Geo Unit 3

Common waste management options

) Recycling - re-processing of waste materials into new materials so that they can be reused & aren't sitting in landfills; beneficial because new materials do not have to be extracted out of the environment 2) Composting - a natural biological process, carried out under controlled aerobic conditions (requires O2). In this process, various microorganisms break down organic matter into simpler substances 3) Waste incineration- waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials (converts the waste into ash, flue gas & heat) i. Incineration & other high-temp. waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment" 4) landfills i. Leachates - water which percolates through soil/waste, mixing w/ decayed materials & chemicals &^ into the water supply ii. Airborne toxins

Hunger - SDG

- An estimated 821m people were undernourished (2017) - The majority of the world's hungry people live in developing countries - Sub-Saharan Africa remains the region w/ the highest prevalence of hunger, w/ # of undernourished people increased from 195m (2014) to 237m (2017) - Poor nutrition causes nearly half (45%) of deaths in children under 5 (3.1m children per yr)

Biofuels

- Became part of the 'climate change agenda' at the UN's Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 - An example of resource substitution (replacing 1 resource w/ another usually due to environmental benefits); switching oil/petroleum to use of biofuels - A modern form of energy classified as renewable/alternative - They've become popular in parts of Brazil & the US & have a # of advantages & disadvantages

Challenges of renewables (ambitious project to direct excess energy from intermittent sources from one country to another)

- Cooperation - Costs - Issues of individual power sources - Large scale weather patterns would impact many EU countries at similar times; this still results in large highs & lows of energy output - Who pays for maintenance in individual countries? - Lack of interconnectivity between countries

China's "National Sword" policy

- Enacted in Jan 2018, banned the import of most plastics paper products & textiles headed for that nation's recycling processors, which had handled nearly 1/2 of the world's recyclable waste for the past quarter century. Problem of imported waste now SHIFTING to other SE Asian countries - China's largest dump is already full - 25yrs ahead of schedule. - The Jiangcungou landfill in Shaanxi Province, which is the size of around 100 football fields, was designed to take 2,500 tonnes of rubbish per day. But instead it received 10,000 tonnes of waste per day - the most of any landfill site in China.

Aral Sea

- Example of geopolitical mismanagement - It's disappearance is 1 of the world's greatest man-made disasters

Advantages of Fossil Fuels

- Initial cost saving as can currently used existing combustion engines and machinery - significant capacity to generate huge amounts of electricity in just a single location - fossil fuels are relatively easy to find given existing search technology - when coal is used in power plants they are very cost effective (given current technology) and coal is in 'abundant' supply - transporting oil and gas to the power stations can be done by pipes, ship, truck, - Power plants that utilize gas are efficient - Power stations that make use of fossil fuels can be constructed in almost any location (as long as transport is feasible

Changing diets in MICs

- Meat consumption is increasing in regions w/ growing middle class/closely relates to higher standards of living - Meat is most environmentally damaging (water & land intensive) impact on food security - As a global avg, consumption of animal based protein is increasing → some places is decreasing due to more awareness of environmental impacts - 22 people can be supported on one hectare of land if potatoes are grown, 19 for rice, but only 1 person/hectare for beef - Meat consumption predicted to reach 376 mil tonnes by 2030 (218mil 1998-9) - Increasing urbanisation/globalisation & the fast food industry & chains also responsible In HICs, it could be argued that greater health awareness has led to an increase in vegetarian diets and reduction in meat consumption in some areas

Canada: Acid rain cause

- Much of Canada's acid rain has originated in the US & blown via Northerly Winds. Evidence has also traced Pacific crossings of rain where the origins are said to be China. SOME has even originated in Canada such as the iron smelting area of Sudbury (remember, definition of "Trans-boundary" can simply be a very large area, such as Canada)

Advantages of nuclear power

- No CO2 emissions/less greenhouse gases → clean to a certain extent Huge power output from small input → energy secure Reduces dependency on oil Nuclear plants (unlike many renewable methods) don't rely on conditions around them to function Nuclear is among the safest sources of energy that is currently in use Allows us to fulfill our energy needs w/out the impact on our environment Technologies are being developed to decrease the disadvantages

Resource substitution

- Replacing 1 resource w/ another usually due to environmental benefits - EX: switching oil/petroleum to use of biofuels

Disadvantages of nuclear power

- Risk; i.e. Fukushima disaster, Three Mile Island - Safety - Waste management - Total expense

Progress for increasing access to clean drinking water & sanitation

- SDG 6: Ensure access to water & sanitation for all (progress in 2017:), Access to safe water & sanitation & sound management of freshwater ecosystems - Billions of people—mostly in rural areas—still lack these basic services; worldwide, 1/3 don't have access to safe drinking water, 2/5 don't have a basic hand-washing facility w/ soap & water - The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the critical importance of sanitation, hygiene & adequate access to clean water for preventing and containing diseases - UN Water Action Decade: 2018-2028: 40% shortfall in freshwater resources by 2030 coupled with a rising world population has the world careening towards a global water crisis. Recognizing the growing challenge of water scarcity the UN General Assembly launched the Water Action Decade on 22 March 2018, to mobilize action that will help transform how we manage water.

Growing Global Middle Class

- Size increase from 1.8bn in 2009 to 3.2bn in 2020 & 4.9bn by 2030 - The bulk of this growth will come from Asia: by 2030 will represent 66% of the global middle-class pop. compared to 28% in 2009; China is responsible for more people entering the global middle class than any other country & is expected to continue adding more until overtaken by India in 2027

Types of Renewable Energy

- Solar: Photovoltaic cells - Wind: Wind turbines - Tidal - Wave - Hydroelectric - Pumped water - Geothermal - Waste incineration - Biomass

Measuring trends in resource consumption, incl. individual, national & global ecological footprints

- The planet's biocapacity is estimated at 1.9 hectares (4.7 acres) per person - The world avg is 2.2 represented by failing natural ecosystems & global warming - Planet biocapacity affected by global pop & consumption rates - IF global population trends continue, by 2050, biocapacity will reduce to 1.5 HPP - Rates vary worldwide from +8 HPP (e.g UAE & USA) to -½ hectare (e.g Bangladesh) - If everyone lived like an avg American, the world would only be able to support 1.2bn, compared to 22bn if everyone lived like someone from Bangladesh - Since 1961, the global ecological footprint has grown from 70% of the planet's biological capacity to 120% in 1999; future predictions suggest 180-220% by 2050

The water-food-energy "nexus"

- interdependence between achieving water, energy (atmosphere) and food security for human well-being in a given location a. Need to use all resources sustainably b. 3 resources: land, water & energy are part of the same ecosystem and must be used and protected in a balanced manner

Water footprint

- measures the amount of water used to produce each of the goods and services we use - helps us understand for what purposes our limited freshwater resources are being consumed and polluted; the impact it has depends on where the water is taken from and when. If it comes from a place where water is already scarce, the consequences can be significant and require action

Ecological footprint

- the theoretical measurement of the amount of land & water a population requires to produce the resources it consumes & to absorb its waste, under prevailing technology - Tracks the use of 6 categories of productive surface areas: cropland, grazing land, fishing grounds, built-up land, forest area & carbon demand on land Accounting measures the demand on and supply of nature in global hectares a. demand side b. supply side - a city, state or nation's biocapacity - Since 1961, the global ecological footprint has grown from 70% of the planets biological capacity to 120% in 1999. Future predictions suggest 180-220% by 2050. - Since end of WW2, global population has more than doubled —> consuming far more per capita In the last century alone, consuming tenfold the energy of what we did 100yrs ago Human species together w/ cows & pigs account for 97% of the biomass of all vertebrate species so we have been able to dominate the whole ecosystem of the planet —> has its costs Ecological footprint tells us how many resources do we have that renew itself thanks to the biosphere powered by the Sun & how many do we use —> we can see to what extent we are living within the interest that nature provides us Measures: how much area is necessary to support the world, to maintain all the resources we consume & to absorb the waste

Energy choice: Dependent on WHERE we are in the world due to...

... Changing importance of certain energy sources ... No global agreement - multiple influences: a) National politics/pressures b) Influenced by the discovery of new reserves (i.e. oil) c) Government commitment to renewables and investment d) Potential to find/develop new sources

UN MDGs:

1) 8 goals agreed at the UN Millennium Development Summit in September 2000 that nearly 190 countries signed up to. 2) Applied to developing nations (not developed/high income) 4) Success was measured based on levels in 1990. 3) The deadline to meet these goals was the end of 2015.

Geographical factors influence the type of strategies that are implemented by governments

1) Cultural factors: Is it acceptable? EX: German cultural expectations for recycling (vs. USA) are high, expected 2) Economics: Is it affordable? 3) Technological: Can it be achieved? Is it actually possible? 4) Political factors: Is there support for this strategy?

Acid Rain in depth

Acid rain is any form of precipitation w/ high levels of nitric & sulfuric acids; it can occur in the form of snow, fog & even dry materials that settle to earth Most is caused by human activities; when humans burn fossil fuels, sulfur dioxide & nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere These gases react w/ water, oxygen & other substances to form sulfuric & nitric acid Winds may spread these acidic solutions over hundreds of miles After it falls to earth, acid rain enters water systems as runoffs & sinks into the ground This can make water toxic to crayfish, clams, fish & other aquatic animals The rest of the food chain, incl. non aquatic species such as birds, is often affected as well Acid rain also harms forests by damaging trees leaves, robbing the soil of essential nutrients & making it hard for trees to take up water By designing cleaner power plants & using fewer fossil fuels, we can reduce the # of pollutants that create acid rain Canada is being impacted by acid rain originating from emissions in the US (the source of about ¾ of their acid deposition), industrial areas in Canada & Asia; an example of acid rain as a trans boundary pollution event

Why is China regularly targeted as C0₂ emission responsible? Explain how this is a one dimensional perspective

China is viewed as C0₂ emission responsible since it's a huge net exporter of CO₂ emissions. However, w/ numerous big companies outsourcing to China, establishing their manufacturing factories there, it raises the question of whether the exporting country (in this case China) should take full responsibility for the pollution being created or if these companies based in different countries should be blamed (as they're also contributing by shipping).

EU Energy Strategy

Every single day we pay 1b euro to import ½ of energy. Aim of EU is to try to become completely energy secure & generate most of its own energy. - Save energy - Produce more local energy (esp renewable electricity) - Make it easy to transport gas & electricity around Europe - Find different ways & routes to import energy By 2020, the EU aims to: - Reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by at least 20% - Increase the share of renewable energy to at least 20% of consumption - Achieve energy savings of 20% or more - All EU countries must also achieve a 10% share of renewable energy in their transport sector

Disadvantages of Biofuels

Expensive Uses land that could be used for growing food is being to produce fuels for cars Leads to deforestation to create plantations Negative impacts on the world's poorest countries: pushes up food prices, damages wildlife through deforestation & soil erosion, destroys communities by clearing up more land for crop production. pushing up food prices

While the EU instituted the Common Agricultural Policy to promote domestic output & development, how is CAP having a negative global environmental impact?

Exporting food products involves large scale transportation which as we know is a large source of pollution & therefore has a negative global environmental impact. There are also many environmental issues associated w/ agriculture, such as; soil erosion, deforestation, waste, etc. The CAP encourages the exporting of agricultural goods around Europe & the world; this adds to emissions.

Virtual Water trade

For water-scarce countries it can sometimes be attractive to import virtual water (through import of water-intensive products), thus relieving the pressure on the domestic water resources. This happens, for example, in Mediterranean countries, the Middle East and Mexico. Northern European countries import a lot of water in virtual form (more than they export), but this is not driven by water scarcity. Instead it results from protection of their domestic water resources, land availability and land uses. In Europe as a whole, 40% of the water footprint lies outside of its borders.

Virtual Water Trade

Global trade in goods influenced by a country's available water resources; trading countries can rely on the water resources in other countries to meet the needs of their inhabitants - As food & other products are traded internationally, their water footprint follows them in the form of virtual water; water footprint of production can be linked to the water footprint of consumption, wherever they occur - Virtual water flows help us see how the water resources in one country are used to support consumption in another country

Tenure

Legal regime in which land is owned by an individual, who is said to "hold" the land; it determines who can use land, for how long & under what conditions

Advantages of Biofuels

Less emissions Solution for issues concerning fossil fuel scarcity, climate change & desire to support rural economies Environmentally friendly to a certain extent MOST petrol engines can use ethanol so people do not need to buy a "special" car to use them...it is an easy switch so long as it is no more than 15% biofuel blend Swedish super/hyper car manufacturer koenigsegg has made a 4-seater hypercar which is designed to run on clean/biofuels - Improvement: waste biomass (second-generation biofuel); these processes do not divert food from animals or humans

What uses the most water?

Mainly agricultural products: Rice, animals (dairy, meat, etc) Industry

Embodied carbon imports are significant for many developed economies

Major developed economies are typically net importers of embodied carbon emissions; UK consumption emissions are 34% higher than production emissions: Germany (29%), Japan (19%) & the USA (13%) are also significant net importers of embodied emissions For some economies w/ very carbon efficient production processes, the relative importance of imported carbon is even greater; the high levels of net imports in France (43%) & Sweden (61%) reflect in part the low carbon intensity of their energy systems

While the FDI from TNCs is a sought after global financial gain, how are TNCs potentially a main source of a nation's carbon footprint?

Manufacturing accounts for 26.4% of Apple's carbon footprint & as they, along w/ most TNC's, outsource their manufacturing this greatly impacts a nation's carbon footprint, not to mention the transportation then required to ship the products.

World Overshoot Day

When humanity has used the resources that it takes the planet the full year to regenerate; has moved from early October in 2000 to July 29th in 2019

Water stress

When the chosen demand for water exceeds supply during a set period of time leading to shortages - Demand for water usually increases during summer → water stress (demand has to exceed supply) - Regions w/ high water stress tend to be places with higher populations (esp. in drier places like Spain)

The global energy mix

When your energy supply comes from a balanced mix of multiple sources particularly emphasis on renewables/alternatives Achieving a balanced "energy mix" & not becoming dependent on ONE source is important for "energy security"

Essay Q: Examine the changing importance of oil (can substitute w/ any energy group; renewables, fossil fuels, etc.) in different regions of the world "Our dependence on oil is still far too great" to what extent do you agree with this statement

Where is oil becoming more/less important? Why? - Overall, we can argue the world is too dependent on oil based on current consumption however, this dependence /importance varies between places (See handout with examples) EU is debatable: Oil demand has slowly been decreasing since around 2011 due to environmental awareness, commitment to global & regional goals, switch to nuclear / renewables / energy efficiency, pop. is also predicted to fall & continue to age → but, the EU still places high demands on OTHER regions for manufactured & agricultural goods as well as their transportation & w/ high disposable incomes, flying so it's still a very important energy source

Processing gain

Where other chemicals are added to the refining process to create the products

Physical water scarcity

Where the demand for water is greater than the supply of water as unsustainable demands are made of available water

Economic water scarcity

Where there is water available, but for some economic reason it is not possible to fully utilize the source of water * This might be because extraction or transportation costs are too high, or because the water is polluted & it isn't possible to treat it

Many developing countries export embodied emissions in international trade

Developing countries are generally net exporters of CO₂ emissions, e.g. in 2004 China exported 23% of all its domestically produced CO₂

Direct water use

Refers to the use of treated wastewater that is piped directly from a treatment plant to the next user

Fracking / hydraulic fracturing

The process of injecting liquid at high pressure into subterranean rocks, boreholes, etc. so as to force open existing fissures and extract oil or gas - Highlights extent some countries are willing to go to extract oil - A highly controversial practice w/ severe environmental impacts - The fact that we are exploring this as a method of recovering energy sources, highlights our continued dependence/importance

Carbon Footprint

The sum of all carbon emissions emitted into the atmosphere in the process of making our compostable goods & running our sustainable businesses

Carbon footprint

The sum of all carbon emissions emitted into the atmosphere in the process of making our compostable goods & running our sustainable businesses

World overshoot day

Today humanity uses the equivalent of 1.6 Earths to provide the resources we use and absorb our waste. This means it now takes the Earth one year and six months to regenerate what we use in a year.

How is tourism increasing a nation's carbon footprint?

Tourism is largely affiliated w/ transport/travel, consisting of billions of people taking planes overseas or any other polluting mode of transportation every year. Transportation being one of the main factors of pollution, obviously increases a nation's carbon footprint (i.e. in 2013, international travel caused a carbon footprint of about 1Gt CO₂ or 23% of the global carbon footprint of tourism). In addition, a country's carbon footprint will increase proportionally to their number of international tourist arrivals since.

Indirect water use

water consumed in the preparation, production, or delivery of goods and services

UN MDGs (Millennium Development Goals)

↳ 8 goals agreed at the UN Millennium Development Summit in 2000 that nearly 190 countries signed up to ↳ Applied to developing nations (not developed/high income) ↳ Deadline to meet these goals was the end of 2015 ↳ Measured progress from levels in 1990 by comparing

Global & regional/continental progress towards poverty reduction, incl. the growth of the "new global middle class" - Global Poverty Reduction (MDG)

1) Eradicate extreme poverty & hunger The World Bank defines poverty as living on less than 1.25 dollars / day, so used by the UN for quantification. least amount of daily income needed by a person to survive regional cost difference need to be considered 3 targets: 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion o people whose income is less than 1$ a day. 2. Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people 3. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. - +1bn people have been lifted out of extreme poverty since 1990. - Despite progress, almost 1/2 of the world's employed people work in vulnerable conditions. X The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by almost half since 1990. X One in seven children worldwide are underweight, down from one in four in 1990. X By the end of 2014, conflicts had forced almost 60 million people to abandon their homes. Extreme povert rate in developing countries: 1990: 47% 2015: 14% Global # of extreme poor: 1990 - 1,926m 1999 - 17,51m 2015 - 836m

Conditions for reaching food security

1. Economic growth - but has to be inclusive & provide opportunities for improving the livelihoods of the poor; enhancing the productivity & incomes of smallholder family farmers is key to progress 2. Political stability - allows for trade deals & processes to be developed & reduces the risk of intern/international conflict (see CAP)

Energy types

1. Fossil fuels/Hydrocarbons (e.g. coal, oil, natural gas): Fuels that have been created over millions of years from decaying biological matter. The main fossil fuels are; oil, gas, coal, tar sands 2. Alternative energy sources (e.g. nuclear power or biofuels): any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels, such as its high carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming 3. Renewable resources (e.g. wind, solar, hydroelectric, geothermal can be used over & over/infinite): A resource that can be used over and over again. Resources that don't run out are often described as being infinite e.g. wind 4. Non-renewable resources (e.g. fossil fuels...can only be used once): A resource that runs out once it has been used. Non-renewable resources are described as being finite i.e. they will eventually run out e.g. fossil fuels.

Pressure on Water Resources

1. Population Growth: the world's pop. now stands at +7.8bn (predicted 9.7b by 2050) placing increasing pressure on water resources as they develop & get richer 2. Pollution: As the world's population grows so does the demand for agricultural & industrial products & human byproducts a. Agricultural products are increasing the use of fertilisers & pesticides which often runoff into rivers & lakes or leach down to groundwater stores * Agricultural Demand places by far the biggest demand on water b. Demand for industrial & at times relaxed environmental regulations mean more chemicals & metals are being released into our water sources c. Urbanization i. Sewage treatment often lags behind pop. growth so increasingly rivers & lakes are being polluted by sewage ii. Growth of informal settlements leads to increased sewage pollution 3. Domestic Demand: The demand from water is not only increasing because there are more households in the world, but also because of development & global growth of middle class a. As peoples' income increases & they move into permanent residences, they demand flush toilets, bath/showers, washing machines, dishwashers & green gardens, all of which use large amts of water 4. Tourism & recreation: add to water pressures, e.g golf courses & swimming pools 5. Energy Production: Although HEP is the most obvious form of energy that uses water, this water is released into rivers once it has passed through the dam Other types of energy that use large amounts of water for cooling e.g. coal & nuclear power, may pollute water 6. Climate change: There will be winners & losers regarding its influence on water supplies 7. Geo-political Mismanagement: if water is not used sustainably or inappropriately then water shortages can occur 8. Embedded water in food: About 65% of the water that we consume is in our food, 'virtual water' - if present levels of consumption continue, two-thirds of the global population will live in areas of water stress by 2025. Increasing human demand for water coupled with the effects of climate change mean that the future water supply is not secure

SDGs

1: No Poverty 2: Zero Hunger 3: Good Health and Well-being 4: Quality Education 5: Gender Equality 6: Clean Water and Sanitation 7: Affordable and Clean Energy 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure 10: Reduced Inequality 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities 12: Responsible Consumption and Production 13: Climate Action 14: Life Below Water 15: Life on Land 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

Water Facts

2.5% of water on planet earth is fresh ↳ Some are inaccessible, polluted/contaminated, in ice/snow → not all suitable for human consumption ↳ 70% of it is used for agriculture/food production; 22% industrial use; 8% domestic use - Around 70% is in the form of ice, approx. 30% is groundwater & only 1.2% is surface water

An overview of global patterns & trends in the availability & consumption of: Water, incl. embedded water in food & manufactured goods

2.5% of water on planet earth is fresh ↳ Some are inaccessible, polluted/contaminated, in ice/snow → not all suitable for human consumption ↳ 70% of it is used for agriculture/food production; 22% industrial use; 8% domestic use Aral Sea: example of geopolitical mismanagement ↳ One of the world's greatest man-made disasters; dried up in 40yrs ↳ As a result of irrigation (used for cotton production, 1 of the most water intensive crops) of rivers which fed the sea, in 1989 sea shrank & became divided into 2 parts ↳ Water became salty → impact on fishing → tips of grass became salty → animals who ate the grass fell ill & many died → huge impact on fishing industry as salinity of the sea increased Water came back because of dam built → in 1999 sand dam was destroyed by water → showed sea levels could be raised → built another (permanent) dam w/ help from Kazakh government & World Bank

1 MDG Goal: Eradicate extreme poverty & hunger

3 targets: Halve, between 1990 & 2015, the proportion of people whose income is -1$/day Achieve full & productive employment & decent work for all, incl. women & young people Halve, between 1990 & 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger +1bn people have been lifted out of extreme poverty since 1990 Despite progress, almost ½ of the world's employed people work in vulnerable conditions The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by almost ½ since 1990 1/7 children worldwide are underweight, down from ¼ in 1990

Major Oil Consumers Regional

5 countries account for more than ⅓ of global oil consumed ↳ US consumes 19.6m barrels of crude daily, followed by China - 11.3m BPD (barrels per day) in consumption; rest are Japan, India & Russia Partly due to large population Per capita consumption differs ↳ Gibraltar, Virgin Islands, Singapore, Montserrat, Kuwait, Luxembourg

NEXUS APPROACH TECHNOLOGIES

: Vertical farming, in-vitro meats, GMO cropping, Green Revolution 2 Environment specific crops that require less water & energy Climate specific resilient crops Economic growth allows countries to be able to import Invest in the agricultural sector EU Common Agricultural Policy COVD-19 & its impacts on global supply chains in the agricultural sector & threatening food security in vulnerable places Climate change, sea level rise, population growth, global middle class, rising unemployment putting people below the poverty line Quotas Intensification of agriculture Environmental degradation Putting more emphasis on sustainability

Acid rain (acid deposition)

A broad term for both wet & dry depositions that contain larger amounts of acidic molecules, generally either sulphuric acid or nitric acid Negative impact of burning hydrocarbons, big problem associated w/ coal Was introduced in the 1850s for rain with a PH of less than 5.65 The PH scale is logarithmic meaning a 4 is 10x more acidic than a 5 & 100x more acidic than a 6

Middle class

A class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy; in socio-economic terms, it's the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socio-economically between the working class & upper class, earning between $10-100/day > Generic conditions - Greater economic stability - Increased disposable income - Increased time for leisure activities

National self-sufficiency

A country may aim to be self-sufficient by relying primarily on goods that can be produced within its borders

Virtual Water trade dependency

A country may choose to reduce the burden on the natural resources within its borders by importing water intensive products - Countries can both import & export virtual water through their int. Trade relations; globally, the major gross virtual water exporters are USA, China, India, Brazil, Argentina, Canada

Virtual Water trade dependency

A country may choose to reduce the burden on the natural resources within its borders by importing water intensive products - Countries can both import & export virtual water through their int. trade relations; globally, the major gross virtual water exporters are USA, China, India, Brazil, Argentina, Canada - Europe is the world's largest virtual water import region

What does it mean to be a 'net exporter of C0₂' vs. a 'net importer'?

A country which is a 'net exporter of C0₂', emits the most to their CO2 emissions through their exported goods. While being a 'net importer', means the majority of their CO2 emissions are embedded in their imported goods.

Energy insecurity

A lack of access, either affordability or availability, over energy resources

Undernourishment

A person is not able to acquire enough food to meet the daily min. dietary energy requirements, over a period of 1yr; FAO defines hunger as being synonymous w/ chronic undernourishment - Association of SouthEast Asian Nations

Ecological reserve

A region's biocapacity exceeds its Ecological Footprint

Embedded/Virtual water

About 65% of the water that we consume is in our food; unseen water used to produce products; "the volume of freshwater used to produce the product, measured at the place where the product was actually produced"; refers to the sum of the water use in the various steps of the production chain 2,400L of water used to make 1 hamburger 140L of water = 1 cup of coffee If present levels of consumption continue, ⅔ of the global population will live in areas of water stress by 2025 Increasing human demand for water coupled w/ the effects of climate change mean that the future water supply is not secure i. Water stress - when the chosen demand for water exceeds supply during a set period of time leading to shortages ii. Water scarcity - the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet the demands of water usage Demand for water usually increases during summer → water stress (demand has to exceed supply) Regions w/ high water stress tend to be places with higher populations (esp. in drier places like Spain)

Embodied carbon flows are large & growing

Around 1/4 of all CO₂ emissions from human activities „flow‟ (i.e. are imported or exported) from 1 country to another

How are the Kyoto Protocol standards increasingly obsolete in our globalized world?

Aviation & shipping along w/ other mobile & non-domestic sources were excluded from the emissions-reduction targets agreed under the Kyoto convention of 1997. W/ globalization increasing every day, so is this sector, their contribution to total global emissions is around 5% & is growing. The overall target was a global emissions reduction of 5%. This is now seen as being not even close to solving climate change. Scientists now argue for a minimum 70% reduction by 2050 but ideally carbon neutrality.

Why should EU nations reaching the Europe 2020 target for reducing C0₂ emissions not actually be considered as fully successful in overall global emission improvements?

Aviation & shipping along w/ other mobile & non-domestic sources were excluded from the emissions-reduction targets. Since these carbon-intensive industries contribute around 5% of total global emissions, EU nations reaching the Europe 2020 target for reducing C0₂ emissions should not actually be considered fully successful in overall global emission improvements. Also do not account for emissions created in the production of goods that occur in lower income countries

Causes of Acid Rain

Coal fired power stations are the major producers of SO2, although any processes that burn coal and oil contribute, as do vehicle emissions

Europe is the world's largest virtual water import region

Cocoa (africa) Soybean, sunflower seeds (brazil) Wheat sunflower seed, cotton, industrial products (russia) Cotton, coffee (new zealand) Soybean , wheat (USA)

Explain how carbon footprint is a global pollution indicator for HICs

HICs are typically net importers of embodied carbon emissions; UK consumption emissions are 34% higher than production emissions: Germany (29%), Japan (19%) & the USA (13%) are also significant net importers of embodied emissions. In addition, these countries correspondingly have a higher standard of living which in most cases implies having a larger carbon footprint due to a higher consumption of material goods as well as travelling via airplanes & cars, etc. Unlike data for total emissions released by HICs which doesn't incl. aviation, shipping & responsibility for emissions in LICs, the carbon footprint takes into account emissions generated in the transportation & production of goods making it a more accurate & fair measure.

How can a country increase & reduce its ecological footprint (or an individual)?

HICs tend to consume greater amounts of resources, produce more waste & pollution as by-products of production. LIC uses less resources & the informal economy leads to a lot of reuse & recycling. However...development leads to increasing eco footprint HIC tends to have a more meat based diet. Around 30% diet based on animal protein which requires a lot more land than vegetables due to the consumption & space animals need. Meat diet around 12% in a LIC. Eating vegetables means energy goes directly to humans. Are things CHANGING in HICs? Impact of GLOBAL MIDDLE CLASS? Greenhouse gases from agriculture also contribute significantly to Eco footprint. 5.1 & 6.1 billion tonnes of greenhouse gasses estimated annually: Nitrous oxide from fertiliser, methane from cows & also biomass burning. Fossil fuel dependent populations have higher CO2 emissions.in HICs? Impact of GLOBAL MIDDLE CLASS? Greenhouse gases from agriculture also contribute significantly to Eco footprint. 5.1 & 6.1 billion tonnes of greenhouse gasses estimated annually: Nitrous oxide from fertiliser, methane from cows & also biomass burning. Fossil fuel dependent populations have higher CO2 emissions.

Food security

Have availability & adequate access at all times to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy & active life - Agriculture is the single largest employer in the world, providing livelihoods for 40% of today's global pop; largest source of income & jobs for poor rural households - Investing in smallholder women & men as well as food production for local & global markets is an important way to increase food security & nutrition for the poorest - If women farmers had the same access to resources as men, the # of hungry in the world could be reduced by up to 150m

National energy security (long vs short term)

IEA defines energy security as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price - Long-term energy security mainly deals w/ timely investments to supply energy in line w/ economic developments & environmental needs - Short-term energy security focuses on the ability of the energy system to react promptly to sudden changes in the supply-demand balance (i.e., dramatic changes in weather or holiday travel demands)

A NEXUS approach to energy production

IS sourcing a greater energy mix through renewables & other alternatives - By 2016, still 765m people undernourished: HOW do we produce food for these people OR distribute food more easily WITHOUT compromising water quality/amt, or put pressure on energy security

Ecological deficit

If a population's Ecological Footprint exceeds the region's biocapacity; a region in ecological deficit meets demand by importing, liquidating its own ecological assets (such as overfishing), &/or emitting CO2 into the atmosphere

OIL

Oil supplies are usually quoted as barrels; 1 barrel has a volume of oil of 159L & 7.3 barrels contain 1000 kg of oil

If cargo ships pollute the most of any form of transport, why do cargo airlines receive such negative transport press?

In terms of grams per tonne-km, cargo airlines produce 540, while cargo ships emit between 15-21. Cargo shipping is so crucial to global trade that the industry has been largely left alone.

Nuclear power

Is not a renewable energy source because it uses uranium which is finite However, the estimated supply of uranium is much greater than fossil fuels It's often grouped w/ renewables due to the huge amount of energy generated form a small amount of natural resources When used to produced energy, nuclear power creates a lot less greenhouse gases

Water Footprint

Measures the amt. of water used to produce each of the goods & services we use ↳ Combination of direct water use (water used for instant/immediate personal use: bathing, drinking & cooking) & indirect water use (total volume of freshwater consumed & polluted for the production of the goods & services consumed by the consumer, aka embedded/virtual water) ↳ Helps us understand for what purposes our limited freshwater resources are being consumed & polluted ↳ Its impact depends on where the water is taken from & when; if it comes from a place where water is already scarce, the consequences can be significant & require action ↳ Can be measured for a single process, such as growing rice, for a product, such as a pair of jeans, for the fuel we put in our car, or for an entire multi-national company ↳ Can also tell us how much water is being consumed by a particular country (or globally) in a specific river basin or from an aquifer ↳ Depending on the question you are asking, it can be measured in cubic metres per tonne of production, per hectare of cropland, per unit of currency & in other functional units

An overview of global patterns & trends in the availability & consumption of: Land/food, incl. changing diets in MICs

Meat consumption is increasing in regions w/ growing middle class/closely relates to higher standards of living Meat is most environmentally damaging (water & land intensive) to what extent does that impact food security Due to overexploitation of EU fisheries, the EU has made a deal w/ some coastal african nations to fish in their waters in exchange for knowledge/education about sustainable fishing methods As a global average, consumption of animal based protein is increasing → some places is decreasing due to more awareness of environmental impacts Hunger - SDG ↳ An estimated 821m people were undernourished (2017) ↳ The majority of the world's hungry people live in developing countries, where 12.9% of the population is undernourished ↳ Sub-Saharan Africa remains the region w/ the highest prevalence of hunger, w/ the rate increasing from 20.7% (2014) to 23.2% (2017) ↳ In sub-Saharan Africa, the # of undernourished people increased from 195m (2014) to 237m (2017) ↳ Poor nutrition causes nearly half (45%) of deaths in children under 5 - 3.1m children each year ↳ 149m children under 5 years of age— 22% of the global under-5 population—were still chronically undernourished in 2018 Food security ↳ Agriculture is the single largest employer in the world, providing livelihoods for 40% of today's global population; it's the largest source of income & jobs for poor rural households ↳ 500m small farms worldwide, most still rainfed, provide up to 80% of food consumed in a large part of the developing world ↳ Investing in smallholder women & men as well as food production for local & global markets is an important way to increase food security & nutrition for the poorest ↳ Since the 1900s, some 75% of crop diversity has been lost from farmers' fields; better use of agricultural biodiversity can contribute to more nutritious diets, enhanced livelihoods for farming communities & more resilient & sustainable farming systems ↳ If women farmers had the same access to resources as men, the # of hungry in the world could be reduced by up to 150m ↳ 840m people have no access to electricity worldwide - most of whom live in rural areas of the developing world; energy poverty in many regions is a fundamental barrier to reducing hunger & ensuring that the world can produce enough food to meet future demand

Major Oil Producers

OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) - An intergovernmental organization of 14 nations as of February 2018, founded in 1960 in Baghdad by the 1st 5 members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, & Venezuela), & headquartered since 1965 in Vienna, Austria. The 14 countries account for an estimated 44% of global oil production & 73% of the world's "proven" oil reserves, giving OPEC a major influence on global oil prices that were previously determined by American dominated multinational oil companies ↳ Is a cartel, meaning they set prices & determine production of their product, oil

Impacts of Acid Rain

Physical/human: - Buildings are weathered - Respiratory problems from sulpheric particles - Property damage costs exist - Possible but unproven links to human health such as dementia Environmental: - Metals such as iron & aluminium are mobilized by acidic water and flushed into streams and lakes - Aluminium damages fish gills - Forest growth is reduced - Soil acidity increases impacting vegetation growth - Lakes become acidic and aquatic life suffers

Growing global middle class implications

Political: Favour democratization/increased DEMAND for public services/increase in political involvement/argument countries become more stable/support of taxation towards public services Economy: Increased consumer spending (est. 33-35 Trillian USD, 1/3 global economy 2015)/economic growth of country. Social: Demand for equality/"middle class lifestyle": is a term that refers to spending on luxury items and services, taking vacations, home ownership, automobile ownership, and helping children obtain higher (tertiary) education/greater "happiness"/decreased fertility Technological: Energy efficiency technology and other technology that increase resource utilization efficiency can help reduce the environmental damage often associated with economic growth and corresponding increasing consumption of a growing global middle class. Environmental: An expanding middle class will increase the strain on resources and accelerate environmental impact as consumption increases, particularly related to housing, transportation, and food consumption -as increasing income and a growing middle class population are associated with decreasing fertility rates and increased education (demographic dividend), the total consumption for the country or region may actually be lower than if the country had not experienced a growing middle class despite increasing individual consumption per capita. Individuals in the global middle class may have higher expectations for increased energy efficiency, support conservation efforts, and demand decreased pollution - Individuals in the global middle class may also be willing to pay a premium for more environmentally-friendly products, an attitude frequently associated with the middle class lifestyle.

Transboundary pollution & its causes

Pollution affecting a very large area or +1 country ↳ Causes: Coal fired power stations are the major producers of SO2, although any processes that burn coal & oil contribute, as do vehicle emissions Wet (has environmental impact) & dry (more of a human impact) deposition

Energy security

The association between national security & the availability of natural resources for national energy consumption; access to (relatively) cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies (aim for countries)

Food availability

The availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality, supplied through domestic production or imports (including food aid

Embodied carbon flows in both commodities & final products

The flow of carbon is comprised of roughly 50% emissions associated w/ trade in commodities such as steel, cement & chemicals & 50% in semi-finished/finished products such as motor vehicles, clothing or industrial machinery & equipment

Water scarcity

The lack of sufficient available water resources to meet the demands of water usage

Peak oil

The point when maximum extraction of oil is reached & after which point the extraction of oil will reduce; although peak oil production has been reached in some countries like the UK & the US, it's unclear whether global peak oil has been reached yet; some organisations suggest it passed in 2011 while suggest 2037 or later

Implications of global climate change for the water-food-energy nexus

a. Climate change will have varying impacts on energy, food & water availability depending on region - Will impact water security; droughts - Sea level rise & flooding, due to climate change, in Bangladesh is impacting food security 1. Water availability may decrease in some areas, but increase in others a. Droughts w/ more dry years & less water, which affects food & energy as well as the environments *When looking at the nexus approach, a change in one will ultimately affect the other 2 (E.g. less water could result in lower food production & reduced potential to generate hydro-electricity) b. Potentially the need to pump more water for irrigation requires more energy, putting more conflict between different energy user groups such as industry c. Loss of snowpack in areas will reduce year round fresh water 2. Food might be affected also by changing patterns in pest, disease & their potential spread as places become hotter 3. More frequent flooding &/or fire, affecting water quality in watershed 4. Rising sea levels 5. Increasing energy demand due to changing temperatures 6. Changes in species & habitats

Each region's Ecological Footprint can be compared to its biocapacity

a. ecological deficit - b. ecological reserve -