GEO 11

. What is the "social cost of carbon" (SCC)? How is it estimated? What is its central value? What is it used for?

A potential solution to climate change is to translate the SCC into a carbon cost that is paid by the consumer who emits (a carbon cost is an amount the consumer must pay for the emission of one metric ton of CO2) Net effect of a carbon tax is to raise the price of goods and services by an amount proportional to the amount of GHGs produced Central Value: Encourages less consumption of GHG-intensive goods/ Substitution of non-GHG energy sources/ development of new technologies Used to tax the emitters (Taxation would: reduce consumption/ provide an incentive for the development of non-carbon energy sources

What is fracking? Are their negative environmental impacts associated with fracking? What have California lawmakers proposed, in regards to fracking?

Fracking: a technique to extract oil and gas embedded in rock deep beneath the surface Climate groups say fracking harms the environment and threatens public health (Other environmental concerns. Groundwater contamination. Earthquakes. Large water use) CA lawmakers propose ban on fracking by 2027

Why is international cooperation essential for solving the climate change problem? Are there successful precedents for this? If so, how are they different from the climate change problem?

No single nation can solve the problems created by atmospheric pollutants Although solving global warming seems daunting, history provides precedent for cooperation between nations in solving environmental problems The atmosphere does not recognize national boundaries: When pollutants (GHGs, Industrial aerosols) are emitted, they travel great distances, crossing oceans and continents

. What are the following examples of: Expansion of rainwater storage; Increase storage capacity by building dams and reservoirs; Desalination of seawater?

Stages of adaptation to protect coastal communities

. There are many gaps in our understanding of climate change. Should this justify inaction? Why or why not? What is the "precautionary principle"? Why has climate change been described as a problem with a huge "procrastination penalty"? How is action on the climate crisis related to sustainability and sustainable development?

related to sustainability and sustainable development? No, because it is a poor excuse Precautionary action is, an action has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or environment, in the absence of scientific consensus, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those advocating that action. It has been described as a procrastination penalty because With each passing year of inaction, stabilizing Earth's climate becomes increasingly more difficult.

What are some climate change policies? What is the UNFCCC? Kyoto Protocol? Paris Agreement? What is their objective? Are there provisions to help developing countries? What did the Obama Administration do, in the context of climate change policies? What is the Clean Power Plan? What has the Biden administration done (again, in the context of climate change policies)? What is the Green New Deal? Is this related to Biden's Clean Energy and Environmental Justice Plan? What is meant by "environmental justice"?

UNFCC= United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) An international treaty formulated at the "Earth Summit" in Rio De Janeiro Brazil Set agenda for action to slow and stabilize climate change Actions to mitigate effects are necessary and developed countries should take the lead Kyoto Protocol : 192 parties ratified the treaty, thus committing to reducing GHG emissions to mandated levels EXCEPT US never joined and Canada backed out includes provisions to ensure developed nations assist the developing in environmentally friendly energy sources Paris Agreement (2015) set a goal of limiting warming to 2C above pre industrial levels No detailed time table or country specific goals for emissions Went into effect nov 2016---> 195 UNFCCC members have signed the agreement, 148 of which have ratified it Obama's Climate Action Plan The Clean Power Plan (EPA) (June 2014) : 1st ever carbon pollution standards for existing power plants Historic joint announcement with China- part of Paris agreement (Nov 2014) Biden: ensure the US achieves a 100% clean energy economy and reaches net zero emissions no later than 2050 Build a stronger more resilient nation by making smart infrastructure investments to rebuild the nation Green New Deal a proposed US legislative package that lays out a grand plan for tackling climate change while also addressing economic inequality Also aims to guarantee new high paying jobs in clean energy industreis Ensure that clean air, clean water, and healthy food are basic human rights

. To counter the long-term impacts of climate change, what is our best hope for the future? Is this related to mitigation? How can we mitigate against climate change? What is "CCS''? Is it related to carbon sequestration?

Using cars less has the added benefit of improving air quality. Increase hydropower, but opposition due to potential environmental threats. Most expeditious way to reduce CO2 emissions- prevent deforestation. Related to mitigation because changes to improve the climate minimizes degree of any loss or harm Many opportunities for mitigation: Many factories use old and inefficient processes Retrofitting these factories could go a long way to reducing emissions Replacing electric motors and boilers Using recycled materials for fuel Fixing leaks in furnaces and air and stream lines CCS: is another promising strategy to help realize industrial emission reductions Carbon sequestration: process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Reduces amt of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere- reducing global climate change

If mitigation efforts are made, and adaptive capacities are enhanced, how will vulnerability change?

Vulnerability to climate change can be lessened if mitigation efforts are made and adaptive capacities are enhanced

How can we, as individuals, modify our lifestyles to help reduce GHG emissions? How is this related to diet? Home improvements? Transportation? Why are many of these modifications referred to as "no-regret" changes? Do they have positive side benefits?

We as individuals can modify our lifestyle to help reduce GHG emissions by how we heat our homes, what forms of transportation we take, Diet They are referred to as no-regret changes because they Their positive side benefits are improving quality of life, conserving natural resources, and facilitating greater environmental sustainability. No-regret options are adaptation measures whose socio-economic benefits exceed their costs whatever the magnitude of future climate change. It includes actions that are already cost effective under the current climate conditions and would be further justified under the increased risks of projected climate change

In the context of climate change, what is meant by adaptation? Mitigation? Vulnerability?

Adaptation: Making adjustments to life and environment to prepare it for the change in climate Mitigation: Reducing emissions of and stabilizing the levels of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere The vulnerability of each country/region is related to its adaptive capacity China & Africa = high vulnerability because of low adaptive capacity High vulnerability for less developed nations because of low adaptive capacity

How has California's carbon emissions changed over the last couple of decades? If they have decreased, why? Is solar power important? Is natural gas important? Has the economy been negatively impacted?

CA GHG emissions are lower today than they were in 1990 GDP has increased ---> economic growth not decline There has been a continued shift toward renewable electricity: solar wind and hydroelectric

. What is meant by the term "carbon footprint"? What are some factors that determine it? How does the average U.S. resident's carbon footprint compare with the world average?

Carbon footprint: Your personal contribution (in metric tons of CO2 eq per year) to the problem of global warming Factors that determine carbon footprint are: Where do you live? How many people live in your home? What type of vehicle and how many miles per year do you drive? How often do you fly (short or long flights)? Do you heat with natural gas, heating oil or propane? Do you eat meat, or are you vegetarian? Where do you shop for groceries? The average carbon footprint for a person in the United States is 16 tons, one of the highest rates in the world. Globally, the average is closer to 4 tons.

7. What are some examples of carbon free and carbon neutral energy sources? What are some cons of these energy sources? What is currently the most wide-spread renewable energy source? Can this be significantly expanded in the future?

Carbon free and carbon neutral energy sources each have their merits and weaknesses. Some of those are: wind solar, geothermal, nuclear power and hydroelectric power Cons of energy sources: Can potentially pollute the air, soil and water bodies Low efficiency levels Not always a commercially-viable option and takes a lot of space to install Acid rain, dangers posed by leaded fuels, oil spills gas leaks and explosions Hydroelectric is currently the most widespread renewable energy source Most of the world's large rivers are already damned- cannot drastically increase hydroelectric energy production

. What are some examples of adaptation? How can adaptation help alleviate the threats of 1. Sea level rise? 2. Decreasing/shifting fresh water resources? 3. Loss of agricultural productivity?

EX: Building sea walls, Using new crop varieties that are more resistant to extreme conditions (drought tolerant, heat tolerant, etc) , modifying planting locations and schedules, etc. Improving sea defenses can alleviate threats of sea level rise Adapting water management practices (ex: desalinization, rainwater storage expansion) to adapt to decreasing/shifting fresh water resources Using new crop varieties, modifying planting locations and schedules to adapt to loss of agricultural productivity

. According to economists, how does the cost of emission reduction compare to the economic damage that will result from climate change? What does this imply−action or inaction?

Economists say the formidable cost of emission reductions may actually be less than the economic damage that will result from climate change (avoiding these damages by avoiding 3*C warming by 2100 would slow annual economic growth by only 0.06%, reducing estimated growth from 2.3 to 2.24% per year)

What economic sectors are the largest contributors to GHG emissions? Which sector is the largest globally? Which sector is the largest in California?

Energy supply, Forestry, Agriculture, Industry, and Transportation Energy supply (largest globally) Transportation (largest in CA)

1. What is "geoengineering"? What are some examples? Are these sound/safe strategies? Do they have problems? If so, then why are they being discussed?

Geoengineering: an alternative to mitigation, that involves using technology to counteract climate change impacts One impact-level approach involves decreasing the amount of sunlight reaching earth's surface to offset GHG warming. Each of the proposed geoengineering techniques has possible shortcomings and poses a potential danger Geoengineering problems: does nothing to avert the problem of ocean acidification May not counter regional impacts (some regions could warm at greater rates/ patterns of rainfall and/or droughts could be altered) Some advocates maintain that if we are backed into a corner and faced with irreversible and dangerous climate change, we may need to resort to these schemes at least as partial

What are the important factors in assessing the vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change? Is the capacity for organisms/ecosystems to adapt limited? Why?

Important factors in assessing the vulnerability: the potential rate of change, additional stresses imposed by human activity, barriers to adaptation and migration imposed by human activity, human settlement and infrastructure Ecosystems have some capacity to adapt, and there is already evidence that many species are on the move toward higher altitudes or higher latitudes. But rates of adaptation and the ultimate capacity of organisms and ecosystems to adapt to rapid environmental change are limited

6. What is the University of California's Carbon Neutrality Initiative? What are some measures UC has implemented as part of this initiative? UCR?

In 2013, UC President Janet Napolitano committed the UC system to a goal of net zero carbon emissions by 2025 for buildings and vehicles August 2016- opening of the Five Points Solar Park in Fresno County: 60 MW solar power installation built to supply renewable energy to the UC The power supplied by the new solar farm represents roughly 14% of the total UC system's electricity usage Nov 2014- UCR's 4 MW solar farm (powers 3% of the campus's total energy) (UCR also received carbon and LEED credits that provide additional financial and environmental savings)

How have GHG emissions in the transport sector changed? How are they projected to change? Why? What countries are projected to dramatically increase their share of transport-related emissions? What are some environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional gasoline-powered automobiles? What are the cons of these alternatives? Are biofuels involved? What are other ways we can reduce emissions in the transport sector?

Rate of transport emissions is projected to increase even further over future decades, fueled by continued global economic growth and population increase Developing nations including china and india are dramatically increasing their share of transport related GHG emissions Good alternatives: Electric cars, still produce some emissions bc source of electricity Hydrogen fuel cells , still produces GHG Biodiesel is a vegetable oil or animal fat based diesel fuel that are most commonly used as mixtures with conventional fuels Technological innovations and improved air traffic management could result in better fuel efficiency in the aviation sector Increased reliance on busses, trains, and other public transportation could help curb emissions

How can the building sector reduce GHG emissions? The Industrial sector? Agricultural sector? Forestry? Waste Management?

Reduce energy consumption in construction and building operation and Switch to low-carbon/carbon free energy sources. Source is growing from 6 Gt CO2 eq in 1971 to 10 Gt CO2 eq in 2010 and Carbon cost of many of these industry-specific improvements is relatively affordable, making this sector an attractive one for targeted reductions. An increasingly large share comes from the developing world responsible for 75% of worldwide agricultural GHG emissions and Net CO2 emissions from agriculture are negligible plants consume CO2 at the same rate they produce it. e.g., Forestry is taxed at $20/metric ton to reduce emissions by ~1 Gt CO2 equivalent. Reuse, Recycle, Energy recovery, landfill and methane recovery and use, treatment without energy recovery, landfill with methane flared, landfill with methane escapes, unsanitary landfills/open burning, waste dump

. If there are no insurmountable technological or scientific reasons why we can't mitigate against climate change, why has it been so difficult to do so? What is the root economic cause of the climate crisis? Are there economic incentives to mitigate? If not, why not? What is meant by "tragedy of the commons"? What is an externality? What is a potential solution? What is a carbon tax? How would a carbon cost effect 1. consumption? 2. Development of non-carbon energy sources? Does California have a price on carbon emissions? How have carbon emissions changed in countries that have implemented some sort of price on carbon emissions (e.g., California, Britain, European Union)?

We can't mitigate against climate change because there are few economic incentives for emission reduction Root economic cause is that its free for emitters to dump CO2 into the atmosphere Tragedy of the commons: when people can exploit a common asset for free, the asset tends to be overutilized Overfishing is depleting fish in the ocean, logging is destroying the rainforests Externality: costs of climate change imposed on the world, not the companies doing the polluting - no incentive for emitter to reduce emissions Carbon tax is a solution Carbon Cost: an amount that consumers must pay for the emission of one metric ton of CO2 Reduce consumption Provide an incentive for the development of non carbon energy sources In places where a price on emissions has been placed, there have been positive results

. Where in the world is per-capita energy consumption highest? Developed or developing countries? Where in the world is energy consumption rapidly increasing? Developed or developing countries?

While energy consumption is increasing in regions such as China and India (developing), per-capita energy consumption continues to be highest in the developed world

Which countries have higher vulnerabilities? How is this related to their adaptive capacity? Is this related to developing versus developed countries? How is this related to the ethical concerns of climate change? Will the poor in developing countries experience greater losses as a result of climate change? Are they responsible for climate change? If not, who is? What does this imply?

of their low adaptive capacity (ability or potential to respond successfully to climate variability and change) adaptation more challenging for poorer countries due to less resources Even developed countries could be overwhelmed unless steps are taken to enhance adaptive capacities and to mitigate against the buildup of CO2 The poor in developing countries are likely to experience greater losses Climate change will likely redistribute resources in a "reverse robin hood" fashion Given this unbalanced scenario, is it fair for the industrialized countries-the primary GHG emitters- to be the ones calling the shots and determining if action is worth taking?

22. How is water related to energy generation? Why is water-efficient alternative energy production prudent?

water and energy are intertwined. ... In most power plants, water cools the steam that spins the electricity-generating turbines. Refining transportation fuels requires water, as does producing fuels—for example, mining coal, extracting petroleum, or growing crops for biofuels Hydropower is fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source, meaning it won't pollute the air like power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. Hydroelectric power is a domestic source of energy, allowing each state to produce their own energy without being reliant on international fuel sources.