include the following: • Stairs • Hallways • Standpipe connections blocked by raw material or debris • Poor housekeeping conditions • Vehicles or dumpsters blocking access points or fire department connections (FDC). During renovations in some buildings, occupants may be allowed to continue to inhabit certain areas throughout the project. This additional fire load and life hazard should be considered by firefighters during a preincident survey.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 10. List indicators of backdraft.

· A ventilation-controlled compartment fire may produce a large volume of flammable smoke and other gases due to incomplete combustion. While the heat release rate from a ventilation-controlled fire is limited, elevated temperatures are usually present within the compartment. · Any low level ventilation (such as opening a door or window) without prior upper level ventilation (such as vertical ventilation on the roof) may result in explosive rapid combustion of the flammable gases called a backdraft. · Backdraft occurs in the decay stage of a fire, in a space containing a high concentration of heated flammable gases that lack sufficient oxygen for flaming combustion. · When potential backdraft conditions exist in a compartment, the introduction of a new source of oxygen will return the fire to a fully involved state rap- idly, often explosively. · A backdraft can be created with a horizontal or vertical opening when hot fuel-rich smoke is mixed with air. Backdraft conditions may develop in a room, void space, or an entire building. Whenever a compartment contains hot products of combustion, the potential for backdraft should be considered before creating any openings in the compartment. Backdraft indicators may include: · Building indicators: Fire confined to a single compartment or void space; building contents have a high heat release rate. · Smoke indicators: Optically dense smoke, light colored or black becoming dense gray-yellow (smoke color alone is not a reliable indicator). Neutral plane rising and lowering similar to pulsing or breathing movement. · Air flow indicators: High velocity, turbulent smoke discharge, sometimes appearing to pulse or breathe. · Heat indicators: High heat, smoke-stained windows. · Flame indicators: Little or no visible flame.

Chapter 6 - Scientific Terminology, Fire Behaviour and Combustion 11. Why are products of combustion dangerous?

· As any fuel burns, its chemical composition changes. This change results in the production of new substances and the release of energy. · In a structure fire, multiple fuels are involved with a limited air supply. This mixture results in incomplete combustion, which produces complex chemical reactions that cause toxic and flammable gases, vapors, and particulates. · While the heat generated by a fire is a danger to anyone directly exposed to it, smoke and fire gases cause the majority of deaths in fires. · The smoke generated by a fire contains asphyxiant gases and irritants. · Asphyxiant gases are products of combustion that cause central nervous system depression, resulting in reduced awareness, loss of consciousness, and death. Carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and carbon dioxide (CO2) are among the most common gases found in smoke. · Irritants in smoke are those substances that cause breathing discomfort (pulmonary irritants) and inflammation of the eyes, respiratory tract, and skin (sensory irritants). · Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the most common hazardous substances contained in smoke. CO displaces oxygen in the blood, creating carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), which starves the cells of oxygen. · Because the substances found in smoke are deadly (either alone or in combination), firefighters must always use SCBA for protection when operating in smoke.