General Psychology Chapter 5

Compared to responses that are reinforced every time, responses that are only partially reinforced are ____ to learn and _____ to extinguish

Harder; harder

The perspective taken by Bandura is often called the _____ perspective

Social cognitive

Person associated with operant conditioning

B.F. Skinner

Reinforcement occurs after a specific number of responses

Fixed ratio

______ is the decrease in response to a stimulus that has been presented repeatedly

Habituation

Bandura's theory of ______ learning states that people learn through watching a _____ (another person's displaying the behavior of interest)

Observational; model

The recently discovered _____ neurons suggests that imitation may be innate

Mirror

Unusual fears which come from a neutral stimulus being paired with something scary which leads to fear

Phobias

An unpleasant stimulus is presented to decrease behavior

Positive punishment

Punishment that includes the application of an unpleasant stimulus, called ______ (such as spanking)

Positive punishment

A pleasant stimulus is presented to increase behavior

Positive reinforcement

Incentive to promote desired behavior

Positive reinforcement

____ bring about an increase in the preceding response

Positive reinforcement

A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in the response that preceded it

Positive reinforcer

People will do undesirable activities for the opportunity to do desirable ones (also called "Grandma's rule")

Premack principle

A ______ satisfies a biological need without regard to prior experience

Primary reinforcement

A reward that satisfies a biological need (e.g. hunger or thirst) and works naturally

Primary reinforcer

Incentives necessary for survival

Primary reinforcers

The distinction between primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers is that:

Primary reinforcers satisfy some biological need; secondary reinforcers are effective because of their association with primary reinforcers

A stimulus that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again

Punishment

____ refers to a stimulus that decreases the probability that a behavior will be repeated

Punishment

Garcia's behavioral investigations of rats that were treated with doses of radiation illustrate that:

Some research findings involving classical conditioning do not appear to obey Pavlov's conditioning principles

Placing a person in a painful environment if he/she performs undesirable behavior

Punishment

Person associated with classical conditioning

Evan Pavlov

The person being imitated

Model

_____ describes learning that occurs as a result of reinforcement

Operant

A voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its positive or negative consequences

Operant conditioning

______ is learning in which the response is strengthened or weakened according to whether it has positive or negative consequences

Operant conditioning

The term "operant" suggests that the organism ____ on the environment in a deliberate manner to gain a desired result

Operates

Comfort foods are eaten for how they make us feel; we associate certain states with chocolate for instance

Overeating

______ describes the technique of using reinforcement some of the time but not for every response

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Four elements involved in modeling:

-Attention -Memory -Reproduction of the action -Motivation

In the variable ratio schedule of reinforcement, the response rate is:

Always high and highly resistant to extinction

Given the opportunity to explore a maze with no explicit reward available, rats will develop:

A cognitive map of the maze

A reinforcement given for the first correct or desired response to occur after a set period is called:

A fixed-interval reinforcement schedule

Before the conditioning trials in which Watson planned to condition fear of a rat in Little Albert, the rat --- which Albert was known not to fear --- would have been considered:

A neutral stimulus

Typically, classical conditioning works best if the conditioned stimulus is presented ____ the unconditioned stimulus

A second or two before

Which alternative is NOT an example of operant conditioning?

A student's blood pressure increases when she anticipates speaking with her chemistry professor

Person associated with observational learning

Albert Bandura

Those with an ______ learning style do best when they look at the elements first

Analytical

Developing an understanding of a principle and components to understand the whole picture

Analytical style

A chemical which gets injected into a person, when it is mixed with alcohol in the bloodstream it induces extreme vomiting

Antabuse

Operant conditioning is based on ______ research with rats in a _______

B.F. Skinner; Skinner box

A psychologist who specializes in eliminating undesirable behaviors and encouraging desirable ones is called a

Behavior analyst

_______ refers to the formalized use of basic principles of learning theory to change behavior by eliminating undesirable behaviors and encouraging desirable ones

Behavior modification

Not all behaviors can be taught to all animals equally well because of these _____

Biological constraints

Garcia found that some organisms are ______ for some behaviors

Biologically prepared

A process in which an organism learns to respond to a stimulus that did not bring a response earlier

Classical conditioning

Is the type of conditioning in which an organism learns a response to a stimulus to which it normally would not respond

Classical conditioning

The approach that views learning in terms of thought processes is called ______

Cognitive learning theory

Mental representation of spatial locations

Cognitive map

The wandering around apparently leads them to develop a _____ of the maze

Cognitive map

A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the sound of a tuning fork)

Conditioned response (CR)

Dr. Lopez is upset because his presence has become a ______ for Theresa's cryin

Conditioned stimulus

A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

After training is complete, the neutral stimulus---- now called the ______ --- will now bring about the UCR, now called the ______

Conditioned stimulus (CS); conditioned response (CR)

Classical conditioning operates on the law of _______

Contiguity

With _______, the behavior is reinforced every time it occurs

Continuous reinforcement

Latisha puts on a jean jacket when walking her dog, but she wears another blue coat when going to work. After a while, the dog has learned that the jacket means going for walk while the coat means no walk.This is an example of:

Discrimination

While serving in the war, Mario was injured when a bomb went off next to him. Years later, he still gets easily startled when hearing a loud noise (such as a book being dropped). This is an example of:

Discrimination

A stimulus that signals the likelihood of a particular behavior being reinforced

Discriminative stimulus

In cognitive learning theory, its is assumed that people develop an _____ about receiving a reinforcement when they behave a certain way

Expectation

It includes the consideration of unseen mental processes as well, such as an animal developing an ______

Expectation

Fortunately, Dr. Lopez gave Theresa no more shots for some time. Over that period, she gradually stopped crying and even came to like him. ______ had occured

Extinction

Partial reinforcement schedules maintain behavior longer than continuous reinforcement before _____ occurs

Extinction

Spontaneous recovery can occurs following:

Extinction

The process of ending the association of the UCS and the CS is called _____, which occurs when a previously learned response decreases and disappears

Extinction

True or false, cognitive learning theorists are concerned only with overt behavior, not with its internal causes

False

Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses

Fix-ratio

Reinforcement occurs after some fixed amount of time

Fixed interval

______ deliver reinforcements to the first behavior occurring after a set interval, or period, of time

Fixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a set time period

Fixed-inverval

A ______ delivers a reinforcement after a certain number of responses

Fixed-ratio schedule

When viewing activities, the mirror neurons are activated. In which parts of the brain does this take place (where are the mirror neurons located?))

Frontal and parietal

An infant is shown a new picture. At first, the infant stares at it, but after a while, the infant begins to lose interest. This is know as:

Habituation

Steve tends to view information from the context of a broad perspective, usually taking an intuitive approach rather than a structured one in understanding information. He is also more task-oriented. Based on this information, which of the following best describes Steve?

He has a relational learning style

What is the first step in behavior modification?

Identify target goals or behaviors

Which of the following is the best example of observational learning?

Ingrid swam poorly until she noticed the efficient stroke of the man in the next lane; now her swimming is greatly improved

The CS had to be presented _____ the UCS by no more than several seconds for the conditioning to be most effective

Just before

In _____ learning, a new behavior is learned but is not shown until appropriate reinforcement is presented

Latent

Behavior is learned but not demonstrated until incentives are needed

Latent learning

The existence of _____ supports the idea that learning may occur even though it is not yet evident in performance

Latent learning

_______ is behavior that is learned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for demonstrating the behavior

Latent learning

The _____ states that we will continue to act in a manner that will lead to pleasing consequences

Law of effect

Thorndike formulated the ______, stating that responses with satisfying results would be repeated, and those with less satisfying results would be less likely to be repeated

Law of effect

If you get ill after eating certain foods, you might develop a ______

Learned taste aversion

Involves changes brought about by experience, whereas maturation describes changes resulting from biological development.

Learning

______ is distinguished from maturation on the basis of whether the resulting change in behavior is the consequence of experience or of growth

Learning

The exploring diversity section of the text examines _____ and how cultural differences are reflected in these different ways of approaching materials

Learning styles

In order to understand when learning has occurred, we must differentiate it from:

Maturation

A pleasant stimulus is removed to decrease behavior

Negative punishment

Is a punishment which is the removal of something positive (such as the loss of a privilege)

Negative punishment

An unpleasant stimulus is removed to increase behavior

Negative reinforcement

Removing a person from a painful environment if he/she performs desired behavior

Negative reinforcement

______ lead to an increase in a desired response when they are removed

Negative reinforcement

Involves the decrease or removal of an adversive stimulus

Negative reinforcement:

A stimulus whose removal is reinforcing, leading to a greater probability that the response bringing about this removal will occur again

Negative reinforcer

In this stimulus an alcoholic would go into a faux bar and order a drink, when the person took a sip they would get shocked.

Negative stimulus

A stimulus that, before conditioning, has no effect on the desired response

Neutral stimulus

In Pavlov's experiment, the bell is considered the ______ because it does not bring about the response of interest

Neutral stimulus

Mrs. Tobin is used to turning off the lights to quiet the class, a classically conditioned behavior. This behavior can be extinguished by:

No longer presenting the unconditioned stimulus after the conditioned response

Accounting for a large portion of learning in humans, ______ is learning that occurs by observing the behavior of another person, called the _____

Observational learning; model

In a _____ reinforcement schedule, behavior is reinforced some of the time, whereas in a ______ reinforcement schedule, behavior is reinforced all the time

Partial (intermediate); continuous

Is the name of the scientist responsible for discovering the learning phenomenon known as classical conditioning

Pavlov

_____ is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated

Reinforcement

Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated (the response of the pressing)

Reinforcer

Ariel gives her dog a treat each time the dog comes when he is called. This stimulus that increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will be repeated is called a _____

Reinforcer

Those with a ______ learning style master material best through a focus on the whole

Relational

Parts of a unit are only understood when their relation to the whole is understood

Relational learning style

After the reinforcement occurs you feel entitled to a period of rest

Rest scalop

______ are limited to positive experiences

Rewards

The frequency and timing of reinforcement depends on the use of ______

Schedules of reinforcement

A ______ is a stimulus that reinforces because of its association with a primary reinforcer

Secondary reinforcement

A stimulus that becomes reinforcing by its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g. money, which allows us to obtain food, a primary reinforcer)

Secondary reinforcer

Incentives unnecessary for survival

Secondary reinforcers

Rewarding each step toward a desired behavior _____ the new response pattern

Shapes

Many complex human and animal skills are acquired through ______

Shaping

With classical conditioning two stimuli experienced ______ become ______

Simultaneously; associated

Strong periodic drives to return to the previous learning

Spontaneous recovery

When a CR has been extinguished, and a period of time has passed without the presentation, a phenomenon called _____ can occur

Spontaneous recovery

Discrimination and generalization are achieved in operant conditioning through _______

Stimulus control training

______ deliver reinforcements after a varying interval of time

Stimulus control training

______ occurs when an organism learns to differentiate one stimulus from another and responds only to one stimulus and not the others

Stimulus discrimination

_______ takes place when a conditioned response occurs in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

Stimulus generalization

Cognitive psychologists define learning as:

The unseen mental processes that occur during learning

The meat in Pavlov's experiment, which does cause salivation, is called the _______

Unconditional stimulus (UCS)

A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g. salivation at the smell of food)

Unconditioned response (UCR)

The salivation in Pavlov's experiment, when it occurs because of the presence of meat (UCS), is called the ______

Unconditioned response (UCR)

The ______ in Pavlov's experiment was the meat

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that brings about a response without having been learned

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

The painful shot that Theresa received during each visit was an ______ that elicited the ______, her tears.

Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response

Reinforcement occurs after an unspecified amount of time transpires

Variable interval

Reinforcement occurs after an unknown number of responses, although averaging some predictable number

Variable ratio

Reinforcement occurs after a varying time period

Variable-interval

Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses

Variable-ratio

A ______ delivers reinforcement on the basis of a varying number of responses

Variable-ratio schedule

Which of the following statements is true regarding violence in the media and real-life aggression?

We are more likely to see aggression as an option to particular situations, we are more likely to view non-aggressive acts as aggressive, we may become less sensitive to violent acts