GENE Final
What are passerines?
Perching birds
What taxonomic group does Giardia, Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Trypanosoma, Leishmania and Cryptosporidium fall into?
Protists (human disease vectors)
How do protostomes and deuterostomes differ in development?
Protostomes--> mouth then anus Deuterostomes--> anus then mouth
When one copy of a mutation alone rapidly becomes established should and fixed in a population, this is called a what?
Purifying sweep
Ribozymes
RNA molecules that function as enzymes
direct benefits
Selection favors females that choose mates based on traits associated with resource provisioning rather than genetic contributions to offspring.
good genes
Selection favors females that choose mates with traits that are honest indicators of genetic quality.
Fisherian runaway selection
Selection favors females with a preference for a male ornament that is in linkage disequilibrium with the genes underlying the female preference.
sensory bias
Selection favors male traits that tap into a preexisting female sensitivity to some stimulus.
Which of the following is not a source of genetic load in a population. Selection load. Mutation load. Drift load. Recombination load.
Selection load.
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Australoaves
Seriemas, falcons, parrots, passerines (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone: "falcon-like")
Which of the following statements does not describe an advantage of sex? Sex can repair mutational damage. Sex can speed up the rate of evolution. Sex can create rare, potentially beneficial recombinations. Sex can promote homozygosity.
Sex can speed up the rate of evolution
Which of the following statements describes an element of the fisher Mueller hypothesis for adaptive sexual reproduction
Sex facilitates the combination of favorable mutations that originated in different individuals into advantageous genotypes
The differences between males and females of a species are called what?
Sexual dimorphism
Which of the following choices is not a potential disadvantage to sexual reproduction? Finding a mate is energetically expensive. Finding a mate may increase the risk of production. Copulation may not produce offspring. Sexual reproduction increases variation in a population.
Sexual reproduction increases variation in a population.
Darwin call differential reproductive success due to variation among individuals in success at getting mates
Sexual selection
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Olfatores: Vertebrata: Gnathostomata: Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii
Sharks, rays, skates, sawfish (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: tunicates &vertebrates: jawed: cartiligenous fish: shark/ray/skate/sawfish)
Morphological or behavioral characteristics used to attract a mate can also have the consequence of drawing a predators attention to the individual who possesses that trait, yet these so-called expensive traits persist in many species. This describes what?
The handicap principal
In sexual selection, females are more selective due to
The higher cost of producing eggs
phyletic gradualism model
The hypothesis that new species arise by a gradual transformation of an ancestral species through slow, continual change
What did Darwin fail to recognize concerning his phylogenetic tree?
That hybridization is an important means of genetic change.
What idea did Darwin learn from the writings of Thomas Malthus?
That populations tend to increase faster than their food supply allows.
Adaptive evolution is
The process by which natural selection improves the match between an organisms and it's environment over time.
packing of DNA molecule in nucleus
The process starts when DNA is wrapped around special protein molecules called histones. The combined loop of DNA and protein is called a nucleosome. Next the nucleosomes are packaged into a thread, which is sometimes described as "beads on a string". The end result is a fiber known as chromatin
Which feature of the graph most directly supports the Fisher-Muller hypothesis of adaptive evolution?
The sexual lineage increases in fitness more quickly than the asexual lineage.
The rate of adaptation Ultimately depends on the what?
The strength of selection
Kin recognition (inbreeding)
The capacity of an individual to react differently to others based on the degree to which they are genetically related in order to avoid inbreeding - mammals recognize kin by scent
The graph to the right depicts a decline in heterozygosity in overfished populations of New Zealand snapper. Hauser and his colleagues concluded that genetic drift had generated these declines even though the fishery census count suggests there are at least 3 million individuals (2002). If the population is so large, how might genetic drift lead to a loss of heterozygosity? The census size is different from the effective population size. If the effective population size is much lower, only a small proportion of individuals breed each generation.
The census size is different from the effective population size. If the effective population size is much lower, only a small proportion of individuals breed each generation.
Which of the following statements is true about coalescent time in a Wright-Fisher population?
The coalescent point for all current gene copies in a population is more recent in a small population than in a large population.
In MALE-MALE Confrontations between elk, why do the males avoid fighting by posturing and bellowing?
The cost of fighting is high and may include injuries or death.
In general, mothers typically make a larger parental investment in each offspring than males do. What is meant by the term parental investment?
The energy and time spent constructing and caring for the offspring.
If the heritability of a trait in the population is low then most of the phenotypic variation for the trait in a population is due to
The environment
direct fitness
The expected number of viable offspring an individual produces. (an individual's own lifetime reproductive output)
In a population an individual with the highest selection coefficient will have
The fewest offspring
Consider a population of lizards living on the coast of Africa. a storm creates piles of debris that the lizards use to raft to a faraway uninhabited island. which evolutionary process is happening?
The founder effect
Shrews have been documented to travel across frozen lakes at establish populations on previously I don't have it at Islands; thus, the shrooms have a limited gene pool. If this limited gene pool has a Leo frequencies that are very different from the allele frequency's found in the original population, then this would be an example of what?
The founder effect
As world travel becomes easier and human populations intermix the occurrence of what phenomenon will probably decrease
The founder effect and genetic drift
In order for migration to alter allele frequency's in another population:
The gene pool of the migrating population must be different from the population it is joining.
Law of Superposition
The geologic principle that states that in horizontal layers of sedimentary rock, each layer is older than the layer above it and younger than the layer below it. - fluorine dating used, the older the bone is the more fluorine there is in it
translation
Translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis
In a ____ mutation, part of a chromosome is transferred to a non homologous chromosome
Translocation
average time for fixation due to genetic drift in small populations comparted to larger population
average time for fixation in smaller populations is faster than time for fixation in larger population
Population bottlenecks can result in rapid fixation or loss of alleles in otherwise large populations because the bottleneck a. selectively eliminates or fixes alleles. b. reduces the effective population size. c. allows migrant alleles to overwhelm native alleles. d. creates many new small populations.
b
molecular clock is calibrated in years instead of generations, why?
because a higher percentage of deleterious mutations are seen by selection in taxa with short generation times
Considering the phylogenetic evidence of feather evolution, all of the following might have been original functions of feathers except -heat retention -flight -waterproofing -shielding from sunlight
flight
psuedogenes
former genes that have accumulated mutations over a long time and no longer produce functional proteins
A change in allele frequencies that results from sampling effects that occur when a small number of individuals derived from a large population initially colonize a new area and found a new population.
founder effect
probability of a neutral allele being fixed in a population =
frequency of an allele in a population at that time (1/2N)
population sex ratios, that is, how many males and females there are in a population, are most likely influenced by which processes? -assortative mating -mutation -frequency-dependent selection -directional selection
frequency-dependent selection
evolution of a new protein methods
gene duplication, transposition (occurs one or a few loci), unequal crossing over, segmental duplication, polyploidization (entire genome)
what evolutionary forces counteract genetic drift?
gene flow (migration), non-assortative mating, and mutation
Habitats set aside for endangered species are often sectioned into areas by roads, producing separate small populations. This causes problems in conservation because it reduces:
gene flow between populations
Even though in a similar habitat, a founder population that breaks away from the parent population may become very different because of:
genetic drift
Random fluctuation in allele frequencies over time due to sampling effects in finite populations.
genetic drift
Muller's Ratchet Hypothesis
genetic drift and mutation lead to accumulation of harmful mutations that sex can solve.
The figure shows the relationship between the size of an island and the number of alleles found at microsatellite loci in lizard populations. what do these data demonstrate? -lizards are more successful on larger islands -effective population size does not affect allelic diversity -populations on smaller islands experience more natural selection -genetic drift is stronger in smaller populations
genetic drift is stronger in smaller populations
The principle that if molecular evolution proceeds at the same constant rate over time in different lineages, all members of a clade should be genetically equidistant from an outgroup to the clade
genetic equidistance principle
genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
Genetic drift occurs when
chance occurrences alter gene frequencies.
At its most basic level, evolution is a
change in the frequency of alleles in a population
genetic hitchhiking
change in the frequency of an allele due to positive selection on a closely linked locus even if that locus is neutral or deleterious
The effective population size is often lower than the census size of a population because a. inbreeding depression decreases the fitness of inbred progeny. b. populations cannot recover from decreases in heterozygosity. c. scientists cannot accurately count the number of individuals in a population. d. individuals contribute unequally to future generations.
d
The two graphs show the change in allele frequency, p, over 100 generations. Each graph shows 10 different populations, all experiencing the same evolutionary forces. What is the most likely difference between the populations shown in the top graph compared to the populations in the bottom graph? a. There is no difference between the populations; the differences in the graphs are due to chance. b. The populations in the graph on top have a longer generation time than the populations in the bottom graph. c. The populations in the graph on top are experiencing genetic drift; the populations in the graph on bottom are experiencing directional selection. d. The population sizes in the graph on top are smaller than the population sizes in the graph on the bottom.
d
balancing selections (overdominance, negative frequency dependent selection) effect on coalescence
genetic polymorphism is maintained, so time to coalescence is farther back (later)
Can animals evolve cooperation- including a cost- for the good of the group? -yes, just look at honeybees -no, cooperation never evolves in nature -no, natural selection on a new non-cooperating mutant would act too rapidly -yes, herds often reduce their reproduction to avoid exhausting food resources, which is for the good of the group
no, natural selection on a new non-cooperating mutant would act too rapidly
forward smearing
date of an extinction is later than it actually occurred - caused by burrowing animals who move fossilized remains and mess up the fossil record
alkaline vents
deep sea vents that release water that has a high pH (9-11) and is warm (40-90ºC) rather than hot
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.
Female isopods in the species Hyalella azteca prefer to mate with males that have large gnathopods, with which the males grasp the females and hold them for an extended period during mating. Based on the information in the graph and your understanding of sexual selection, which model of intersexual selection most likely explains the evolution of large male gnathopods? Note that male body size is positively associated with gnathopod size.
direct benefits, because females that choose males with large gnathopods gain a survival advantage
In cases where selection consistently favors a higher (or lower) value of a trait or phenotype, the result over time is a change in the average value of a trait in the population. This mode of selection is known as ________.
directional selection
What mode of selection favors the evolution of anisogamy?
disruptive selection
hermaphroditism
protandry protogyny
A nonfunctional and typically untranslated segment of DNA that arises from a previously functional gene.
pseudogene
Nonfunctional copies of normal genes, which lack both introns and promoters, and are important in estimating evolutionary ages of phylogenetic relationships, are ________.
pseudogenes
Selection against deleterious mutations.
purifying selection
Which of the following is a consequence of recessive deleterious alleles in a population? -an increase in the frequency of the recessive allele -reduced fitness of the population when there is inbreeding -an increase in genetic variation due to mutation and migration -mutation-selection balance results in the loss of beneficial alleles
reduced fitness of the population where there is inbreeding
cladogenesis
the formation of a new group of organisms or higher taxon by evolutionary divergence from an ancestral form.
Comparison of gene sequences among species has revealed
the greater the similarities in gene sequences, the more recently two species shared a common ancestor.
minimal gene set
the hypothetical minimal number of genes thought necessary to allow for cellular-based life
Coalescent theory (population genetics)
the idea that the genome of individuals can be traced back to a common ancestor, the first of the population or species to carry that form of the gene (mitochondrial Eve) -Can look at multiple populations and see how closely related the populations are or how much gene-flow there is between populations
founder's effect
the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population - genes in founder's population represent a subset of the genes present in the mainland
background selection
the loss of neutral alleles due to selection against closely linked deleterious mutations - independent of population size - mildly beneficial alleles are more likely to be fixed while deleterious mutations are more likely to be fixed
A research group successively knocks genes out of a bacterial line. If the knockout doesn't result in a decrease of fitness, they eliminate it permanently. If it does, they restore it. They continue this until any knockout decreases fitness. They repeat the whole process many times. What is this group likely trying to discover?
the minimal gene sets for functional gene clusters
census population size vs effective population size
the number of individuals in a population that can be counted vs the number of individuals in an ideal population (in which every adult reproduces) in which the rate of genetic drift (measured by the decline in heterozygosity) would be the same as it is in the actual population
Which of the following major transitions proposed by John Maynard Smith and Erod szathmary (1997) most likely occurred first -the evolution of sexual reproduction -emergence of eukaryotic cells -the origin of the first cells -the evolution of groups, including complex societies
the origin of the first cells
Paleozoic Era
the part of geologic time 570-245 million years ago ; invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, ferns, and cone-bearing trees were dominant - divided into Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian
coalescence point
the point on a gene tree (the ancestral gene copy) that delineates the most recent common ancestor of the genes being studied in a population
Heritability measures
the portion of the total variation in a trait that is due to variation in genes
coefficient of relatedness
the probability that an allele in one individual is identical by descent to a copy of that allele found in a second individual
2N is a critical parameter in population genetics. For example, in the coalescent theory, 1/2N is: -the frequency of a new mutation -the probability of fixation -the probability that two alleles in the current generation find a common ancestor in the previous generation -none of the above; it is not used in the coalescent
the probability that two alleles in the current generation find a common ancestor in the previous generation
Which of the following is an advantage of the economy of scale? -division of labor -more individuals per group -sexual reproduction -multicellularity
division of labor
Genetic Drift
the random fluctuations in the frequency of alleles due to sampling effects in finite populations - can result in non-adaptive evolution - decreases heterozygosity - greater force in smaller populations than large populations - weak negative evolutionary force
a coin toss can help one imagine genetic drift in a random walk. How so? -getting heads or tails is not often 50/50 in a series of over 1000 real tosses, even with a fair coin -migration by walking, flight, etc, is random -you can get closer to 50-50 with 10 coin tosses than only 2 -the random walk involves flipping a coin to determine randomly if the frequency goes up or down each generation
the random walk involves flipping a coin to determine randomly if the frequency goes up or down each generation
No two people are genetically identical, except for identical twins. The main source of genetic variation among human individuals is
the reshuffling of alleles in sexual reproduction
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa
Animals that grow by ecdysis (molting of exoskeleton) Basal in clade= penis worm (priapulida) 1mm mud dragons (kinorhyncha)
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria
Animals with bilateral symmetry and three germline layers These animals develop mouth first then anus
What are the three types of mollusks?
Cephalapod, gastropod, bivalve
proteins
Chains of amino acids
Animals
Monophyletic group Eukaryotes Consume organic material (heterotrophs) Breathe oxygen Able to move Reproduces sexually Grows from blastula Over 1.5 million species... 1 million are insects
Green algae (charophyta)
Mostly freshwater algae Terrestrial plants probably evolved from common ancestor
Red algae (rhodophyta)
Mostly marine Largest group of algae Alternate between diploid sporophytic and haploid gametophytic stages
Brown algae (phaeophyta)
Mostly marine Photosynthetic but independently Photosynthesis from red algae ancestors
Green algae (chlorophyta)
Mostly marine algae
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease caused by a defect in a particular protein, the CTFR ion transporter. Until very recently cystic fibrosis was a fatal disease and the life expectancy of patients with cystic fibrosis is still only about 30 years. Despite its severity, cystic fibrosis is one of the More common genetic diseases. In the US the frequency of cystic fibrosis is about 1/3000 births. Why does cystic fibrosis persist in humans when it is such a severe genetic disease?
Mutation selection balance
Which of the following can create new alleles Natural selection Sexual reproduction Mutations Genetic drift
Mutations
Are cnetophora predatory or prey?
Predatory
primary RNA transcript vs mature RNA transcript
Primary still has parts with almost no role (introns) and is after transcription. Mature RNA is made of a mG (methyl-guanine) cap on the 5' end, only exons, and a poly A tail that is 100-200 A's long.
Which of the following statements is true of information sharing?
an individual can share information with another individual without losing any of the information itself.
It is extremely difficult to root the tree of life because -bacteria and archaea do not form fossils -an exhaustive search is not possible computationally -an outgroup is not available -none of the above
an outgroup is not available
The production of gametes of two different masses in sexually reproducing species is called _______. Under such a system, only the _______ sex invests in offspring biomass. In asexual reproduction, all individuals in the population invest completely in offspring production, and as a consequence, we expect an asexual population to grow _________ than a sexual population. Evolutionary biologist John Maynard Smith called this cost of producing males and the effects on population growth rate "the twofold cost of sex."
anisogamy; female; faster
Two types of asexual reproduction
apomixis and automixis
Under ______ individuals tend to mate with others of the same genotype (or phenotype). Under ____ individuals tend to mate with others of different genotypes (or phenotypes) -natural selection; hardy-weinberg equilibrium -directional selection; balancing selection -assortative mating;disassortative mating -outbreeding; inbreeding
assortative mating; disassortative mating
neutral theory of molecular evolution
at the molecular level most evolutionary changes and most of the variation within and between species is not caused by natural selection but by genetic drift of mutant alleles that are neutral
An inexpensive signal whose meaning does not intrinsically arise from its structure is which type of signal? Social punishment of deceptive signalers may help maintain honesty in such a communication system.
conventional
Some signals are energetically costly to produce and are thus honest indicators of some inherent quality of the signaler. However, communication can also involve ____signals that are not particularly expensive and convey meanings that do not arise intrinsically from the structure of the signal. For example, male house sparrows bear black patches on their throats as badges of fighting ability, and individuals with signals that overstate their abilities are disproportionately attacked by dominant males who impose _____. Such attacks, which select for ____ signaling, depend on the ability of individuals to directly assess the quality that the signal advertises, for example by engaging in combat with a sparrow to see how well he can fight.
conventional; social punishment; honest
When two animals interact in a way that generates a net fitness benefit for both, we call the behavior ____. To understand the evolution of such social interactions, we need to solve the puzzle of ____ behavior, whereby an individual incurs an immediate fitness cost but increases the fitness of another. Darwin puzzled over how a behavioral trait that benefits other individuals at the expense of the actor could increase in a population via natural selection. We must also establish the conditions under which such seemingly selfless behaviors would be selectively favored over the actions of ____ that receive fitness benefits from social interactions without investing in activities that benefit others.
cooperative; altruistic; free riders
Chloroplast likely descended from ...?
cyanobacteria
In a diploid population size of 1000, a new beneficial mutation arises with a selective coefficient of 0.0001. What is the probability that this mutation will go to fixation? a. 1.0 b. 0.001 c. 0.0001 d. 0.0005
d
In an early study of black spruce trees in Canada's Hudson Bay area, researchers studying nuclear DNA found no reduction of genetic diversity in post-ice-age populations, and thus no evidence of founder effects. Why did a recent study, using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), show different results regarding the founder effects in black spruce? a. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is maternally inherited, and thus it is passed on only through pollen, which is easily dispersed by the wind. b. Seeds, which often are transported by animals, are dispersed more easily than pollen, thus the mtDNA from the seeds shows evidence of founder effects. c. Different populations of the black spruce have similar distributions of genetic diversity in nuclear DNA and mtDNA. d. Pollen, which carries nuclear DNA but not mtDNA, can disperse far in the wind, but seeds, which carry both nuclear and mtDNA, cannot disperse as far.
d
diploid
(of a cell or nucleus) containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
haploid
(of a cell or nucleus) having a single set of unpaired chromosomes.
How much of all bird species are passerines?
+1/2
Which domain of organisms included the major forms of bacteria and the cyanobacteria, the latter being the earliest organisms known as fossils A. Eubacteria B. Archae C. Prokarya D. Eukarya E. None of these
A. Eubacteria
Which on the tree of life are able to move?
Animals
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Olfatores: Vertebrata: Gnathostomata: Osteichthytes: Actinopterygii: Teleost
96% of all fish species (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: tunicates &vertebrates: jawed: bony fish: ray finned fish: protruding jaw face)
Basal animals
Lack bilateral symmetry Includes Porifera, Cnetophora, Placozoan and Cnidaria
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Cephaelochordata
Lancelets, look like worms but are fish like
In mail-mail combat observed in Marine iguanas, why do males tend to grow in size that exceeds the optimal size for survival?
Larger males have more meat and thus pass on traits that favor larger sizes
What is the largest marine phylum?
Mollusks
Are fungi monophyletic or paraphyletic?
Monophyletic
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis 1.
Carbonization
Process of fossilization wherein the original organic material in a fossil has been reduced to a film of carbon looking like a black drawing
Archaea
Prokaryotes (no nucelus) Extreme extremophiles About same size and appearance as bacteria Though contains prokaryote and eukaryote features Probably result of abundant horizontal gene transfer No known viruses attack these organisms
Which of the following statements does not illustrate a potential cost of sexual reproduction? Female birds of paradise inspect several males before deciding whom to mate with. Proteins in the seminal fluid of males shorten the life expectancy of inseminated females. Pronghorn males do not actively search for mates reducing gene flow. Male and female dames-flies Form characteristic meeting wheels, which allow the partners to fly, albeit at slower speeds
Pronghorn
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda: Tardigrades
Water bears
radiocarbon dating
a chemical analysis used to determine the age of organic materials based on their content of the radioisotope carbon-14 and potassium-
Natural selection generally results in
a population that is adapted to its current environment.
Genetic drift can be imagined as sampling error. However, to make it more realistic, reproduction involves an infinite gamete pool, because -it gives sampling without replacement -many organisms actually do reproduce with a very large unification of gametes in aquatic and marine environments -shifting frequencies in the infinite gamete pool is what causes allele frequencies to fluctuate -it contains diploid genes
many organisms actually do reproduce with a very large unification of gametes in aquatic and marine environments
Sexual selection is a type of selection in which traits found in one sex increase in frequency as a consequence of their beneficial effects on _________ alone. _________ selection results in the increase in the frequency of traits that favor the ability of members of one sex, typically males, to directly compete with each other for access to mates. This type of selection is often implicated in the evolution of male weapons and armor. _________ selection results in the increase in the frequency of traits that favor the ability of members of one sex to choose among members of the other sex. This form of selection is sometimes called "female choice" because females pick mates based on some aspect of male phenotype such as color or ornamentation. Both forms of sexual selection are associated with the evolution of _____________, in which males and females differ in phenotype.
mating success; intrasexual; intersexual; sexual dimorphism
Gene flow through migration
may have the largest impact on small populations, such as those on islands
Devonian Period
"Age of Fishes" First amphibians Moss, ferns, grass, trees Insects have taken over - EVERYWHERE Insects, amphibians, plant, fish - all thriving
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta: Primatomorpha: Primates: Haplorhines
"Dry nose" Include: Tarsiers Monkeys Apes
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta: Primatomorpha: Primates: Haplorhines: Simians: Platyrrhines
"Flat nose" within "dry nose" From New world Include: Capuchins Howler Monkeys Squirrel monkeys
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta: Primatomorpha: Primates: Haplorhines: Simians: Catarrhines
"Narrow nose" within "dry nose" From Old world Include: Baboons Macaques Gibbons Great Apes (including humans)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta: Primatomorpha: Primates: Strepsirrhines
"Wet nose" Include: Lemurs Galagos Lorsids
definition of an individual
"integrated and indivisible wholes" that can reproduce and pass on to their offspring heritable variations
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Anamniotes
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs in water)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Anamniotes: Amphibians: Caecilians
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs in water: ring shaped folds/worm-like)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Anamniotes: Amphibians
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs in water: water and land dwelling animal)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: cold-blooded)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Testudines
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: cold-blooded: ribs attached to shell )
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Carnivora: Feliforma
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur: placental: scrotum: last common ancestor=on Laurasia: cat-like)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Euarchontoglires
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur: placental: scrotum: veniform appendix)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Galliformes
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone: heavy-bodied ground feeding bird [chicken-like])
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Anseriformes
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone: waterfowl [duck-like])
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Olfatores: Vertebrata: Gnathostomata: Osteichthytes
(animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: tunicates &vertebrates: jawed: bony fish)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Ambulacraria
(animals: anal opening first formed: something different with larvae creation)
Natural Selection favors DNA-based transmission
- DNA chemically more stable - deoxyribose sugar is less reactive than RNA sugar - DNA has a proofreading system - DNA has a double helix structure that reduces the potential for outside molecules to disrupt sequence
LUCA
- Last Universal Common Ancestor - Population of early cells from which cellular life may have diverged into ancestors of modern-day Bacteria and Archaea
reasons why effective population size could be smaller than census size
- Unequal numbers of males and females - Variation in number of progeny produced by females, males or both - Overlapping generations - Fluctuations in population size
migration
- gene flow - tends to homogenize allele frequencies across populations
Precambrain Era
- hadean archaeon protozoic - first evidence of atmospheric oxygen - snowball earth - evolution and origin of 3 domains of life - possible origin of eukaryotes (endosymbiosis) and multicellularity
Mechanisms to avoid inbreeding
- incest taboos in humans - sex biased dispersal: one sex tends to leave a natal group - heterostyly: pollination effective only between different forms, on different individuals
time to coalescence in respect to population size
- larger populations => time to coalescence is higher - smaller populations => time to coalescence is shorter - coalescence occurs sooner in a shrinking population - coalescence occurs later in a growing population
Evidence for RNA world
- present day protein based enzymes have cofactors => nonprotein components needed for enzymatic function that are RNA nucleotides - deoxyribonucleic acids of DNA are constructed from ribonucleic intermediate - Ribozymes responsible for translating RNA - RNA a precursor
generation time, mutations, and population size relationship
- short generation time occur in mostly large effective populations, so many mutations accumulate on a per year basis - long generation time occur in mostly small effective populations, so few mutations accumulate on a per year basis
genetic drift of larger and small populations and coalescent tree relationship
- smaller populations experience stronger levels of drift, so coalescence tree will show more recent coalescent time because of reduced heterozygosity - larger populations experience weaker levels of drift, so coalescence tree will show a deeper, less recent coalescent time because more mutations can occur to generate genetic diversity
sexual reproduction
-A reproductive process that involves two parents that combine their genetic material to produce a new organism, which differs from both parents -An individual in which a deleterious mutation arises can produce offspring that do not have that mutation. -Deleterious mutations are associated with reductions in fitness.
Why are amphiphilic molecules such as fatty acids important to consider when explaining the origin of life?
-Amphiphilic lipids spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in solution. -All known life-forms are contained in a membrane constructed of amphiphilic molecules.
Which of the following constitute evidence in favor of the RNA world hypothesis?
-Deoxyribonucleotides are constructed from ribonucleotide precursors. -The catalytic site of ribosomes is made of RNA. -Many present-day proteins use ribonucleotides as cofactors. -Most prebiotic soup experiments recover elements of RNA including ribose, pyrimidines, purines, and phosphates. -RNA is capable of catalyzing its own replication.
Which of the following are correct regarding the role of horizontal gene transfer in the history of life?
-HGT is generally selected against in organisms with complex, coadapted, and integrated genomes. -Current life-forms descended from an ancient population of single-celled organisms among which HGT was common. -Though most depictions of evolution are treelike, branches of the tree of life have merged as well as split.
Which of the following are true regarding the role of horizontal gene transfer in the evolution of life?
-HGT was important in the origin of eukaryotes. -As complex systems of highly integrated function, modern cells are much less likely to experience HGT than cells in the earliest life-forms. -Early cellular life likely resembled a community of different organisms that readily exchanged genetic material.
Order the stages by which bilayer vesicles may bud to form new vesicles.
-Micelles of fatty acids are added to an existing bilayered vesicle. -An extrusion of the outer layer of a bilayer vesicle forms. -The extrusion breaks off, forming a monolayer with hydrophobic elements on the inside and hydrophilic elements on the outside. -A monolayer of fatty acids produces one or more new bilayered vesicles.
what are the 5 basic evolutionary forces acting on all natural populations?
-Mutation -selection (natural and sexual) -mating system (inbreeding) -migration (gene flow) - genetic drift
Which of the following discoveries would constitute evidence disfavoring the RNA world hypothesis?
-Polymerization of RNA nucleotides cannot be shown to occur abiotically. -Self-replicating cellular life devoid of nucleic acids is discovered. -DNA molecules are shown to be capable of self-replication and catalyzing chemical reactions.
asexual reproduction
-Process by which a single parent reproduces by itself -Production of offspring from unfertilized gametes -Deleterious mutations build up irreversibly due to Muller's ratchet. -Deleterious mutations are associated with reductions in fitness.
Spiegelman demonstrated natural selection for shorter templates in an in vitro RNA replication experiment in 1967. Suppose that Spiegelman found the results given below. Which of these factors would have supported his idea that natural selection occurred in the in vitro RNA?
-RNA replicase error often resulted in fragments longer than the template. -In the final transfer, the shortened fragments still maintained replicase-binding properties. -Short fragments replicate faster than long fragments.
Which of the following are factors promoting the stability of systems using DNA as a hereditary molecule compared to systems using RNA as a hereditary molecule?
-The double-stranded nature of DNA protects nucleotides from chemical alteration. -DNA polymerases have lower replication error than RNA polymerases. -The complementary strand of DNA can be used to repair errors.
In the figure, the lines represent different estimates of average ocean temperature over time. Which of the following conclusions are reasonable?
-The most extreme drop in temperature took place from 2 billion to 1.5 billion years ago. -Ocean temperatures have cooled by more than 30°C from 3.5 billion to 0.5 billion years ago.
In comparing the genomes of cellular parasites with small genomes from Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota, we find that these organisms have 43 tRNA genes in common. Which of the following are reasonable interpretations for this commonality? Be sure to incorporate the principle of parsimony in your reasoning.
-These tRNA genes are necessary for minimal cellular function. -These tRNA genes were inherited from LUCA.
Hardy‐Weinberg assumptions
-When a population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for a gene, it is not evolving, and allele frequencies will stay the same across generations. **There are five basic Hardy-Weinberg assumptions: no mutation, random mating, no gene flow, infinite population size, and no selection.** -If the assumptions are not met for a gene, the population may evolve for that gene (the gene's allele frequencies may change). -Mechanisms of evolution correspond to violations of different Hardy-Weinberg assumptions. They are: mutation, non-random mating, gene flow, finite population size (genetic drift), and natural selection.
Order the stages of the development of living things.
-development of simple organic building blocks from inorganic substances -polymerization of organic building blocks into macromolecules -increasingly complex interactions of complex organic molecules -origin of a self-replicating protocell
Though viruses have many of the attributes of living things, they are not considered to be fully alive. Which attributes of living things do viruses have even though they are not fully alive?
-reproduction -structural organization
The assembly of simple chemical structures into more complex ones in early Earth required energy. Which of these were potential energy sources for the spontaneous synthesis of complex molecules required for the origin of life?
-ultraviolet light -geothermal heat -volcanic eruptions -lightning -cosmic rays
proteins (and their 1, 2nd, 3th, 4ry structure)
1-The simplest level of protein structure, primary structure, is simply the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain 2-secondary structure, refers to local folded structures that form within a polypeptide due to interactions between atoms of the backbone. 3-three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide 4-some proteins are made up of multiple polypeptide chains, also known as subunits. When these subunits come together, they give the protein its quaternary structure.
3 major transitions of life
1. Individual give up the ability to reproduce independently, and they join together to form a larger grouping that shares reproduction 2. Once individuals aggregate into higher level groupings, they can take advantage of economies of scale and efficiencies of specialization 3. Aggregation and specialization facilitate changes in information technologies. Organisms develop new and increasingly efficient ways to acquire, process, transmit, and store information
3 steps of amphimixis:
1. Recombination: the crossover between homologous chromosomes, which produces new chromosomal variants. 2. Gamete production: the production of haploid gametes by diploid individuals via reductive meiotic division. 3. Gamete fusion: gametic exchange between individuals, in which haploid gametes fuse to produce a diploid offspring.
1. Eukaryotic "informational" genes (associated with transcription and translation) 2. "operational" genes (associated with metabolic processes, cell membrane formation, and amino acid production)
1. are most closely related to archaeal genes 2. are most closely related to bacterial genes
some factors that paleontologist consider when choosing sites
1. geological sites that match the abiotic conditions in which fossilizations can occur and that have been weathered enough for the fossils to be exposed and easy to find 2. work on popular sites where others have worked on
1. autozygous 2. allozygous
1. homozygous and identical by descent 2. heterozygous or homozygous if 2 alleles are not identical by descent
1. assortative mating 2. disassortative mating Heterozygosity effect of these two types of mating
1. when individuals tend to mate with others of the same genotype or phenotype - decrease in heterozygosity 2. when individuals tend to mate with others of different genotype or phenotype - increase in heterozygosity
Order the payoffs in the prisoner's dilemma game from lowest to highest.
1.) payoff to an individual that cooperates against an opponent that defects 2.) payoff to an individual that defects against an opponent that defects 3.) payoff to an individual that cooperates against an opponent that cooperates 4.) payoff to an individual that defects against an opponent that cooperates
DNA vs RNA
1.DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, while RNA contains the sugar ribose. The only difference between ribose and deoxyribose is that ribose has one more -OH group than deoxyribose, which has -H attached to the second (2') carbon in the ring. 2.DNA is a double-stranded molecule while RNA is a single-stranded molecule. 3.DNA is stable under alkaline conditions while RNA is not stable. 4.DNA and RNA perform different functions in humans. DNA is responsible for storing and transferring genetic information while RNA directly codes for amino acids and as acts as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make proteins. 5.DNA and RNA base pairing is slightly different since DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine; RNA uses adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine. Uracil differs from thymine in that it lacks a methyl group on its ring.
A new mutation arises in a population of spiders (which are diploid) with an effective population size of 50. If that mutation is neutral, what is the probability that it will go into fixation? -1/100 -1/50 -0 -2s
1/100
in a diploid population the threshold at which selection will outweigh drift occurs when s is greater than -1/2n -n -n/2 -4n
1/2N
In wright-fisher population, N is large, the expected heterozygosity decreases by an average factor of .... When N is small, the factor of ... is ...
1/2N in each generation 1/2N is larger
for a neutral locus, the average time to coalescence for a wright-fisher population of size N for any randomly chosen pair of gene copies is...
2N generations 4N generations for all copies in a larger populations
In a population of diploid individuals, there are ____ gene copies at any given locus. If this locus is evolving neutrally by ______, we can trace any two of these gene copies back to a common ancestral gene copy that occurred ____ generations ago, on average, and we can trace all of the present gene copies back to an ancestral copy that occurred an average of _____ generations ago. When we trace the ancestry on gene trees using this approach, we say that gene copies ______ to their most recent common ancestor.
2N; drift; 2N; 4N; coalesce
total number of mutations introduced each generation is
2Nu
Consider a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at a locus with two alleles, A and a, at frequencies p and q, respectively. Assuming the population remains in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, what is the expected frequency of Aa heterozygotes after 100 generations? -1 -2pq -0.5 -p^2
2pq
The tree of life includes
3 monophyletic domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota - Archaea and Eukaryota share a common ancestor (sister domains)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Glires: Rodentia
40% of all mammals Characterized by continuously growing incisors in upper and lower jaws Include: Mice Rats Gophers Beavers Chipmunks Squirrels Porcupines Guinea Pigs
fixation time for a neutral mutation
4N
average time of a neutral allele to become fixed in a small population is ...
4N generations
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda: Arthropods
80% of all described animal species Major groups: Chelicerates Myriapods Crustaceans Hexapods
codon/ anticodon
A codon is a three-base sequence (three nitrogen bases in a row) on mRNA. It calls for a specific amino acid to be brought to the growing polypeptide. An anticodon is a three-base sequence on tRNA. It matches the codon
apomixis
A form of asexual reproduction in which an unfertilized gamete undergoes a single mitosis-like cell division, producing two daughter cells that have an unreduced number of chromosomes and that are genetically identical to those of the mother. -a form of asexual reproduction in which daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell
automixis
A form of asexual reproduction in which haploid gametes are produced via meiosis, and then diploidy is restored by one of several asexual mechanisms.
Singor-Lipps Effect
A form of backwards smearing where suspected date of extinction is earlier than it actually occurred
eusociality
A form of extreme sociality involving reproductive division of labor and the cooperative rearing of offspring.
sexual selection
A form of natural selection that refers to selection for traits and behaviors that confer mating success (as opposed to survival).
black smokers
A hydrothermal vent on the ocean floor that emits a black cloud of hot, metal-rich water.
Which of the following is an example of a population bottleneck? -a long-endangered species recovers and increases in population size -a large population of frogs is greatly reduced due to a drought -butterfly migration patterns are disrupted by climate change -a beneficial mutation goes to fixation in a population
A large population of frogs is greatly reduced due to a drought
Tibetan highlanders live at altitudes where the oxygen level is only 60% of that at sea levels. Lowlanders who live at high altitude's develop lung disease. The ability of Highlanders to survive at high altitude's versus lowlanders is an example of what
A local adaption
Sustain gene flow between populations will result in what?
A loss of variability
In populations that are very panmixic you would expect
A low FST value due to inbreeding.
population bottleneck
A period during which only a few individuals of a normally large population survive. - leads to possible complete elimination or fixation of an allele - causing divergence between two populations before and after bottleneck - decrease heterozygosity and genetic variation
Pseudoextinction
A phenomenon in which a population changes by anagenesis over evolutionary time, until it is so different from the ancestral population that it is reclassified as a new species.
sexual conflict
A phenomenon in which selection operates differently on males and females, typically with respect to mating behavior.
Fossil
A trace of an ancient organism that has been preserved in rock.
Which scenario depicts adaptations incorrectly
A trait evolves in anticipation of a future environmental change
nucleotide pairing rules
A&T G&G
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Ambulacraria: Hemachordata
Acorn worms Closest extant relative to Chordata (animals: anal opening first formed: something different with larvae creation: acorn worm)
A trait that confers a greater level of fitness, relative to those who lack it, is called a(n) ________.
Adaptation
Natural selection is really about differential reproductive success. Which of the following is not a factor that affects this. Fitness Variation Adaptation Competition
Adaptation
According to Dobzhansky, the only explanation for all the diversity is
Adaptation to diverse environments.
According to Dobzhansky, in response to environmental change, natural selection causes a species to respond with-
Adaptive genetic change
What are flamingos?
Aequorlitornithes
What are penguins?
Aequorlitornithes
What are owls?
Afroaves
Who is the co-discoverer of natural selection, along with Charles Darwin?
Alfred Russel Wallace
The cost relevant to the expression of male sexually selected ornaments or weapons refers to which of the following. The fact that time spent confronting competing males were displaying two females is time that I mail cannot spend searching for food, so that the longer he displays, the more he depleted his stored energy reserves and compromises his future survival probability. The risk a male faces because ornaments slow him down, or bugles make him more conspicuous to predators. The metabolic or energetic resources that a male must allocate to the growth of ornaments or weapons. The inability of males to invest simultaneously in ornament production and other functions such as defense against parasites. All of the above.
All of the above
What do chordates contain?
All of the birds, mammals, fish, reptiles
outcome of cross of true breeding plants (genotype and phenotype)
All produced purple flowers in the F1 generation, F2 generation had 3/4 purple and 1/4 white
Which of the following statements is true? all traits are simultaneously maximized in a population a population will always evolve to fit current conditions the advantage a treat conveys depends on it's environmental context all traits currently in a population Must have provided a reproductive advantage at some point in time
All traits currently in a population must have provided a reproductive advantage at some point in time
Sporophytic
Diploid system of plant or algae
Which of these statements is true for under dominance? Allele frequency's will tend to balance out equally. Allele frequency's will tend to move towards a stable equilibrium. Allele frequency's will tend to move towards fixation or loss. Allele frequencies will support polymorphic genotypes.
Allele Frequencies will tend to move towards fixation or loss.
allele frequencies and evolution
Allele frequencies in a population may change due to four fundamental forces of evolution: Natural Selection, Genetic Drift, Mutations and Gene Flow.
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia: Annelid: Polychaetes
Almost all marine Live in depths of ocean Including very deep sea hydrothermal vents
selectively neutral allele
Alternative alleles are selectively neutral when there is no fitness difference between them
paleomagnetic dating
An absolute dating method based on the reversals of Earth's magnetic field.
radiopotassium dating
An absolute dating technique based on the principle of decay of the radioactive isotope of potassium, 40K. Also called potassium-argon dating. Used for older fossils (> 200,000 years)
Darwin found many different species of finches were found on the Galápagos Islands and nowhere else. They were related to a finch on the mainland of South America. From this he concluded:
An ancestral species migrated and diverged over time into separate species.
How can gene duplication provide an evolutionary pathway by which a protein can switch functions without loss of the original function?
An extra copy of a working gene is formed that can gain a new function without changing the function of the original gene
phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
What defines life?
An organized genetic unit capable of metabolism, growth and reproduction, structural organization, homeostasis, response to environmental stimuli
What are the hexapods divided primarily into?
Apterygota (wingless) and Pterygota (winged)
What has the features of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Archaea
Eocyte hypothesis
Archaea is paraphyletic - eukaryota is a sister group to the archael eocyte group - 2 domains Archaea and Bacteria
In what way is artificial selection different from natural selection?
Artificial selection relies on humans choosing which traits are beneficial
In a mixed population of a sexually reproducing females and sexually reproducing males and females, the number of asexual should grow at twice the rate of the sexually reproducing individuals because
Asexual avoid the cost of producing Males
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians
Atlantogeneta and Boreoeutheria (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur: placental)
What are falcons?
Australoaves
Regarding the nature of natural selection, which of the following is not an accurate statement. A. Natural selection can and does produce features that are less than perfect adaptations B. Populations evolve traits by natural selection that will be useful for future environmental changes C: natural selection acts on the phenotypes if individuals, but evolution occurs with changes in allele frequencies in populations. D. Natural selection operates as a systematic, non-progressive mechanism.
B
In the figure, assuming all evolutionary processes are similar in A-D, which genealogy is expected to carry the largest number of neutral alleles?
B (Longest one)
When a feature with similar function arises independently in unrelated organisms because of similar solutions to the same selective pressures, we regard these as _______ features/structures. A. Homologous B. Analogous C. Parallel D. Homoplastic E. None of these
B. Analogous
Which domain of organisms is/are unicellular without a nucleus, and have cell walls made of different molecules than those found in Eubacteria. A. Eubacteria B. Archae C. Prokarya D. Eukarya E. None of these
B. Archae
Both mitochondria and chloroplasts rely on which of the following for their reproduction? A. Gametes from other organelles B. Binary Fission-like process C. Meiosis D. All of these
B. Binary Fission-like process
What is the most biodiversity on the earth?
Bacteria
In some populations, a rare allele is sometimes more fit than common variants. In what type of selection does this occur?
Balancing selection
In order for a treat to undergo positive selection, it must have two characteristics: it must be ____ and _____ The individuals fitness
Beneficial Increase
Which of the following is true according to modern models of group selection?
Between-group selection can sometimes lead to the evolution of social behaviors that are not favored by the within-group selection
Polygynandry
Both males and females have more than one mate in a breeding season, and several males form pair bonds with several females simultaneously.
Do fungi reproduce sexually or asexually?
Both sexually and asexually actually
What are the non-vascular plants' taxonomic group?
Bryophtyes
Structures as different as human arms, bat wings, and dolphin flippers contain many of the same bones, these bones having developed from very similar embryonic tissues. How do biologists interpret these similarities?.
By identifying the bones as being homologous.
Organisms may not be perfectly adapted to their environments for all of the following reasons EXCEPT: A. There are physical constraints that can't be overcome. B. An organisms surrounding do not present a stationary target to which natural selection can optimize its phenotype. C. Natural selection cannot result in novel complex traits. D. The process of natural selection lacks foresight.
C
Which of the following is Carolus Linnaeus (1701-1778) responsible for? A. Categorizing organisms based on shared derived traits B. Understanding that an evolutionary process of branching descent with modification would generate nested hierarchies of similarity among organisms C. Having the insight that organisms can be organized into a hierarchical system of classification without having a theoretical explanation for why these patterns should exist D. Being the first to recognize that to make sense of the world with all of its variation, we should categorize the organisms in it
C. Having the insight that organisms can be organized into a hierarchical system of classification without having a theoretical explanation for why these patterns should exist
Burgess Shale
Canadian fossil formation that contains Cambrian soft-bodied organisms as well as organisms with hard parts.
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Carnivora: Caniforma
Canids= Ursids, Pinnipeds, Mustelids (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur: placental: scrotum: last common ancestor=on Laurasia: dog-like)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Olfatores: Vertebrata: Gnathostomata: Chondrichthyes
Cartiligenous jawed vertebrate fish (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: tunicates &vertebrates: jawed vertebrate: cartiligenous)
During a study session about evolution, one of your fellow students remarks, "The giraffe stretched its neck while reaching for higher leaves; its offspring inherited longer necks as a result." Which statement is most likely to be helpful in correcting this student's misconception?
Characteristics acquired during an organism's life are generally not passed on through genes.
The role humans play in artificial selection is to
Choose who breeds and who does not.
homologous chromosomes
Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes, that have the same structure, and that pair during meiosis.
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia: Mollusks: Bivalve
Clams Oysters Scallops Mussels
What is the largest group of animals that use cilia?
Cnetophora
What classification are coral?
Cnidaria
What are pigeons?
Columbaves
Cnetophora
Comb jellies Predatory, marine Swim with cilia, largest animals to swim with cilia
What type of sex do fungi do?
Complex sex (karyogymy)
parent-offspring conflict
Conflict that arises because the genetic interests of offspring and their parents are not perfectly aligned.
Which of the following statements best articulates the reason that sequence variation in this protein is consistent with the predictions of the neutral theory?
Conserved amino acids are more common in the most functionally important region of the protein.
Sexual reproduction is associated with costs. Indicate which of the following statements is/are consistent or inconsistent with this statement.
Consistent: Sexually reproducing organisms incur an energetic cost associated with finding and courting potential mates. Recombination associated only with sexual reproduction can break up favorable allelic combinations/haplotypes. Sexually reproducing individuals pass on a smaller proportion of their genes to each offspring than do asexual individuals. Inconsistent: The number of sexually reproducing individuals in a population should grow more rapidly than the number of asexually reproducing individuals.
The two major branches of mammals followed independent evolutionary pathways after the breakup of Gondwanaland. While some forms Re unique, there are surprisingly similar forms in each group on 2 or even 3 different continents. This is an example of:
Convergent evolution
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether or not it describes the figure to the right, which depicts the expected evolutionary trajectories of sexual and asexual lineages coexisting with a parasite that has a much shorter generation time than the host.
Correct: A new asexual lineage with genetically based defenses against the parasite is at an initial competitive advantage over sexual lineages. If a mutation arises that allows the parasite to overcome resistance in an abundant asexual host lineage, the asexual clone is at a disadvantage relative to genetically variable sexual hosts. Incorrect: High parasite loads favor asexual reproduction over sexual reproduction in populations where both reproductive modes can occur.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is correct or incorrect of allele frequency change under genetic drift.
Correct: At any given time, the probability that a neutral allele will eventually be fixed in a population equals the frequency of the allele at that time. In a Wright-Fisher population, genetic drift reduces heterozygosity by an average factor of ½N each generation. Random fluctuations in allele frequency from one generation to the next are more pronounced in small than in large populations under genetic drift. Incorrect: In finite populations, one allele at a neutral locus will eventually be fixed by genetic drift only when the population size is less than 100 individuals.
Drag each of the following statements to the correct box to indicate whether it is correct or incorrect of Petrie's experiments on mate choice in peafowl.
Correct: Because elaborate tails are energetically costly, they are likely honest indicators of male quality, in keeping with Zahavi's handicap principle. Male offspring of males with more elaborate tails are healthier (heavier) and offspring regardless of sex survive better than offspring of males with less elaborate tails, hypothetically because they have inherited genes that enhance their ability to fight infectious disease. Incorrect: The results shown in the graph indicate that female preference for large eyespots most likely evolved under the direct benefits model since offspring weight (an indicator of health) is positively correlated with the mean size of eyespots in the father. Evidence from Petrie's study suggests that elaborate tails in peacocks evolved under intrasexual rather than intersexual selection.
Identify whether each statement correctly or incorrectly reflects the relationship in the graph between mating system and parent-offspring conflict. Assume that we are considering maternal investment in offspring.
Correct: For a species in which the mother provides most parental care, inclusive fitness theory predicts that offspring should be selected to extract a higher level of direct parental investment under a polyandrous mating system than under a monogamous mating system. Under polyandry, the future offspring of a female's current offspring will not necessarily be full siblings. Incorrect: We can use this graph to determine the optimum level of direct parental investment from the perspective of a focal offspring. When the mating system is polyandrous rather than monogamous, we expect an increase in the slope of the red line representing maternal cost relevant to the offspring.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether or not it reflects the differences between the two figures depicting fixation in a large population with the advantageous mutations A, B, and C. Assume that these three loci are physically linked in the genome.
Correct: In sexual reproduction, the assembly of the most advantageous haplotype involves the breakdown of linkage disequilibrium at the three loci under consideration. In asexual reproduction, the A allele can come together with the B allele in the same haplotype only if B arises in an individual that already carries A. Incorrect: Natural selection fixes the most advantageous haplotype more rapidly in asexual reproduction than in sexual reproduction.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether or not it is a likely advantage of sexual reproduction when the environment is spatially or temporally unpredictable.
Correct: Production of genetically variable offspring increases opportunities to exploit different niches and could thus reduce resource competition among siblings. Production of genetically variable offspring increases the probability that some progeny will be well suited to new environmental conditions. Incorrect: A sexually reproducing lineage will grow in number faster than an asexually reproducing lineage that is equally well adapted to the environment.
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Archosauria
Crocodile, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: cold-blooded: "ruling reptiles" )
Which of these is not a benefit of understanding evolution in biology? A. Understanding molecules B. Understanding ecosystems C. Advancing biotechnology and medicine D. Understanding why stats and galaxies change over time.
D.
Which of the following is/are plesiomorphies of lineages from the UToL? A. Common genetic code B. Metabolic pathways C. DNA replication mechanisms D. All of these E. None of these
D. All of these
Which of the following is/are a fact(s) that support the UToL? A. Similar Codon Function B. Similar nucleic acid use C. Similar cell membrane structure D. All of these are true E. None of these are true
D. All of these are true
Which of the following statements regarding rooted trees is TRUE? A. the root of the tree represents the common ancestor of the taxa shown on the tree B. the most common approach to rooting a tree is to use an outgroup C. The root of a tree represents the most earliest divergence event for the taxa shown on the tree D. All of these are true
D. All of these are true
Which of the following is true regarding vestigial traits and how they may persist in some organisms. A. The trait is not costly to the organism B. The trait has some function that we have not identified C. Natural selection cannot act to eliminate traits D. All of these is/are true E. None of these is/are true
D. All of these is/are true
Which domain of organisms includes some unicellular organisms and the three groups of multicellular organisms A. Eubacteria B. Archae C. Prokarya D. Eukarya E. None of these
D. Eukarya
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata
Defined by notochord, a dorsal nerve chord, pharyngeal slits, an endostyle, and a post anal tail
Molars ratchet is the idea that ____ accumulate in a sexual populations. In such a situation sex would be beneficial because?
Deleterious mutations Mutation free genotypes can be re-created the recombination
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals
Derived from synapsid reptiles 5500 extant species of mammals (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta: Primatomorpha
Dermaptera and Primates
What does it mean to be monophyletic?
Descended from a common evolutionary ancestor, especially one not shared with any other group
What are the two branches of Animalia: Basal animals?
Deuterostomes and Protostomes
Rather than rely on creation myths to explain the world, early Greek philosophers were among the first to
Develop a philosophy of a natural world driven by physical laws used to explain the world around them.
A small population of deer is introduced to an island. All males have 13 points. If after several generations most males have 20 points, this development is a result of
Directional selection
discrete traits
Discrete, or discontinuous, traits are controlled by a small number of genes, often only one. These genes generally have two alleles. For instance, Mendel's pea seeds had two alleles for shape: smooth or wrinkled. An example of human alleles is seen with freckles; each person has a freckled or non-freckled allele.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether or not it is a distinction between the good genes model and the Fisherian runaway model of sexual selection.
Distinction: Both the good genes model and the Fisherian model predict linkage disequilibrium between loci associated with female preference and loci that govern the male trait. Not distinction: The good genes model is an example of intersexual selection, whereas the Fisherian model is an example of intrasexual selection. Both the good genes model and the Fisherian model assume that the preferred male trait covaries with some other indicator of male genetic quality. The good genes model predicts that male viability will be positively correlated with male ornamentation, whereas the Fisherian model predicts a negative correlation between ornamentation and viability.
Silurian Period
Diversification of early vascular plants
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta: Primatomorpha: Primates
Divided into "wet nose" and "dry nose"
splicing (exons, introns)
During splicing, introns are removed and exons are joined together.
What was the prevailing belief prior to Darwin
Earth is a few thousand years old and populations are unchanging.
What are the two major groups of protostomes?
Ecdysozoa and spiralia
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Monotremes
Echidna, platypus Lay eggs rather than bear live young 4 extant species in New Guinea or Australia (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur: egg-laying)
What are deuterostomes?
Echnidorms and chordata
Why is male reproductive success limited by the number of eggs?
Eggs are much larger and scarcer then sperm, limiting the number of opportunities for reproductive success for males.
Plants- Algae
Eukaryotes with chloroplasts Not "natural" taxonomic group
Nucleotide sequence of a gene that codes for a protein (as opposed to non-coding regions) are known as:
Exons
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether or not it is an expected outcome of long-term genetic drift in the five finite island populations shown in the figure.
Expected outcome: The populations will diverge genetically over time. Either the A1 allele or the A2 allele will eventually be fixed in each population, but we can't say with certainty which one will be fixed in each.
T/F In order for evolution to occur, individuals in a population must all possess the fittest genes.
False
True or false. And sexual reproduction, the egg is the limiting resource that results in choosy males.
False
True or false? A high genetic correlation value indicates that two traits do not share a gene
False
True or false? Selection only affects fitness in terms of fecundity.
False
True or false? The further away populations are from each other, the more gene flow will occur between them.
False
populations of all sizes accumulate different substitution rates (T/F)??
False, substitution rates of all population sizes are the same
In areas of high selective pressure organisms tend to produce many more offspring than can survive. in contrast low selective pressure results in fewer offspring. this actual reproductive rate is called an organisms
Fecundity
Shorebirds with brightly colored females and dull colored males. Females are larger than males and compete with each other for access to Males. Considering sexual selection Theory, which ideas below see most plausible in light of the pattern of sexual dimorphism:
Females are choosy and males incubate the eggs
polyandry
Females mate with more than one male every breeding season.
Lenski and Travisano compared what happened to the fitness of cells in 2 replicate lines of e coli. According to the graph shown, which of the following statements is true? -fitness increased in some of the lines and decreased in other lines -fitness increased initially, but after about 3,000 generations all of the lines reached their maximum fitness and quit evolving -fitness increased in every line but to a different degree in each line -evolution by natural selection cannot be predicted at any level
Fitness increased in every line, but to a different degree in each line
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Aequorlitornithes
Flamingos, grebes, many shorebirds, sunbittern, loons, penguins, herons, pelicans, storks
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia: Platyhelminthes
Flat worms No body cavity (acoelomates) No specialized circulatory or respiratory organs
Is charophyta marine or freshwater?
Freshwater (green algae)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Anamniotes: Amphibians: Anurans
Frogs (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs in water: water and land dwelling animal: tailless)
What kingdom produces spores?
Fungi
What is karyogymy?
Fusion of the haploid nuclei to create a diploid nucleus
Loss of variability due to genetic drift can be restored by what?
Gene flow
When most populations of a wide ranging amphibian species are lost and the few remaining populations are widely dispersed we expect to see that-
Gene flow between populations is reduce
Among major extant lineages, horizontal gene transfer (HGT) rarely occurs; in fact, most organisms have evolved defenses against such intrusions. Why might HGT have been more common among early life-forms than in later ones?
Gene systems in early life forms were less integrated and therefore were less disrupted by HGT
Which of the following evidence most strongly supports common origin. All organisms use the same genetic code All organisms reproduce All organisms show heritable variation All organisms have undergone evolution All organisms require energy
Genetic code
Which of the following processes causes a neutral allele to increase in frequency because it is linked to an illegal under selection?
Genetic hitchhiking
The proportional amount by which the fitness of a population is reduced due to the number of deleterious alleles is that populations:
Genetic load
A bottleneck may be dangerous to a population because?
Genetic variability is diminished
The red queen hypothesis proposes That sex is beneficial because
Genetic variation in offspring generated through sex is advantageous in a changing environment
meiosis and genetic variation
Genetic variation is increased by meiosis Because of recombination and independent assortment in meiosis, each gamete contains a different set of DNA. This produces a unique combination of genes in the resulting zygote.
The genetic make up of any organism is it's _____ which determines the physical characteristics called it's _____
Genotype Phenotype
In Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, what idea has a significant impact on Charles Darwin's thinking?
Geological forces that are still operating and act to change the earths surface.
What are cranes?
Guiformes
Characters that developed through sexual selection often come with a cost. For example, male elk produce large antlers during their lifetime that are needed to fight off competing males. The size of the antlers serves as a mark of quality to females. However, the size incurs a huge metabolic cost. Females discriminate and select mates based on the males ability to survive with such a large what?
Handicap
Gametophytic
Haploid system of plant or algae
Individuals in a population that die because they do not meet a critical biological parameter are subjected to what type of natural selection
Hard
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Glires: Lagomorpha: Leporidae
Hares and rabbits
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Glires: Lagomorpha
Have 4 incisors in upper jaw and are strictly herbivorous (how differ from rodentia) Incisors still grow continuously like rodents
Which of the following reflects the degree to which offspring resemble their parents in a population
Heritability
Are fungi heterotrophs or homotrophs?
Heterotrophs
In the formula for determining a population's genotype frequencies, the 2 in the term 2pq is necessary because
Heterozygous can come about in two ways
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Ipopinaves
Hoatzin, vultures, hawks (NOT falcons) (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone: "hawk-like")
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda: Arthropods: Chelicerates
Horseshoe crabs Spiders Mites Scorpions
What are the 4 orders that dominate insects?
Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants) Diptera (flies) Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) Coleoptera (beetles)
Fungi
Kingdom Monophyletic group Heterotrophs and no chloroplasts Cell walls with chitin Reproduce sexually and asexually Complex sex (karyogymy) Produce spores
This phylogeny supports the hypothesis that eusociality should evolve most readily in monandrous hymenopteran lineages, that is, in lineages in which the queen of a colony mates with only one male. Each independent origin of eusociality is indicated by a different color for that clade. Why does inclusive fitness theory generate this prediction?
In a monandrous hymenopteran species, all females in the colony will be full sisters, and the coefficient of relatedness between sisters is higher than the coefficient of relatedness between females and their own daughters. Therefore, caring for sisters beats out producing offspring in terms of inclusive fitness.
Which of the following statements most accurately describes what evolutionary biologists mean by "the cost of producing males" in sexually reproducing organisms?
In a population consisting of both sexuals and asexuals, the number of asexually reproducing individuals should grow more rapidly than the number of sexually reproducing individuals.
Which of the following statements best explains how anisogamy differs from isogamy in terms of parental investment in offspring biomass?
In an isogamous system, both sexes contribute to offspring biomass, whereas in anisogamy, only females make this gametic investment.
chromosomes number in humans
In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46. 22 of these pairs, called autosomes, look the same in both males and females. The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ between males and females
prokaryotes chromosomes vs eukaryotes chromosomes
In prokaryotes, the circular chromosome is contained in the cytoplasm in an area called the nucleoid. In contrast, in eukaryotes, all of the cell's chromosomes are stored inside a structure called the nucleus.
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires
Include Eurchonta and Glires
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda
Include Onychophorans, Tardigrades and Arthropods
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Glires
Include Rodentia
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta
Include Scadentia and Primatomorpha
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda: Arthropods: Hexapods
Include insects and other groups (Collembola, Protura and Diplura) 50% all eukaryotes in this group
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta: Primatomorpha: Primates: Haplorhines: Simians
Include monkeys and apes
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria
Include the Laurasiatheria and the Euarchontoglires (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur: placental: scrotum)
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia: Annelid: Oligochaetes
Includes earthworms and leeches Can grow up to 3m in length
Basal animals (Cnidaria)
Includes jellyfish, corals and sea aneamone Radially symmetric with one opening (for ingesting and excretion) surrounded by tentacles bearing cnidocytes Simple nervous system Include coral Colonial cnidarians that live in association with a dinoflagellate alga (zooxanthellae)
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia
Includes: Rotifers Platyhelminthes Mollusk Annelids
Which of the following is not a result of genetic drift. Increase in selection. Extinction. Loss of heterozygotes. Allele fixation.
Increase in selection.
Cost of group living
Increased competition over resources. Increased risk of disease transmission. Increased visibility to predators and prey. Increased chance of being cuckolded.
Natural selection works on the ____ but it's a long-term effect is rendered on the _____
Individual Population
What are tunicates?
Known as sea squirts, are barrel shaped, are plankton feeders
Natural selection changes allele frequency's because some _______ survive and reproduce more successfully than others
Individuals
What are vultures and hawks?
Ipopinaves
For which reason does recombination in sexually reproducing organisms prevent the accumulation of deleterious mutations via Muller's ratchet?
It breaks up haplotypes and can combine chromosomal segments containing beneficial alleles.
Based on the neutral theory of molecular evolution, what is true of the expected substitution rate (K) for neutral alleles?
It equals the neutral mutation rate.
transcription: what is it? Which important players are needed?
It involves copying a gene's DNA sequence to make an RNA molecule. Transcription is performed by enzymes called RNA polymerases, which link nucleotides to form an RNA strand (using a DNA strand as a template). In eukaryotes, RNA molecules must be processed after transcription: they are spliced and have a 5' cap and poly-A tail put on their ends.
The trade off to dispersal and migration is?
It may result in loss of fitness due to new environment.
Which of the following is a true statement concerning genetic variation? It tends to be reduced by the processes involved when diploid organisms produce gametes. A population that has a higher average heterozygosity has less genetic variation than one with a lower average heterozygosity. It is created by the direct action of natural selection It arises in response to changes in the environment It must be present in a population before natural selection can act upon the environment
It must be present in a population before natural selection can act upon the population.
The Amazon Molly is a freshwater fish that gynogenetic. In order to reproduce, individuals of this all female species must meet with a male from a closely related species to initiate the development of their offspring. The male's genetic material does not, however, enter the Amazon Molly's egg. what costs of sexual reproduction does the Amazon molly potential experience?
It potential he experiences the costs associated with finding a mate and competing with other females for mates.
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Olfatores: Vertebrata: Gnathostomata
Jawed vertebrates (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: tunicates &vertebrates: jawed)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Olfatores: Vertebrata: Cyclostomata
Jawless fish, lapreys and hagfish, cyclo--> circle mouth
Who believed that species evolve by passing acquired characteristics to offspring?
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
purifying selection
Ka/Ks < 1; selection to maintain the currently common allele despite occasional deleterious mutations
Cryptic molecular variation uncovered by enzyme electrophoresis in the 1960s stimulated development of the neutral theory because of which of the following reasons?
Levels of polymorphism were higher than would be expected if natural selection were the main driver of sequence evolution.
What causes populations that are separated to become differentiated?
Limited gene flow
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Squamates
Lizards, amphisbaenians, snakes (10,000 species) (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: cold-blooded: scaled)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Olfatores: Vertebrata: Gnathostomata: Osteichthytes: Sarcopterygii
Lobe-finned fish (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: tunicates &vertebrates: jawed: bony fish: lobe-finned fish)
The greater prairie chicken once flourished on the prairies of Illinois. the conversion of Prairie to farmland reduce their numbers from millions to only 50 birds by 1993. poor genetic diversity resulted in only 50% of eggs hatching. bringing in birds from neighboring states increased their genetic diversity which improves the egg hatching rate to 90%. these changes and genetic diversity were the result of
Loss of genetic diversity through genetic drift and the restoration of genetic diversity through gene flow.
According to the basic model of mutation selection balance, if selection is strong and the mutation rate is low, the equilibrium frequency of the deleterious alleles will be what? When selection is weak and the mutation rate is high, the frequency of the allele will be What?
Low High
The potential reproductive success of the most successful males in a population depends on social structure and mating system. Place the following mating systems in increasing order of potential male reproductive success (from lowest to highest).
Lowest: polyandry (one female with multiple male partners) monogamy (one male with one female partner) polygynandry (one male with 2 female partners) Highest: polygamy (one male having multiple female partners)
Which of the following is not a reason why the twofold cost of sex is sometimes referred to as the cost of males Males do not produce the new offspring. Males invest in sperm most of which are wasted rather than biomass. sperm cells do not contribute any substantial energy resources to the eggs they fertilize. Males do not contribute jeans to the next generation.
Males do not contribute genes to the next generation
polygamy
Males mate with more than one female every breeding season.
Why do groups offer protection in foraging? -large groups draw the attention of predators -predator targeting increases with group size -the probability of a predator attack increases with increased group size -many eyes detect predators more quickly
Many eyes detect predators more quickly
What are protostomes?
Many invertebrates
Are cnetophora marine or freshwater?
Marine
Is phaeophyta marine or freshwater?
Marine (brown algae)
Is chlorophyta marine or freshwater?
Marine (green algae)
Is rhodophyta marine of freshwater?
Marine (red algae)
Ordovician Period
Marine algae abundant; colonization of land by diverse fungi, plants, and animals (first land dwelling animals appeared)
Dinoflagellates
Marine and freshwater plankton Largely photosynthetic but combined with eating prey
Diatoms
Marine and freshwater plankton Produce 20% oxygen on Earth Photosynthetic (derived from red algae ancestors)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Metatherians
Marsupials/ pouch Kangaroos, Tasmanian devils, wallabies, wombats, koalas 70% of 334 extant species live in Australia though most likely arose in South America (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur: marsupials/pouch)
Mutations
May do nothing, may be harmful, or may be beneficial.
A treat with heritability = 0.
Means that The phenotypic variation is explained by the differences in the environments experienced by individuals.
The modern synthesis in evolution was a combination of Darwin's theory of Natural Selection and
Mendel's principles of genetics and inheritance.
Law of segregation
Mendelian law stating that two alleles for each trait separate during meiosis
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia: Rotifers
Microscopic and live in freshwater
Which of the following processes can increase genetic variation in a population? Migration drift natural selection nonrandom mating
Migration
Suppose a founding population carries an allylic frequency not typical of the original population which of the following affects would most likely lead to homogenation? Random mating within the founding population Genetic drift within the founding population No mutations within either population Migration between the original and founding populations None of the above
Migration between the original and founding populations
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda: Arthropods: Myriapods
Millpedes (detritivores--> eat dead things) Centipedes (predators)
molecular clock
Model that uses DNA comparisons to estimate the length of time that two species have been evolving independently - if mutation rate is constant over time, then number of molecular differences between species should be proportionate to the age of their last common ancestor
What is the most important force in shaping evolution
Natural selection
In populations with a high degree of genetic diversity, the fundamental cause of evolutionary change is:
Natural selection.
fixation time depends on ?
Ne (effective population size), allele frequency, selection (positive or negative)
Consider a collection of 50 distinct alleles, each at equal frequency in a population. The time before the first coalescent event will be shortest if -n=100 -n=100,000 -n=100,000,000 ne= the census population size
Ne=100
A mutation in a gene that does not improve or reduce fitness is called
Neutral
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Strisores
Nightjars, oilbirds, potoos, frogmouths, swifts, hummingbirds (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone: weirdly fast metabolism)
If within a large population no mutation occurs no migration a curse all meeting is random and each individual has an equal chance of reproducing which of the following will probably happen? A change in allele frequency will lead to rapid evolution Extinction will occur No evolution will occur A bottleneck will occur
No evolution will occur
If, in a large population, there is no mutation, no migration, all mating is random, as each individual has an equal chance of mating, what will likely happen?
No evolution will occur.
Bacteria
No nucleus Prokaryotes Most of biodiversity on earth Only 27% of them have been dicovered Found everwhere Created respiration and photosynthesis
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda: Arthropods: Crustaceans
Paraphyletic group 67,000 species Biramous limbs Diverse taxa: Crabs Lobsters Crayfish Shrimp Krill Woodlice Barnacles
The asexual formation of seeds in plants without any genetic contribution from the male is called
Parthenogenesis
the white throated sparrow has two morphs (phenotypic variants), tan and white. They mate disassoratively. Does this rule out hardy-weinberg equilibrium? -yes, because random mating is always required for Hardy-weinberg -no, because some genes encoding for the white and tan phenotype might effectively follow random mating -no, because it is an example from nature, and its unlikely to find hardy-weinberg no matter what kind of mating -no, because hardy-weinberg requires disassortative mating
No, becayse some genes not encoding for the white and tan phenotype might effectively follow random mating
Point mutations that result in an amino acid change are ______ substitutions
Non-homologous
Plants- Bryophytes
Non-vascular plants (including algae) Informal taxonomic group with: Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts Terrestrial No true leaves Alternation of generation, haploid is dominant form
What mutation results in a stop codon
Nonsense
Nearly Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution
Not all deleterious mutations are neutral... - in large populations, mildly deleterious mutations are seen by selections and removed - in small populations, mildly deleterious mutations are not seen by selection
Protists
Not real taxonomic group Eukaryotes that aren't plant, animal, fungus Unicellular or unicellular-colonial No tissue formation Important for human health
Wright-Fisher Model for Genetic Drift
Null model for how genotypic frequencies are expected to change over time in absence of selection, migration, mutation and non-random mating in small population sizes
Following a drift event what will ultimately happened to the genetic variability in the population?
One allele per Loci will become fixed
monogamy
One male and one female mate only with each other during a given breeding season.
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Afroaves
Owls, trogons, quetzals, hornbills, kingfishers, woodpeckers (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone: predatory)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Passerines
Perching birds--> +1/2 of all bird species (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone: perching)
What is the part of the plant that conducts products of photosynthesis in vascular plants?
Phloem
The fossil record suggests that whales are closely related to-
Pigs hippos and cows.
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Glires: Lagomorpha: Ochotonidae
Pikas
Which is the simplest structure of all animals?
Placozoan
For males, potential reproductive success is highest in a ______ mating system, and lowest in a _____ mating system.
Polygamous Poly android
A mating system in which at least some females mate with more than one male is termed
Polygamy
"Prebiotic soup" experiments result in the formation of simple organic compounds such as amino acids and nucleotides. Experiments that result in the polymerization of these compounds into RNA and polypeptides may rightly be called "prebiotic sandwich" experiments. Why is this name appropriate?
Polymerization takes place between layers of mineral clay
What is the sister group to all animals?
Porifera
What was the first group to branch off evolutionarily and is the common ancestor to all animals?
Porifera (common ancestor)
What is the group of sponges that doesn't have a nervous, digestive and circulatory system?
Porifera (nervous, digestive)
What group must use water constantly flowing through them to obtain food and expel waste?
Porifera (water flowing)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Gruiformes
Rails and cranes (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone: "crane-like")
What is another name for paleognaths?
Ratites (mostly flightless birds)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Paleognaths
Ratites- ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, emus, kiwis, and tinamous (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "old jaw" [palate structure=old])
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Olfatores: Vertebrata: Gnathostomata: Osteichthytes: Actinopterygii
Ray-finned fish--> most vertebrates=fish (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: tunicates &vertebrates: jawed: bony fish: ray finned fish)
Which Of the following is responsible for breaking up hitchhiking genes?
Recombination
How does recombination in sexually reproducing organisms reverse the effects of Mueller's ratchet
Recombination can come by in segments from each parent that have few were deleterious we Tatian's that were present and either parents chromosome.
What affect does directional selection have on the variance of a trait in the next generation of a population?
Reduces
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Sauropsid reptiles
Reptiles, some dinosaurs and birds (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: "mammal-like")
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Nematodes & Nematophora
Round worms Horsehair worms +40,000 species Have tubular digestive tract with holes at both ends Many= parasitic ascarids filarias hookworms pinworms whipworms
many eyes hypothesis
Safety in numbers that comes from an increased probability of detecting a predator's approach by a group of vigilant prey.
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Anamniotes: Amphibians: Caudata
Salamander/newts (highest diversity in world is Southern Appalachian) (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs in water: water and land dwelling animal: tail)
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Ambulacraria: Echinodermata
Sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers... (animals: anal opening first formed: something different with larvae creation: radial symmetry)
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia: Mollusks
Second largest group of invertebrate species (85000 extant) Largest marine phylum
Plants- Spermatophytes
Seed plants Divided broadly into unenclosed and enclosed seeds Naked seed: Gymnosperm Includes: Cycads, Ginkos, Conifers and Gnetophytes
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia: Annelids
Segmented worms Over 22,000 species Divided into polychaetes and oligochaetes
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria
Shrew (soricidae), even-toed ungulates (artyodactyla), whale (cetacea), bats (chiroptera), odd-toed ungulates (perissodactyla), pangolins (pholidota), carnivora (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur: placental: scrotum: last common ancestor=on Laurasia)
How complex is a cnidaria nervous system?
Simple
Placozoan
Simplest structure of all animals
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta: Primatomorpha: Dermaptera
Small group of South East Asian gliding mammals Called flying lemurs (but are neither flying nor lemurs) Only 2 extant species
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia: Mollusks: Gastropod
Snails Slugs 80% of all mollusk species
Consider an environment with enough resources for 50 gazelle but 20 new calves are born each generation, and the population exceeds the carrying capacity. What type of natural selection occurs in this population every generation?
Soft
A gradual increase in the frequency of a sequence of Lokai is called a
Soft sweep
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Atlantogeneta
South American groups--> anteaters, sloths, armadillos African groups--> golden moles, elephant shrews, tenrecs, aardvarks, hydraxes, elephants and sea cows (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: fur: placental: radiate from South America/Australia)
You are studying the potential for sexual conflict in two species of birds. Species one is monogamous while females and males in species two both mate repeatedly. In which species would you expect sexual conflict to be stronger
Species two
What taxonomic group are Cycads, Ginkos, Conifers and Gnetophytes?
Spermatophytes
Porifera
Sponges do not have a nervous, digestive or circulatory system Rely on maintaining constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen as well as to remove waste First to branch off evolutionary tree from common ancestor of all animals Sister group to all animals
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Spiralia: Mollusks: Cephalapod
Squid Cuttlefish Octopi (Most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates)
Most swiss starlings produce 4 to 5 eggs in each clutch. starlings producing fewer or more than this have reduced fitness. which of the following terms best describes the situation Stabilizing selection Directional selection Disruptive selection Artificial selection Sexual selection
Stabilizing selection
What kind of equilibrium does overdominance produce
Stable
What are hummingbirds?
Strisores
The gene for lactose tolerance has been in humans since the domestication of animals 10,000 years ago. The persistence and commonality of this Gene indicate evidence of a what?
Strong selective sweep
What type of reptiles are mammals derived from?
Synapsid reptiles
which depicts the substitution rate at nonsynonymous sites relative to the substitution rate at synonymous sites for 835 mouse-rat gene pairs. Which of the following conclusions can you draw from the graph?
Synonymous substitutions are more common than expected if their proportion reflected the ratio of synonymous to nonsynonymous changes in the genetic code overall.
You perform an experiment to test whether or female birds prefer males with longer tail feathers. You find that they do, and, in fact, they prefer even longer tail feathers than you ever see on males in the population. Assuming that this trade has had enough time to evolve to an optimum, what is the most likely explanation for why tail feathers are not even longer in the population?
Tail feathers are costly for the males to produce. At some point, producing longer tails outweigh the benefit.
indirect fitness
The incremental effect that an individual's behavior has on the fitness of its genetic relatives. the effect of an individual's actions on the lifetime reproductive output of a genetic relative
In terms of the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium genetic drift results from a violation of what
The infinite population size assumption
Muller's ratchet
The irreversible buildup of deleterious mutations in asexual populations.
What does the neutral theory of molecular evolution contend?
The majority of changes in DNA sequence arise due to genetic drift and have no impact on the phenotype.
A research group successively knocks genes out of a bacterial line. If the knockout doesn't result in a decrease of fitness, they eliminate it permanently. If it does, they restore it. They continue this until any knockout decreases fitness. They repeat the whole process many times. What should the remaining set of genes most accurately recapitulate?
The minimal set of metabolic genes in a closely related cellular parasite
The figure below shows the level of diversity in three loci in two species of elephant seals. Which of the following could be true of the species according to the data -the northern elephant seals have a higher mutation rate than the southern elephant seals -the northern elephant seals have a larger effective population size than he southern elephant seals -the northern elephant seals experience balancing selection at these loci and the southern elephant seals experience directional selection -the northern elephant seals experienced a population bottleneck, but the southern elephant seals did not
The northern elephant seals experienced a population bottleneck, but the southern elephant seals did not
In mice, the Igf2 gene, which is involved in production of a growth hormone, is maternally imprinted. The Igf2r gene, which is associated with binding and reducing activity of the growth hormone, is paternally imprinted. Which of the following statements best explains why this observation makes sense under the tug-of-war model for the evolution of genomic imprinting?
The optimal level of investment in currently developing offspring is higher for males than for females, so the maternal chromosome expresses a growth-suppressing gene, and the paternal chromosome expresses a growth-promoting gene.
Pharyngeal slits are present in the embryos of organisms as diverse as fish, chickens, and humans. Why would organisms as different as these have similar embryonic structures?
The organisms shared a common ancestor whose embryos had pharyngeal slits.
phylogenetic event horizon
The point in the history of life beyond which phylogenetic analysis is uninformative because there are no surviving descendants from ancestors before this point.
leading edge expansion
The process by which a species expands into a previously unoccupied area. The individuals colonizing the new area will tend to come from the populations nearest this region, and as a result populations in the newly colonized area will tend to exhibit a reduced genetic relation to those in the source population.
inclusive fitness
The sum of indirect and direct fitness, inclusive fitness serves as a measure of the total contribution that an individual makes toward producing copies of its genes in the next generation, whether in its own descendants or in those of its relatives.
costly signaling theory
The theory that individuals with conflicting interests can communicate honestly using signals that are costly, or at least costly if untrue.
ultimate source of new genetic information
The ultimate source of genetic variation is random mutation - changes in nucleotide sequences of DNA
The figure shows the hypothetical results of an experiment testing for parent-of-origin conflict due to genomic imprinting. Which of the following conclusions is most likely given these results?
There is maternal imprinting but not paternal imprinting
In their 2002 experiment, Paul and Joyce demonstrated that RNA could self-replicate. However, this system was incapable of natural selection. Why?
There is no mechanism for introducing variation in replicons
Which of the following conclusions can we draw from the figure, which depicts mtDNA types found in northern elephant seals sampled before, during, and after their hunting-induced bottleneck?
There was much more variation in the population before the bottleneck than during or after the bottleneck, indicating that the temporary reduction in population size was responsible for the low levels of genetic diversity in current populations.
Which of the following predictions of the Red Queen hypothesis is most strongly and directly supported by the results shown in the figure? The gold bars in the graph represent the frequency of the asexual lineage, and the red line represents the frequency of all parasites in a natural population.
There will be a time lag between the appearance of host resistance and the evolution of a mechanism by which the parasite can overcome that defense.
What taxonomic group includes mosses, hornworts and liverworts?
These plant types are Bryophytes
What taxonomic group are clubmosses, horsetails, and seeds (gymnosperms and angiosperms)?
These plant types are Tracheophytes
What is important to know about flatworms?
They act as parasites (tapeworm and flukes)
What are the vascular plants' taxonomic group?
Tracheophytes
A ____ Is a condition in which an enhancement and fitness of one trait causes a reduction in the fitness of another trait.
Trade off
Summarize natural selection
Traits that promote survival and reproduction become more frequent in species from one generation to the next.
Male Drosophila transfer accessory gland proteins along with sperm during normal mating. Experiments implicate these proteins in sexual conflict because they increase female egg production but decrease female survival. If accessory gland proteins are responsible for depressed female survival, which of the treatments shown in the table below must have generated the curve marked with an arrow? (Lowest female survival) Assume that none of the males could produce sperm.
Treatment A: males produce accessory gland proteins and males mate normally with females.
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordates: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Mammals: Eutherians: Boreoeutheria: Laurasiatheria: Eurchontoglires: Eurchonta: Scadentia
Tree shrews
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of haplodiploid genetic systems and eusociality.
True: A father contributes 100% of his genome to each daughter under a haplodiploid system. Males in a haplodiploid system have no fathers. Under a haplodiploid system, females are more related to their full sisters than they are to their daughters. False: In a haplodiploid insect species, both males and females are haploid as larvae but develop into diploids as adults. Because of its effects on coefficients of relatedness between full sisters, haplodiploidy can explain the evolution of all known cases of eusociality.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of how costly signaling explains the maintenance of begging behavior in baby birds.
True: Begging will impose some fitness cost (e.g., in terms of energy and/or predation risk). Parents will deliver more food in response to more intense begging. Begging intensity will accurately reflect hunger level. False: Parents will assess nestling hunger level independent of their begging behavior.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of eusociality.
True: Eusocial animals show cooperative care for young. In a eusocial species, some individuals forgo reproduction and perform other tasks such as foraging or defending the colony. False: Eusocial species have nonoverlapping generations. Eusociality can evolve only in animals with a haplodiploid genetic system.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of the phylogenetic distribution of sexual and asexual reproduction in eukaryotes.
True: Few eukaryotes reproduce only asexually. Almost no multicellular eukaryotic taxa consist entirely of asexually reproducing species. False: Modern eukaryotes that reproduce asexually most likely retain the ancestral reproductive mode of eukaryotes. Sexual taxa tend to go extinct more quickly than asexual taxa.
The human tail bone served a function in our ancestors but is no longer useful. This is an example of a
Vestigial character
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of begging behavior according to the graphical model in the figure.
True: For starving offspring, the benefit of calling outweighs the cost. The cost of begging outweighs the cost to a satiated offspring. False: The optimal begging intensity is lower for a starving offspring than for a hungry offspring because a starving offspring does not have adequate energy to sustain high levels of calling.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of the hawk-dove game as a model of animal conflict. Assume that there are cues that allow individuals to know who is Player 1 and who is Player 2.
True: If the cost of injury exceeds the value of the resource under dispute, there is a Nash equilibrium when Player 1 always plays H and Player 2 always plays D. If the value of the resource under dispute exceeds the cost of injury, there is a Nash equilibrium when both Player 1 and Player 2 always play H. False: If the value of the resource under dispute exceeds the cost of injury, there is a Nash equilibrium when Player 1 always plays H and Player 2 always plays D.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of how anisogamy translates into different selective pressures on males and females.
True: In a system that does not involve effective parental care of offspring as a factor in the success of those offspring/matings, we expect males that mate with numerous females to leave many more offspring than males that mate with few females. We expect males to compete for access to mates and for females to be more discriminating than males about mate choice. False: We expect females that mate with numerous males to leave many more offspring than females that mate with few males. Mating success is typically more variable in females than in males.
Drag each statement to the box to indicate whether it is true or false of the evolutionary phenomenon known as Muller's ratchet.
True: Muller's ratchet depends on a genetic system in which deleterious mutations arise and mutations from deleterious back to advantageous alleles are negligibly rare. Muller's ratchet is the phenomenon whereby deleterious mutations accumulate irreversibly in asexual populations. False: Muller's ratchet occurs because new deleterious alleles are fixed rapidly in asexual populations. Muller's ratchet is characterized by fluctuation in the number of deleterious alleles present in an asexually reproducing population.
Drag each statement to the box to indicate whether it is true or false of the evolutionary phenomenon known as Muller's ratchet.
True: Muller's ratchet is the phenomenon whereby deleterious mutations accumulate irreversibly in asexual populations. Muller's ratchet depends on a genetic system in which deleterious mutations arise and mutations from deleterious back to advantageous alleles are negligibly rare. False: Muller's ratchet occurs because new deleterious alleles are fixed rapidly in asexual populations. Muller's ratchet is characterized by fluctuation in the number of deleterious alleles present in an asexually reproducing population.
In the desert seed harvester ant, Messor pergandei, two or more unrelated queens cofound each nest, and each founder produces about the same number of offspring. The number of cofounders is positively correlated with the number of workers that the colony initially produces, and colonies with more workers have better defenses against colony-destroying brood raids. Initially, the founding queens of a colony do not form a dominance hierarchy, but there is a shift toward antagonistic behavior, including fights to the death, once the workers emerge. Examine the graph and drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether or not it is a valid conclusion about the evolution of queen behavior in these ants.
True: Selection among nests favors cooperation among queens at the time a colony is founded. The colony-level benefits of cooperation decline after workers have emerged. False: Cooperation is favored by within-group selection before workers eclose but is favored by between-group selection after workers emerge. Within-group selection dominates before workers emerge, and between-group selection dominates after eclosion.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether or not it is a conclusion that follows from the results in the graph.
True: Signals that overstate fighting ability prompt social punishment. Facial markings in paper wasps are conventional signals of fighting ability. False: Any signal that misrepresents fighting ability prompts social punishment.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of signaling involved in social interactions.
True: The mind reading versus manipulation view of communication invokes antagonistic coevolution to explain the evolution of signals. Social punishment has been implicated in the maintenance of honest conventional signals of fighting ability in house sparrows and paper wasps. False: Costly signaling theory assumes that honest signals impose a higher fitness cost than dishonest signals.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of the tug-of-war model for the evolution of genomic imprinting.
True: The model predicts that a male should be selected to divert more resources to his current offspring than is optimal from the perspective of his current female mate. The "tug-of-war" for which this model is named occurs between a female that is equally related to all offspring she will produce in her life and a male who is father to her current offspring but not necessarily to her future offspring. False: In mammals, the father is more closely related to any given current offspring than is the female with which he sired that offspring. In mammals, maternally imprinted genes are typically associated with allocating resources toward increasing embryonic growth rates, whereas paternally imprinted genes are typically associated with decreasing embryonic growth rates.
Drag each statement to indicate whether it is true or false of the relationship among signal level, fitness gain, and fitness cost as shown in the graph.
True: The optimal signal level for a poor fighter is lower than the optimum for a good fighter because there is a negligible fitness cost associated with deception. A greater signal level indicates greater fighting ability, and greater fighting ability is associated with higher fitness, presumably via privileged access to resources. False: As the signal level increases, the cost of the signal decreases.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of game theory models of reciprocal altruism.
True: The prisoner's dilemma is a game theory model used to explain how cooperation could evolve as a consequence of reciprocal altruism. In game theory, a Nash equilibrium is a pair of strategies in which neither player benefits by changing strategy. False: When applying game theory to the evolution of social behavior, an evolutionarily stable strategy is the same as a strict Nash equilibrium. In a single round of the prisoner's dilemma game, there is a Nash equilibrium when both players cooperate.
The graph depicts the association between sexual reproduction and parasite load in lake and stream populations of the snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum, which can reproduce either sexually or asexually. The study that generated the data was designed to test hypotheses regarding the evolutionary advantage conferred by sexual reproduction. Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of the results in the graph.
True: The results of this study are not consistent with the predictions of the environmental unpredictability hypothesis. Sexual reproduction is more common in lake populations than in stream populations, as predicted by the multiple niche hypothesis. False: Greater parasite load is associated with less sexual reproduction, as predicted by the Red Queen hypothesis.
Imagine a model in which the players in a hawk-dove game do not know who is Player 1 and who is Player 2 and the cost of injury is higher than the value of the disputed resource. Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false of the Nash equilibrium associated with this game.
True: There is a mixed Nash equilibrium in which each player plays hawk with probability p and dove with probability 1 - p, such that both strategies give the same payoff. There is a mixed Nash equilibrium in which some fraction p of the population plays hawk and a fraction 1 - p plays dove, such that p = v/c. False: There is a strict Nash equilibrium in which both players always play dove.
Drag each statement to the correct box to indicate whether it is true or false as you consider the information in the graph depicting the results of a competition experiment with sexual and asexual snails.
True: These experimental results illustrate what Maynard Smith called the "twofold cost of sex." We can assume that the asexual snails used in the experiment were female. False: If the experimenters were to grow these snails in the presence of parasites for multiple generations, we would expect essentially the same outcome. These experimental results illustrate the evolutionary advantage of anisogamy.
The freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna is a cyclical parthenogen in which individuals normally reproduce asexually but occasionally reproduce sexually. Experiments have demonstrated that females shift to sexual reproduction in response to introduction of a new predator, a decrease in food quality, and cues related to drying up of a temporary pond. Drag each of the statements below to indicate whether it is true or false of these reproductive shifts in Daphnia.
True: These results are consistent with the hypothesis that sexual reproduction confers an advantage in temporally variable and unpredictable environments. When the environment is stable, asexual reproduction allows a well-adapted lineage to grow at a higher rate than a similarly adapted sexual lineage. False: A shift to sexual reproduction decreases the ability of a population to respond to new selection pressures and is thus a puzzling phenomenon in Daphni
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Tuatara
Tuatara looks like other reptiles but is a separate line (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: cold-blooded: "peaks on back")
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Olfatores
Tunicates and vertebrates
Animalia: Deuterostomes: Chordata: Tetrapods: Amniotes: Reptiles: Neognaths: Columbaves
Turacos, bustards, cuckoos, pigeons (animal: anal opening first formed: notochord [and the works]: 4 legged: lay eggs on land: reptile: "new jaw" and fused metacarpal bone:)
Ascomycetes
Type of fungi
Plants- Tracheophytes
Vascular plants Have specialized tissue: xylem for conducting water ploem for conducting products of photosynthesis Includes: Clubmosses, Horsetails, Ferns and seeds (gymnosperms and angiosperms)
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda: Onychophorans
Velvet worms
Which of the following factors influences the appearance of deleterious mutations in a population? Weak selective pressure. Strong selective pressure. Balancing selection. The number of beneficial selections.
Weak selective pressure
Given the distribution of female reproductive success as shown, which of the following graphs is most likely to represent the reproductive success of males in the same sexually reproducing population with anisogamy?
When females in a population have high reproductive success, males in the same sexually reproducing population tend to have varying reproductive success.
isogamy
When individuals in a population produce one type of gamete—each parent produces mid-sized gametes that, when they fuse, are together the size of the large gametes produced by anisogamous females. With isogamous sexual parents, investment again goes to biomass rather than "wasted" sperm, and the lineage is able to grow at the same rate as an asexual lineage.
Many models of the evolutionary consequences of mutation assume that the rate of back mutation is negligible. When is this a reasonable assumption? -when we are considering a protein where a forward mutation leads to a nonfunctional protein and back mutation leads to a functional protein -when we are considering regulatory genes where forward mutation decreases expression and back mutation increases expression -when the forward mutation rate is much lower than the back mutation rate -when the population is not in hardy-weinberg equilibrium
When we are considering a protein where forward mutation leads to a nonfunctional protein and back mutation leads to a functional protein.
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda: Arthropods: Hexapods: Pterygota
Winged insects Include: Emphemeroptera (mayflies) Odonata (dragonflies) Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, crickets) Neuroptera (lacewings) Phasmids (stick insects) Plecoptera (stoneflies) Dermaptera (earwigs) Mantids Blattodea (cockroaches, termites) Phthiraptera (lice) Thysanoptera (thrips) Hemiptera (true bugs, including cicadas and aphids) Siphonoptera (fleas)
Animalia: Protostomes: Bilateria: Ecdysozoa: Panarthropoda: Arthropods: Hexapods: Apterygota
Wingless insects
A population genetic model of evolutionary change in small populations with non-overlapping generations.
Wright-Fisher model
What is the part of the plant that conducts water in vascular plants?
Xylem
Are animals monophyletic?
Yes
Do chordata have notochords?
Yes, they have notochords.
Are cnidaria symmetrical?
Yes. Radially symmetrical with one opening
Male manikins pick up branches as their stage for a mating display to attract females. Multiple males gather in an area and compete by dancing and calling for females. This type of intersexual selection is called lekking. What is the cost associated with lekking.
You attract predators
The principle that males with large, or Nate displays have a higher cost to fitness but still successfully made despite the large cost is
Zahavi's Law
A founder event changes allele frequencies because a. only a subset of alleles in the original population are represented in the newly founded population. b. selection in the newly founded population differs from selection in the original population. c. coalescent processes generate alleles that share a common history. d. mutation is higher in the newly founded population than in the original population.
a
Consider a locus with two alleles in a population of 100 individuals, with the initial frequencies A1 = 0.7 and A2 = 0.3. If A1 and A2 are selectively neutral, what is the probability that the A2 allele will drift to fixation? a. 30% b. 3% c. 0% d. 70%
a
Consider a population of size Ne with a new mutation that confers a fitness advantage of 1 + s. This new allele will be more likely to go to fixation due to selection if a. Ne is large and s is large. b. Ne is small and s is large. c. Ne is large and s is small. d. Ne is small and s is small.
a
F-statistics can be used to quantify the effects of genetic drift by measuring a. the change in identity by descent over time. b. effective population size. c. the rate of change in allele frequencies. d. the relative strength of selection on two alleles.
a
Genetic drift tends to increase the homozygosity of a population, and if it were the only evolutionary process operating, any finite population would eventually become entirely homozygous. In practice, however, populations do not become entirely homozygous. Why not? a. New mutations provide a continual supply of new genetic variation. b. Most mutations are deleterious, so purifying selection prevents populations from becoming homozygous. c. Frequency-dependent selection is always present and increases the frequency of a rare allele. d. Balancing selection is always present to retain allelic diversity.
a
Imagine an island archipelago where all of the islands are founded by individuals heterozygous at a particular locus. If there is no migration or mutation, and the alleles at that locus are neutral, what do you expect the island populations to look like after many generations? a. Some island populations will have fixed one allele, and other populations will have fixed the other allele. b. The populations on every island will have fixed the same allele. c. The island populations will have high levels of genetic diversity at this locus. d. We cannot predict any outcome because genetic drift is a random process.
a
In a diploid population, the threshold at which selection will outweigh drift occurs when s (the selective advantage) is greater than a. 1/2Ne. b. Ne. c. Ne/2. d. 4Ne.
a
One important consequence of genetic drift is that it decreases the heterozygosity in a population from what is expected under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.What are the observed and expected heterozygosities in a population that has three genotypes with the following frequencies f(A1A1) = 100, f(A1A2) = 25, f(A2A2) = 100. a. Observed = 0.1; Expected = 0.5 b. Observed = 0.5; Expected = 0.5 c. Observed = 0.25; Expected = 1 d. Observed = 0.75; Expected = 1
a
The graph shows the changes in allele frequencies in simulations of 10 replicate populations. Which of the following is a reasonable explanation for what happened to these populations around generation 100 (highlighted in blue)? a. The population size decreased. b. The mutation rate decreased. c. Natural selection increased. d. Migration increased.
a
Cope's Rule
a general tendency for body size to increase during the evolution of species in mammalian clades
economy of scale
a group can perform a task more efficiently than a single individual or when a group can do things that a lone individual cannot do at all
genetic distance
a measure of how different populations are from each other genetically
hypercycle model
a model for the evolution of early life involving multiple types of replicators, each of which facilitates the replication of another in cyclical fashion
genetic draft
a neutral allele randomly goes to fixation or elimination due to physical linkage of a allele under selection
Substituation
a new allele arisen by mutations and subsequently fixed in the population - substitute allele already present
genomic imprinting
a phenomenon in which expression of an allele in offspring depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent - stops "cheaters" mammals that can reproduce asexually from surviving because offspring would fail to express a number of important genes that are expressed from the paternally derived copy
meiosis
a series of two cell divisions that generates haploid gametes
gene families
a set of loci that are derived via a duplication of a single ancestral locus
What is an evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS)?
a strategy that, when common in a population, cannot be invaded by a rare mutant strategy
26. The rate of mutation to a recessive lethal allele is 0.000001. What is the equilibrium frequency this allele? (Recall that the equilibrium frequency for a recessive allele under mutation-selection balance is q = n m/s, where m is the rate of mutation to the disease allele and s is the selection coefficient against that allele. In the case of a lethal allele, s = 1.)
a. 0.001
5. Consider a locus with only two alleles, A and a, in a population of diploid individuals. If the frequencies of A and a in the population are p and q, respectively, then p + q =
a. 1.0.
Which of the following is true of both analogous and homologous traits? a. Both can be used as evidence for Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. b. Both provide evidence of shared ancestry. c. Both reveal that natural selection often generates similar solutions to similar problems. d. Both indicate the inheritance of acquired traits.
a. Both can be used as evidence for Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
Charles Darwin inferred the pattern of common ancestry without understanding the basis for heredity. However, if Darwin's theory of descent with modification is correct, then a. DNA sequence similarity should reflect patterns of common ancestry inferred from other evidence. b. DNA sequences will indicate the correct phylogeny, and other traits, such as morphology and anatomy, will be irrelevant to common ancestry. c. the hereditary basis of a trait will not matter for understanding its evolutionary history. d. common ancestry will be reflected in phylogenies only for traits that are determined by a single gene.
a. DNA sequence similarity should reflect patterns of common ancestry inferred from other evidence.
22. The table shows the survival and seed production of hybrid and wild sunflowers at three different sites. What do these data demonstrate?
a. Hybrid plants experience reduced fecundity, but similar viability to wild plants.
Ribozymes are a. RNA enzymes. c. capable of replicating RNA. b. proteins. d. capable of copying RNA into DNA.
a. RNA enzymes.
How did the discovery of ribozymes affect our understanding of the evolution of proteins and nucleic acids? a. The discovery of ribozymes demonstrated that enzymes did not have to be proteins, and RNA enzymes (ribozymes) can be both information carrier and enzymatic molecule. b. The discovery of ribozymes helped us understand how RNA only codes for proteins and does not act as an enzymatic molecule. This helped support the hypothesis of RNA world as an origin for living organisms on Earth. c. The discovery of ribozymes verified that enzymes had to be proteins. This discovery helped to eliminate other theories about the origin of life in RNA world. d. The discovery of ribozymes demonstrated definitively that ribozymes function only as an enzymatic molecule and therefore evolved before information carrier molecules.
a. The discovery of ribozymes demonstrated that enzymes did not have to be proteins, and RNA enzymes (ribozymes) can be both information carrier and enzymatic molecule.
11. Consider a locus with two alleles, A and a. Under which of the following scenarios will the frequency of the A allele increase?
a. The fitness of AA and Aa individuals are higher than the fitness of aa individuals.
32. The graph shows the relationship between the number of surviving gray wolf pups in a litter and the inbreeding coefficient of those pups. What do these data reveal about the types of alleles present in this population?
a. There are recessive deleterious alleles present.
33. In the scenario depicted in the figure, what will happen to the allele frequencies on the island? Assume there is no selection or mutation, mating is random, and the population sizes are large.
a. They will become more similar to those on the mainland.
A somatic cell is a. a body cell that is responsible for growth and maintenance. b. a cell specialized for reproduction. c. one of the cells that produces spores in slime mold-fruiting bodies. d. a cell that has four membranes around it.
a. a body cell that is responsible for growth and maintenance.
29. Which of the following processes will result in more heterozygotes than expected under Hardy-Weinberg?
a. disassortative mating
By mapping a given trait on a phylogenetic tree that we have already constructed using other data, we can a. generate hypotheses about when and how this trait evolved. b. create a pedigree for the trait. c. test for polytomies in this trait. d. confirm the presence or absence of this trait in species for which we are lacking observational data.
a. generate hypotheses about when and how this trait evolved.
35. Which of the following processes can increase genetic variation in a population?
a. mutation and migration
Mathematical descriptions of evolutionary processes allow biologists to make ________ predictions about how genotype frequencies change over time.
a. quantitative
Which of the following is NOT a shared property of living things? a. sexual reproduction c. homeostasis b. structural organization d. response to the environment
a. sexual reproduction
Analogous traits are found in two or more species because a. some evolutionary process (usually natural selection) has independently fashioned similar traits in each species. b. those traits have been inherited from a common ancestor. c. hybridization between the species passes the trait on to both. d. evolution by natural selection requires heritable variation.
a. some evolutionary process (usually natural selection) has independently fashioned similar traits in each species.
The basic conceptual approach to phylogenetic tree building assumes that a. species with many character states in common are more closely related than those with few character states in common. b. shared characters are homoplasies. c. vestigial traits are not relevant. d. common ancestors are identified for each internal node.
a. species with many character states in common are more closely related than those with few character states in common.
What is the fundamental idea behind parsimony? a. the best phylogeny is the one that both explains the observed character data and posits the fewest evolutionary changes for a group of taxa b. the best phylogeny is the one that posits the greatest number of evolutionary changes for a group of taxa c. the computed number of morphological or molecular distances between taxa indicates their relatedness d. morphological traits cannot be used to reconstruct phylogenetic history
a. the best phylogeny is the one that both explains the observed character data and posits the fewest evolutionary changes for a group of taxa
A paraphyletic group contains a. the group's most recent common ancestor but not all of its descendants. b. neither the common ancestor of all of its members nor all descendants of that ancestor. c. all descendants of the group's most recent common ancestor and no other members. d. unrelated members.
a. the group's most recent common ancestor but not all of its descendants.
13. The figure shows the change in allele frequencies over many generations. What differs between the populations represented by the three colors?
a. the strength of selection
15. The figure shows the allele frequency trajectories for two populations starting from two different initial frequencies. Which evolutionary processes could produce this result?
a. underdominance or positive frequency-dependent selection
The study of phylogeny predominantly aims to a. understand the branching relationships of populations as they give rise to descendant populations over time. b. uncover evidence for natural selection. c. provide a theoretical basis for Darwin's idea of a branching pattern of descent with modification. d. classify organisms based on similarity.
a. understand the branching relationships of populations as they give rise to descendant populations over time
which of the following is a benefit of multicellularity for slime mold amoebas? -self-sacrifice for other amoebas -ability to move quickly -sexual reproduction -ability to feed on bacteria
ability to move quickly
what are consistent with reduction in the fraction of heterozygotes in a population? -selfing -large values of wright's F -strong genetic drift -underdominance -all of the above
all of the above
Which of these is accurate about evolution having a direction or goal? -because mutations are random, it does not move in a particular direction, at least not on short scales -there actually is a trend toward larger organisms, if you graph body size against the date of origin -there actually is a trend towards more complexity in multicellular organisms, as measured by the number of cell types graphed against the date of origin -all of the above
all of the above are correct statements about direction in evolution
The gene pool for a particular gene would include
all the alleles for a particular gene in all the individuals in the population
A population is
all the members of a species that live in a defined geographic region at the same time
non-random mating (self-fertilization (selfing)) effect on Hardy-Weinberg frequencies
allele frequencies do not change, but genotypes frequencies do - frequency of heterozygotes is reduced compared to H-W and frequency of homozygotes is increased compared to H-W
positive selection and it's effect on coalescence
alleles that are selectively favored relative to others at the same locus - lead to shorter coalescent time
The eukaryotic nucleus most likely originated from -mitochondrion -archael cell -bacterium -proteobacterium
an archaeal cell
What is the effect of small population size on the degree of heterozygosity in a population? a. Heterozygosity will increase over time. b. Heterozygosity will decrease over time. c. Heterozygosity will not change. d. Heterozygosity will be subject to natural selection.
b
4. Consider a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at a locus with two alleles, A and a, at frequencies of p and q, respectively. Assuming the population remains in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, what is the expected frequency of Aa heterozygotes after 100 generations?
b. 2pq
14. Pocket mice have light- or dark-colored coats and live in dark- or light-colored habitats. Pocket mice whose coat colors match their environment are less susceptible to predation. In the scenarios shown in the figure, which of the following selection coefficients might you expect (on each genotype in each habitat)?
b. A: 0, B: 0.2, C: 0.1, D: 0
20. Which of the following genotypic fitness values would result in the most rapid fixation of the beneficial allele, A?
b. AA: 1.0, Aa: 0.9, aa: 0.8
3. Which of the following is an assumption of the Hardy-Weinberg model?
b. Mating is random with respect to genotype.
Which of the following statements about pedigrees and phylogenies is true? a. Both show the splitting and the recombining of branches or lineages over time. b. Pedigrees tell us about the ancestry of individuals; phylogenies tell us about the ancestry of populations. c. Both expand as one looks backward in time. d. The nodes in a pedigree represent populations; the nodes in a phylogeny represent individuals.
b. Pedigrees tell us about the ancestry of individuals; phylogenies tell us about the ancestry of populations.
34. Consider a locus with two alleles in an island population, where all assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg model are met except "no migration." The figure shows the change in the frequency of the A1 allele over several generations. What can you say about the population that is the source of migrants to the island?
b. The source population has a higher frequency of the A1 allele at generation zero than the island population.
Why does the theory of evolution NOT explain the origin of life? a. The theory of evolution is a scientific theory and cannot explain supernatural phenomena such as the origin of life. b. The theory of evolution explains how life diversified after its origin and does not address the origin of life itself. c. The theory of evolution is only a biological theory, and the study of the origin of life also includes chemistry, geology, atmospheric scientists, and others. d. The origin of life is typically studied by philosophers and religious scholars, not scientists.
b. The theory of evolution explains how life diversified after its origin and does not address the origin of life itself.
19. Proponents of eugenics sought to eliminate alleles for so-called undesirable traits by not allowing people with those traits to reproduce. Which of the following scenarios would prevent the elimination of these alleles?
b. Undesirable traits are caused by rare, recessive alleles.
Wilson (1980) defined a social group as which of the following? a. a group of individuals that are always together b. a group of conspecific individuals that affect each other's fitness c. a group that forages together d. a group that participates in communal raising of offspring
b. a group of conspecific individuals that affect each other's fitness
What was LUCA? a. the first life-form b. a population of life-forms that was the last common ancestor of life on Earth today c. the only life-form present before our current lineage d. the last universal ancestral life-form: a single individual
b. a population of life-forms that was the last common ancestor of life on Earth today
Which of the following is a benefit of multicellularity for slime mold amoebas? a. self-sacrifice for other amoebas b. ability to move quickly c. sexual reproduction d. ability to feed on bacteria
b. ability to move quickly
The Miller-Urey experiment is significant because it produced the first scientific evidence that a. conditions on Earth 4 billion years ago could produce RNA. b. conditions on Earth 4 billion years ago could produce amino acids. c. it is possible to produce LUCA in the laboratory. d. it is possible to produce DNA under the same conditions as on Earth 4 billion years ago.
b. conditions on Earth 4 billion years ago could produce amino acids.
12. Which of the following would best help you predict the fate of an allele in a population?
b. determine survival rates of individuals of each genotype
Economies of scale occur in major transitions when a. individuals aggregate. b. groups can perform tasks more efficiently than individuals. c. cell-type number increases. d. genes become genetically imprinted.
b. groups can perform tasks more efficiently than individuals.
Which of the following is an advantage of parsimony analysis? a. it is always a consistent estimator b. it is conceptually simple c. it ensures that we get the right answer, given enough data d. long-branch attraction
b. it is conceptually simple
30. Which of the following is a consequence of recessive deleterious alleles in a population?
b. reduced fitness of the population when there is inbreeding
2. The null model for population genetics is
b. the Hardy-Weinberg model.
On a phylogram, what do branch lengths represent? a. the passage of time b. the amount of evolutionary change c. how many speciation events have occurred d. the rate of extinction
b. the amount of evolutionary change
Homologous traits are found in two or more species because a. some evolutionary process (usually natural selection) has independently fashioned similar traits in each species. b. those traits have been inherited from a common ancestor. c. hybridization between the species passes the trait on to both. d. evolution by natural selection requires heritable variation.
b. those traits have been inherited from a common ancestor.
The least inclusive set of genes required to maintain life is restricted to encoding _____ cellular functions. This is referred to as the _____ gene set.
basic, minimal
When both drift and selection are acting on a locus (alleles are not neutral and population size is finite) which of the following can occur? -natural selection can increase the effect of genetic drift -neutral mutations are subject to natural selection -genetic drift can result in heterozygous advantage -beneficial mutations can be lost from the population
beneficial mutations can be lost from the population
Why does the cost-benefit difference decrease for a focal offspring as direct parental investment increases above the optimum level (from that individual offspring's perspective)?
beyond that level of investment, the cost to the parent compromises its ability to invest in other offspring to the point that there is no longer a benefit to the focal offspring in terms of indirect fitness.
An endangered animal species has an effective population size of 50. What is the expected loss of heterozygosity in each generation? a. 10% b. 50% c. 1% d. 2%
c
Imagine that in a large coastal population of plants, the frequency of the A allele is 0.7 and the frequency of the a allele is 0.3 at a neutral locus. If a small group of individuals from this population (with the frequency of the A allele as 0.9) manages to reach a distant island in a one-time colonization event, what is the probability that A will become fixed on the island? a. 0 b. 0.7 c. 0.9 d. 1.0
c
Manx cats are common on a remote island near Great Britain, though rare elsewhere. They have a reduced or absent tail and longer hind legs than forelegs. This phenotype is caused by a dominant allele, M, at an autosomal locus. Manx cats are always Mm heterozygotes because MM homozygotes are aborted prenatally. What is the best evolutionary explanation for the Manx cats' prevalence on this island? a. Natural selection is most likely responsible for the prevalence of the Manx phenotype on this island. b. Manx cats are maintained on the island by frequent migration from Britain and Ireland. c. The prevalence of the Manx phenotype on this island is a result of the founder effect and genetic drift. d. The Manx cat is a common hybrid between cats and rabbits.
c
Population bottlenecks occur when a. a large number of genetically diverse individuals found a new population. b. population size dramatically increases. c. a consistently large population experiences a brief period of small size. d. inbreeding is high.
c
Which statement is FALSE regarding populations that have experienced a bottleneck? a. The population size is large for much of the time, only briefly becomes small, and again grows back to a large size. b. Allele frequencies tend to fluctuate more during a bottleneck than before or after it. c. Allele frequencies in a population are almost always very similar before and after a bottleneck. d. Allele frequencies tend to vary between populations that have been through population bottlenecks.
c
24. Consider a locus with two alleles, A and a. If the rate of mutation of A to a is 0.0000025 and the rate of mutation of a to A is 0.0000010, what will be the equilibrium frequency of the A allele? (Recall that the equilibrium allele frequency under mutation is p* = v/(m + v), where p* is the equilibrium frequency of the A allele, m is the rate of mutation from A to a, and v is the rate of mutation from a to A.)
c. 0.2857
9. Stalk height in sunflowers is determined by two alleles at a locus, T and t, which display incomplete dominance. TT individuals are tall, Tt are medium, and tt are short. In a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, we count 1,546 short plants out of 9,666. How many plants do you expect to be tall?
c. 3,480
Which of the following is a reason DNA is favored over RNA as genetic material? a. DNA makes chromosomes. b. DNA can self-replicate. c. DNA is more stable and thus is a more efficient transmission system. d. DNA mutates more readily, with a weaker repair machinery.
c. DNA is more stable and thus is a more efficient transmission system.
What is different between a rooted and unrooted tree? a. An unrooted tree indicates the common ancestor from which all species on the tree are derived. b. Relationships on an unrooted tree are not experimentally testable. c. Direction on a rooted tree indicates the passage of time. d. Rooted trees are correct, whereas unrooted trees are incorrect.
c. Direction on a rooted tree indicates the passage of time.
Aposematic, or warning, coloration in poison frogs was found by Juan Santos and colleagues to be polyphyletic. What does this indicate about aposematic coloration? a. It arose in the common ancestor of these frogs. b. It is homologous. c. It is the result of convergent evolution. d. It is an exaptation.
c. It is the result of convergent evolution.
Which of the following statements about multicellularity is true? a. Major eukaryotic groups either contain only multicellular or only unicellular species. b. Eukaryotes became multicellular upon endosymbiosis with bacteria. c. Multicellularity has evolved many times in eukaryotes. d. Multicellularity is always advantageous for the individual.
c. Multicellularity has evolved many times in eukaryotes.
27. Under ________ individuals tend to mate with others of the same genotype. Under ________ individuals tend to mate with others of different genotypes.
c. assortative mating; disassortative mating
Current scientific estimates indicate that Earth is approximately 4.5-4.6 ________ years old and that life began on Earth approximately 3.2-3.5 ________ years ago. a. billion; million b. million; million c. billion; billion d. million; billion
c. billion; billion
The complete division between soma and germ line cells may have been an evolutionary response to which of the following selective pressures? a. the presence of predators b. the presence of pathogens c. certain cells acting as "cheaters" that overrepresent themselves in the next generation d. the ability to move more quickly toward a food source
c. certain cells acting as "cheaters" that overrepresent themselves in the next generation
What does the study of phylogeny allow us to understand? a. evolutionary relationships among organisms, but not major events in evolutionary history b. major events in evolutionary history, but not evolutionary relationships among organisms c. evolutionary relationships among organisms and major events in evolutionary history d. neither evolutionary relationships among organisms nor major events in evolutionary history
c. evolutionary relationships among organisms and major events in evolutionary history
18. Population sex ratios, that is, how many males and females there are in a population, are most likely influenced by which process?
c. frequency-dependent selection
A trait that is similar in one or more species even though it was not present in their common ancestor is called a a. homology. b. synapomorphy. c. homoplasy. d. symplesiomorphy.
c. homoplasy.
28. Inbreeding increases the frequency of ________ in a population.
c. homozygotes
When life first evolved, ocean temperatures were ________ and there was ________ atmospheric oxygen. a. cooler; no c. hotter; abundant b. cooler; abundant d. hotter; no
c. hotter; abundant
16. What type of selection is demonstrated in the figure shown?
c. negative frequency-dependent selection
The two major cell types currently known are a. archaea and bacteria. c. prokaryotes and eukaryotes. b. archaea and prokaryotes. d. eukaryotes and archaea.
c. prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
17. What kind of equilibrium does overdominance produce?
c. stable
10. Why do you need to use a statistical test (e.g., the chi-square test) to compare the observed genotype frequencies in a population to those expected under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
c. to assess whether the deviation of observed from expected frequencies is likely due to chance
Abiogenesis
chemical formation of life from non-living material
Polypoidization
clusters of loci that are homologous to other such clusters on different chromosomes
The point on a gene tree that delineates the gene copy that is the most recent common ancestor of the genes being studied in a population
coalescent point
A theory developed to study the gene-genealogical relationships in a population by tracing the ancestry of gene copies backward from the present through a finite population
coalescent theory
metapopulation
collections of demes
at most loci, synonymous mutations are more ... than nonsynonymous mutations
common
What method was used in the long-term laboratory study of e. coli by lenski and colleagues to estimate fitness? -counting cells using a microscope -freezing some cells at extremely low temperatures and counting the batches that survived -competing different strains -counting seed set as proxy for actual fitness
competing different strains
In general, when sexual selection is strong for one sex and weak for the other, we can predict that members of the sex subject to strong sexual selection will be ________, and members of the sex subject to weak sexual selection will be ________.
competitive; choosy
23. Consider a locus with two alleles, A and a. If the rate of mutation from A to a is twice the rate from a to A, what will be the equilibrium frequency of the A allele? (Assume that there are no other evolutionary forces acting on these alleles. Recall that the equilibrium allele frequency under mutation is p* = v/(m + v), where p* is the equilibrium frequency of the A allele, m is the rate of mutation from A to a, and v is the rate of mutation from a to A.)
d. 0
25. Five percent of quarter horses in the United States are heterozygous for the recessive lethal allele that causes glycogen branching enzyme deficiency (GBED). Assuming that quarter horses are randomly mated, this means that the frequency of this allele is q = 0.025. If the GBED allele is maintained in the population by mutation-selection balance, what is the mutation rate to the disease allele? (Recall that the equilibrium frequency for a recessive allele under mutation-selection balance is q = n m/s, where m is the rate of mutation to the disease allele and s is the selection coefficient against that allele. In the case of a lethal allele, s = 1.)
d. 0.000625
Which of the following statements regarding complexity is true? a. Evolution always progresses toward complexity. b. Complexity, once gained, cannot be lost. c. Modern bacteria and archaea are vastly more complex than ancestral forms. d. Complexity, once gained, can be lost.
d. Complexity, once gained, can be lost.
Why do evolutionary biologists say that Tiktaalik roseae is a "transitional species"? a. It is an extinct species whose DNA sequence indicates that it is intermediate between fish and tetrapods. b. It is an extant species whose DNA sequence indicates that it is intermediate between fish and tetrapods. c. It is an extant species whose skeletal structure indicates that it is a morphological intermediate between fish and tetrapods. d. It is an extinct species whose fossils indicate that it was a morphological intermediate between fish and tetrapods.
d. It is an extinct species whose fossils indicate that it was a morphological intermediate between fish and tetrapods.
Why do groups offer protection in foraging? a. Large groups draw the attention of predators. b. Predator targeting increases with group size. c. The probability of a predator attack increases with increased group size. d. Many eyes detect predators more quickly.
d. Many eyes detect predators more quickly.
Why do the benefits of group living focus on foraging and predation? a. Other behaviors, such as reproduction, are irrelevant for the fitness of individuals in a group. b. Individuals in groups always forage and engage in antipredator behaviors together. c. Groups only exist for foraging and antipredator behavior. d. Much of an animal's time is spent foraging and avoiding predators.
d. Much of an animal's time is spent foraging and avoiding predators.
According to the endosymbiotic theory, early eukaryotes acquired the mitochondrion from a symbiotic bacterium. What happened to the bacterial genes? a. All of the bacterial genes were transferred to the nuclear genome. b. All of the bacterial genes still exist and comprise the mitochondrial genome. c. All of the bacterial genes still exist and comprise the chloroplast genome. d. Some bacterial genes were transferred to the nucleus, some were lost, and some comprise the mitochondrial genome.
d. Some bacterial genes were transferred to the nucleus, some were lost, and some comprise the mitochondrial genome.
8. A sample of 2,000 individuals from a human population was scored for MN blood group. The following frequencies were found: 1,600 MM, 250 MN, and 150 NN. How do these numbers compare to those expected under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
d. The population has fewer MN heterozygotes than expected.
Which of the following is NOT an organelle that is thought to be the result of endosymbiosis? a. mitochondrion b. chloroplast c. apicoplast d. endoplasmic reticulum
d. endoplasmic reticulum
The transition from unicellularity to multicellularity a. has occurred once. b. is an obligate condition. c. occurs only in slime molds. d. must convey a selective advantage to individuals if it is to occur.
d. must convey a selective advantage to individuals if it is to occur.
6. Consider a locus with only two alleles, A and a, in a population of diploid individuals. The frequencies of A and a in the population are p and q, respectively. If individuals mate randomly with respect to genotype, then the frequency of AA after random mating is
d. p2.
7. Consider two events that are mutually exclusive, that is, if one occurs, the other cannot occur. The probability that either one will occur is ________, and the probability that both will occur is ________.
d. the sum of their probabilities; zero
21. Natural selection can act on both ________, which is the probability of survival, and ________, which is the number of offspring produced.
d. viability; fecundity
31. Under which scenario will the presence of rare recessive deleterious alleles cause the greatest decline in fitness in a population?
d. when mating occurs mostly among close genetic relatives
Cambrain explosion
earliest part of the Paleozoic era, when a huge diversity of animal species evolved (adaptive radiation)
The size of an idealized population (no migration, mutation, assortative mating, or natural selection) that loses genetic variation because of genetic drift at the same rate as the population under study
effective population size
Sometimes the observed heterozygosity of a large population resembles what we would expect in a small population subject to strong genetic drift. These large populations often have a history of size fluctuations or a biased sex ratio. The _____ population size, which dictates the effects of genetic drift on allele frequency change, can be considerably smaller than the ______ population size, which is the total number of individuals in the population. As a consequence of drift, heterozygosity _____ from one generation to the next.
effective; census; decreases
A point in the history of life beyond which phylogenetic analysis cannot possibly see is called a phylogenetic ____ _____.
event horizon
mass extinction
event in which many types of living things become extinct at the same time
exons and introns
exons code for amino acids, introns noncoding segments that need to be removed by spliceosomes.
Denoted as He, this is the fraction of heterozygotes expected under the Hardy-Weinberg model, given the allele frequencies in the population.
expected heterozygosity
Which of the following statements best explains why the results in the figure suggest kin selection as an explanation for the evolution of alarm calling in Belding's ground squirrels?
females do not disperse from their birth populations, but males do.
Loss of heterozygosity under inbreeding (selfing vs first cousin mating vs full sib mating)
first cousin mating => least lost in heterozygosity full sib mating => 2nd most lost in heterozygosity Selfing => most lost in heterozygosity
Benefits of group living
fitness benefits have been shown to accrue by group living including improved foraging, decreasing predation risk, conserving heat and water, conserving energy used in movement.
Variation among individuals that is due to variation and factors other than environmental influences is called
genetic variation
Which of the following is seen when a multicellular organism has many specialized cell types, resulting in a division of labor between reproductive functions and growth and maintenance functions? -germ-soma distinction -information transfer -sacrifice of the ability to reproduce -economy of scale
germ-soma distinction
background extinction
gradual process of a species becoming extinct
Population
group of individuals that share the same gene pool
Fire is not a living thing, but it exhibits which property of living things?
growth and reproduction
Hymenopteran insects have a ____genetic system in which ____ develop from fertilized eggs and ____ develop from unfertilized eggs. One consequence of this genetic system is that a father contributes ____ of his genome to each of his daughters, whereas a mother contributes ____ of her genome. Therefore, full sisters have a coefficient of relatedness ____ that between a mother and a daughter and that of diploid sisters. It is thus common for eusociality to evolve via kin selection in bees, ants, and wasps since "worker" females can potentially maximize their ____ by forgoing their own reproduction and helping to raise their sisters instead.
haplodiploid; females; males; all; half; greater than; inclusive fitness
diploid
having two copies of each type of chromosome
By introducing the term exaptation, how did stephen jay gould narrow down the broad definition of evolution? -he excluded traits which had been inherited through evolutionary history, but not originally evolved in the current species -he excluded traits that were neutral (neither beneficial nor deleterious) -he excluded traits that were not heritable -he excluded traits that had arisen in the past for a different beneficial function, but which now serve a different beneficial function
he excluded traits that had arisen in the past for a different beneficial function, but which now serve a different beneficial function
The effective population size is often lower than the census size of a population because -inbreeding depression decreases the fitness of inbred progeny -populations cannot recover from decreases in heterozygosity -scientists cannot accurately count the number of individuals in a population -individuals contribute unequally to future generations
individuals contribute unequally to future generations
What was Yule's mistake, made in the early days of population genetics? -he thought mendel's rules predicted a stable equilibrium in both allele frequencies and in genotype frequencies -he thought mendel's rules predicted a stable equilibrium in both allele frequencies and in genotype frequencies -he thought the allele frequency p is a neutral equilibrium -he tested for hardy weinberg using p2 +2pq + q2=1
he thought mendel's rules predicted a stable equilibrium in both allele frequencies and genotype frequencies
What is the effect of small population size on the degree of heterozygosity in a population? -heterozygosity will increase over time -heterozygosity will decrease over time -heterozygosity will not change -heterozygosity will be subject to natural selection
heterozygosity will decrease over time
The ____ fidelity associated with DNA proofreading and repair is evolutionarily important because it dramatically _____ mutation rates
higher, decreases
Inbreeding increases the frequency of _____ in a population -heterozygotes -homozygotes -dominant allele -recessive allele
homozygotes
DNA sequences in many human genes are very similar to the sequences of corresponding genes in chimpanzees. The most likely explanation for this result is that
humans and chimpanzees share a relatively recent common ancestor.
What is the term that describes a positive feedback loop in which the presence of one replicator enhances the replication of another, forming a closed chain in which the first replicator benefits?
hypercycle
The inreeding effective population size is the size of a ______ population which would undergo an equivalent change in the value of F as an ______ population -finite; infinite -infinite; finitie -actual; ideal -ideal; actual
ideal;actual
why is incest bad?
if a disease is caused by rare recessive alleles coming together as a homozygote than the probability of that event occurring is higher when inbreeding
Which term associated with a behavior is the sum of its effect on the actor's own fitness and its effect on the fitness of genetic relatives?
inclusive fitness
According to the figures, benefits of colony living in cliff swallows are _____ adult survival and a decreased number of _____ eggs -increased;hatched -increased; unhatched -decreased;hatched -decreased;unhatched
increased;unhatched
Inbreeding and Wright's F-statistic
individuals mate with genetic relatives - a sort of assortative mating F statistic measures the correlation between two homologous alleles in a single individual Homozygous dominant = p^2 + pqF Heterozygous = 2pq(1-F) Homozygous recessive = q^2 +pqF F = 1 (populaction completely inbred) F = 0 (population completely outbred)
In order for traits to evolve by natural selection, individuals must experience differential reproductive success . This means that
individuals with certain traits are more successful than others in the population at surviving and reproducing
In order for traits to evolve by natural selection, individuals must experience differential reproductive success. This means that -individuals differ in the types of mutations they carry -some individuals are more likely to have a certain trait than others -the number of individuals in a population are successful at surviving and reproducing increases over time -individuals with certain traits are more successful than others in the population at surviving and reproducing
individuals with certain traits are more successful than others in the population at surviving and reproducing
types of mutations
insertion, deletion, substitution
Because they represent competitive strategies rather than traits that serve as criteria for female choice, alternative reproductive morphs, such as sneaker and satellite males in bluegill sunfish, most likely evolve under what type of selection?
intrasexual
Selection for the ability to successfully compete with members of their own sex to mate with opposite sex is termed
intrasexual selection
What term describes the form of sexual selection in which members of one sex (typically males) compete directly for access to mates?
intrasexual selection
Natural selection requires that variation exists in a population and the variation -is generated by mechanisms other than mutation -is heritable -does not affect reproductive success -is consistent across environments
is heritable
What is the definition of sexual reproduction?
joining together of genetic material from two parents to produce an offspring with genes from each parent
When a population is subject to both drift and selection at a locus, we expect selection to dominate in its effects on allele frequency change when population size is _____ and selection is ______. We expect drift to dominate when population size is _____ and selection is _____.
large; strong; small; weak
The process by which a species expands into a previously unoccupied area. The individuals colonizing the new area will tend to come from the populations nearest this region, and as a result populations in the newly colonized area will tend to exhibit a reduced genetic relation to those in the source population.
leading edge expansion
The figure depicts a form of founder effect known as __________, in which a small number of individuals at the periphery of a population colonize newly available habitats just outside the previous limits of the species range. Black spruce underwent such a process as glaciers retreated in North America. Plants initially colonize new habitats through ______dispersal, which occurs over relatively short distances and delivers both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Newly established populations also receive genetic material via ______dispersal, which occurs over much longer distances and in much greater volume but brings only nuclear DNA into the new population. New northern subpopulations of black spruce have _____ genetic diversity at mitochondrial loci than at nuclear loci, which is consistent with a founder event in which the population grew from fewer "mitochondrial DNA migrants" than "nuclear DNA migrants."
leading edge expansion; seed; pollen; lower
A study of the mutational spectrum of the bacteriophage F1 revealed a typical percent of advantageous mutations: -less than 1% -20% -40% -100%
less than 1%
True sexual reproduction involves recombination, production of haploid gametes via the cell division process known as ________, and gametic fusion, or syngamy. These steps, which as a whole make up the process called _________, produce a diploid zygote with a set of chromosomes inherited from each parent. Species that only reproduce asexually are ________ among eukaryotes, and asexually reproducing lineages typically go extinct more ________ than sexual lineages over evolutionary time.
meiosis; amphimixis; rare; quickly
A technique for assigning relative or absolute age based on genetic data. In their simplest form, molecular clock methods assume that substitutions at neutral loci occur in clocklike fashion, and so researchers use genetic distances between populations to estimate the time since divergence.
molecular clock
In the 1960s, comparisons of amino acid sequences revealed linear relationships between amount of sequence difference and time since species diverged from a common ancestor. These observations led to the concept of a _______, which posits that sequences evolve at a constant rate over time and at the same rate in different lineages. This constant rate suggests that all members of a clade should show the same degree of sequence divergence from a common outgroup, a prediction known as the ______ principle . However, when substitutions occur at sites that already differ between species, the number of differences between lineages is a poor indicator of their time since divergence from a common ancestor. This phenomenon, known as ______, complicates the utilization of sequence data for phylogenetic inference.
molecular clock; genetic equidistance; saturation
studies on pseudogenes, show that synonymous mutations occur ... than nonsynonymous mutations which supports the idea that neutral sites ...
more often; undergo drift
Which statement regarding the evolution of multicellularity is false? -multicellularity may have arisen by the staying together or coming together routes -the staying together route is also known as the clonal route -the staying together route is much more common than the coming together route -most plants and animals are thought to have evolved through the coming together route
most plants and animals are thought to have evolved through the coming together route
bugs in a box coalescence analogy
moving forward in time, cannibalistic bugs eat each other (coalescence point) and the last bug that survives is last common ancestor and the entire population coalesced - initially cannibalism events occur fast and later, # of bugs decrease and rate of coalescence (cannibalism) decrease
why do the benefits of group living focus on foraging and predation? -other behaviors, such as reproduction, are irrelevant for the fitness of individuals in a group -individuals in group always forage and engage in antipredator behaviors together -groups only exist for foraging and antipredator behavior -much of an animal's time is spent foraging and avoiding predators
much of an animal's time is spend foraging and avoiding predators
How did multicellularity evolve?
multicellularity formed as a result of "clonal route" (staying together) in which after the ancestral unicellular lineage remained together after reproduction - cells that fail to reproduce are genetic relatives to those that do and have little genetic conflict amongst each other
Variation is generated in a population particularly by -mutation -natural selection -changing environmental conditions -inheritance
mutation
frameshift mutations
mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide
In its original, most basic form, the wright-fischer model assumes all of the following except -natual selection -random mating -no migration -no mutation
natural selection
The hypothesis that most polymorphisms and most substitutions, if not strictly neutral, are only mildly deleterious—and that because of relatively small population sizes, natural selection is unable to purge these deleterious variants.
nearly neutral theory
What type of selection is demonstrated in the figure shown? -overdominance -directional selection -negative frequency dependent selection -underdominance
negative frequency dependent selection
The hypothesis that at the molecular level of DNA sequence or amino acid sequence, most of the variation present within a population and most substitutional differences between populations are selectively neutral.
neutral theory
We can use the neutral theory as a _____ model to reveal the operation of non-neutral evolutionary processes. For example, statistical tests assume that a neutrally evolving gene will have a ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions that reflects the fraction of mutations that could possibly give rise to each. A ratio with an excess of nonsynonymous substitutions relative to neutral expectations suggests that the gene has evolved under _________, whereas a ratio with a deficiency of nonsynonymous substitutions is consistent with a history of _______.
null; positive selection; purifying selection
ploidy
number of sets of chromosomes in a cell
The fraction of individuals in the population that are heterozygous at a given locus.
observed heterozygosity
Inbreeeding depression
offspring of genetic relatives have reduced fitnesses
efficiencies of specialization
once groups are collectively engaged in task, they can benefit not only from larger numbers, but also from a division of labor, allowing different individuals to specialize in different tasks
an exaptation is a trait -originally selected for one function but later co-opted for a different function -of seemingly little importance -that is beneficial in one environment and deleterious in other environments -that was shaped by natural selection to serve the same primary function that makes it beneficial today
originally selected for one function but later co-opted for a different function
how multicellularity led to individuality (somatic and germ cells)
over evolutionary time, as cells in many multicellular lineages grew and were able to amass "cheater" mutations (allowing for faster reproduction) which are selected for and converted from once germ cells into somatic cells. Natural selection allows for proportionate amounts of germ cells to somatic cells
punctual equilibrium
pattern of evolution in which long stable periods are interrupted by bried periods of more rapid change
The formal definition of "fitness" in evolutionary biology -pertains to reproductive success relative to other individuals in the population -implies something is well matched or fit to its environment -indicates a general state of good health as a result of exercise or nutrition -is not very useful in understanding natural selection
pertains to reproductive succeess relative to other individuals in the population
horizontal gene transfer (HGT)
primary manner of gene replication during early cellular life, as a result it blurs the phylogenetic tree because HGT connects all life forms
The figure shows a hypothetical relationship between the growth rates of e coli at 37 and 42 degrees celsius. this figure illustrates what type of evolutionary constraint? -physical constraints make it difficult for natural selection to produce e coli that are successful at 42 degrees -it illustrates the lack of repeatability in evolution -alleles that are beneficial in one environment may be deleterious in another environment -changing environments make it impossible for natural selection to act
physical constraints make it difficult for natural selection to produce e. coli that are successful at 42 degrees
Which types of sexually reproducing females have the highest reproductive success?
polyandrous and polygynandrous
prebiotic soup
pool of organic molecules suspended in water before life arose
A brief period of small population size. Population bottlenecks reduce genetic diversity and can accelerate changes in allele frequencies due to genetic drift.
population bottleneck
What do biologists call a period during which a population shows a temporary decrease in population size?
population bottleneck
substitution rate and its relationship to divergence
population size is independent of substitution rate, so the mutation rate can be calculated from looking at the number of substitutions between two species
Selection favoring a beneficial allele
positive selection
Lagerstatten Fossils
preserved soft tissues
according to the acquired inherited resistance hypothesis tested by Luria and Delbruck in E.Coli -mutation is random -the distribution of colonies with phage has an enormous variance, with respect to the mean number -there is antagonistic pleiotropy between the phage and bacteria -resistance arises as a result of the presence of bacteriophage
resistance arises as a result of the presence of bacteriophage
Evolutionary conflict can occur below the individual level when an allele in a heterozygote generates a bias that causes it to be represented in more than half of the individual's gametes. The process whereby this biased distribution happens is called _____. Another form of conflict within an individual's genome occurs when there is _____, whereby specific alleles inherited from either the father or the mother are modified such that the parent from whom a chromosome originated determines gene expression and function.
segregation distortion; genomic imprinting
Phosolipids in protocells
selection favored the production of vesicles with large amounts of phosolipid content that led to cellular reproduction
when selection is strong and population size is large... when selection is weak and population size is small...
selection largely determines the changes in allele frequencies - s >> 1/4(Ne) genetic drift largely determines the changes in allele frequencies
periodic selection
selective sweep process occurring repeatedly
Alternative alleles are selectively neutral when there is no fitness difference between them.
selectively neutral
protocell
self-replicating primitive cell
Anisogamy
sexual reproduction involving different sized gametes; small sperm and large eggs
amphimixis
sexual reproduction which involves alternating phases of meiosis and gamete fusion (syngamy)
coalescent tree
shows the branching pattern of relatedness among the gene copies in the population - any allelic differences among a set of gene copies at the same locus must have arisen from mutation subsequent to the coalescence point for this set of gene copies
a change of 2 standard deviations from the average change in allele frequency leads to the belief that ...
some evolutionary force other than genetic drift is acting on the population
Analogous traits are found in two or more species because
some evolutionary process (usually natural selection) has independently fashioned similar traits in each species.
In what way are single-celled slime mold amoebas and individual honeybees (social insects that live in colonies) alike? -signals cause them to aggregate, but they usually live alone -they are both examples of loss and complexity -they are both examples of why group living is advantageous -some individuals give up independent replication in the larger group
some individuals give up independent replication of larger groups
imagine an island archipelago where all of the islands are founded by individuals heterozygous at a particular locus. If there is no migration or mutation, and the alleles at that locus are neutral, what do you expect the island populations to look like after many generations? -some island populations will have fixed one allele, and other populations will have fixed the other allele -the populations on every island will have fixed the same allele -the island populations will have high levels of genetic diversity at this locus -we cannot predict any outcome because genetic drift is a random process
some island populations will have fixed one allele, other island populations will have fixed the other allele
The feather is _____ an adaptation, because it is ______ an exaptation -always;always -sometimes; sometimes -never; always -always, evolved from
sometimes;sometimes
Anagenesis
species formation without branching of the evolutionary line of descent.
endemic species
species that are native to and found only within a limited area
punnet's square's
square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular cross or breeding experiment
What kind of equilibrium does overdominance produce? -mixed -neutral -stable -unstable
stable
Law of independent assortment
states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation.
Even though nineteenth-century scientists came to accept the fact of evolution, what was required for natural selection to be accepted as the driving force of evolution?
the development of modern genetics
linkage disequilibrium
statistical associations between two alleles of two loci in a population - arises due to evolutionary processes such as mutation, selections, nonrandom mating, migration and drift - declines as a consequence of recombination and independent segregation
Demes
subpopulations of organisms
The process in which a new allele arises by mutation and is subsequently fixed in a population.
substitutions
Charles Darwin was the first person to propose
that evolution occurs
The figure shows the change in allele frequencies over many generations. What differs between the populations represented by the three lines? -the strength of selection (strongest on top left) -the strength of selection (strongest on bottom right) -the population size -whether selection is frequency dependent or frequency independent
the strength of selection
syngamy
the union of gametes from different individuals during sexual reproduction
horizontal gene transfer is contrasted against: -the vertical "descent with modification" depicted in phylogenies -the movement of genes from endosymbionts to nuclear genomes -the s-shaped curve of natural selection -the coalescent
the vertical "descent with modification" depicted in phylogenetics
endosymbiotic theory
theory that eukaryotic cells formed from a symbiosis among several different prokaryotic organisms - endosymbionts developed a mutualistic relationship and then eventually evolved into organelles of the host cells - supported by mitochondria and chloroplast genome
the graph shows the relationship between the number of surviving gray wolf pups in a litter and the inbreeding coefficient of those pups. What do these data reveal about the types of alleles present in this population? -there are recessive deleterious alleles present -the population is in hardy-weinberg equilibrium -the rate of mutation is very high -mating is nonrandom with the respect to the genotype
there are recessive deleterious alleles present
If two modern organisms are distantly related in an evolutionary sense, then one should expect that-
they should share fewer homologous structures than two more closely related organisms.
Homologous traits are found in two or more species because
those traits have been inherited from a common ancestor
with all else equal, total # of mutations differentiating any 2 genes copies to be proportional to ...
total branch length from these 2 gene copies back to the point at which they coalesce
Imagine a hypothetical marine animal population that produces a range of gamete sizes as shown in Panel A. Members of this species release their gametes into the water, and pairs of gametes fuse upon encountering each other. The relationship between zygote fitness and zygote size, shown in Panel B, indicates that the fittest zygotes would result from fusion of two large gametes. However, if we assume a ________ between the number and size of gametes that an individual can produce, and if large gametes are the_______ motile, the probability that two such gametes will find each other is low. Under these conditions, _______ selection is expected to favor the evolution of two classes of gametes, a condition known as ________.
trade-off; least; disruptive; anisogamy
quantitative traits
traits that show continuous variation (most traits, i.e.: height, intelligence, athleticism)
Because of drift, an advantageous mutation does not always become fixed in a population and a deleterious mutation can be fixed despite selection (T/F)??
true
teeth evolved independently from jaws
true
genetic drift
true: Genetic drift decreases heterozygosity in a population. Genetic drift is random change in allele frequencies due to sampling effects in finite populations. Essentially, because some individuals no longer contribute alleles to the gene pool, due to random death or other reasons preventing reproduction, genetic drift causes random changes in allele frequencies over generations. Genetic drift causes fluctuation of allele frequencies from one generation to the next in finite populations. false: Genetic drift causes separate populations of the same species to converge on the same allele frequencies over time. Genetic drift maintains genetic variation within a finite population.
Molecular mutualism occurs when - molecular substrates each contribute in a - way to the replication of the others.
two or more, positive
energy sources used in the formation of life
ultraviolet light, cosmic rays, volcanic eruptions, lightning
the figure shows the allele frequency trajectories for two populations starting from two different initial frequencies. Which evolutionary processes could produce this result? -underdominance or positive frequency-dependent selection -underdominance or overdominance -negative frequency-dependent selection or mutation-selection balance -directional selection only
underdominance or positive frequency dependent selection
fitness distributions -are universal across all organisms -vary with the environment -look like a straight line when graphed -show mutation rates are about one nucleotide change per generation x 10^9
vary with the environment
A useless or rudimentary body part that is thought to have been important in ancestral populations but no longer has a known function is termed a(n)
vestigial structure
Natural selection can act on both ____ which is the probability of survival, and ____ which is the number of offspring produced -epistasis; epigenetics -directional selection, frequency dependent selection -livelihood; income -viability; fecundity
viability;fecundity
molecular mutualism
when 2 or more molecular substrates contribute in a positive way to the replication of others
selective sweep
when an allele goes to fixation as a result of strong positive selection, alleles at nearby loci are carried along to high frequency as well due to physical linkage - greater force in bacteria where there is minimal recombination
clonal interference
when beneficial mutations arise frequently at the same time, selection for one beneficial allele can interfere with the increase in frequency of another, beneficial allele
When does the prisoner's dilemma game predict that cooperation will be an advantageous strategy?
when the game is iterated and there is uncertainty as to the number of rounds two interacting individuals will play against each other.
Identical by Descent (IBD)
when two copies of a gene in an individual trace back to the same copy in an ancestor
Anemia is a chronic condition due to the sickle mutation: -resulting from exposure to malaria -completely hidden in heterozygous individuals -yet heterozygotes for it can have a fitness advantage in some populations and not in others -endemic in sub-saharan africa
yet heterozygotes for it can have a fitness advantage in some populations but not others.
Mitochondria likely descended from ...?
α-proteobacterium
5 major extinction events
• End of Cretaceous • Late Triassic • Late Permian (big one) • Late Devonian • Late Ordovician
