Geography second test
The Carbon Cycle
- Biosphere contains complex mixture of carbon compounds - Main components - Transfer of carbon from Co2 to living matter and back to CO2 - Rapid process (years, centuries) - Gradual incorporation of stored carbon in rock - Fossil fuels increase CO2
The Oxygen Cycle
- Building block in most organic molecules - By-product of plant life - Occurs in many forms and is released in many ways - Sources include water, carbon dioxide, ozone, oxygen stored in rocks
Ocean Water (temperature salinity and density)
- Density - Varies with temperature, degree of salinity, and depth - Low temperature and high salinity increase density - High temperature and low salinity decrease density
Migration and Dispersal (Active v Passive)
- Migration and dispersal - Active vs Passive - Animals move from one place to another - Plants move through seed dispersal - Distribution pattern of organisms results from natural migration or dispersal from the original development center
Nitrogen Cycle
- Nitrogen only useable in gas form by a few bacteria - Nitrogen useable by other organisms as nitrates that are used in plants- nitrogen fixation - Waste converts nitrates to waste nitrates - Bacteria convert nitrites back to nitrates and nitrogen gas (denitrification)
Extinction and die off
- Range diminution - Small areal changes - Mass exctinction
T and Biota
- Terrestrial biota- all plant and animal life on land - Ocean biota- plankton, nekton, and benthos
What number on the pH scale is neutral?
7
What is the name of the slope facing the side with sunlight?
Adret slope
Definition of artesian well
An artesian well is simply a well that doesn't require a pump to bring water to the surface; this occurs when there is enough pressure in the aquifer. ... The aquifer absorbs and stores water and in an artesian well the porous stone is sandwiched between a top and bottom layer of impermeable rock such as shale or clay.
Type of soils found in the volcanic region
Andisols
Australian isolated
Australian- isolated large island has limited fauna types, but many are endemic Flora unique, 90% are eucalyptus Fauna dominated by monotremes and marsupials
Basis of climate classification
Base # 1. Climatic Classification Based on Temperature:The ancient Greeks divided each hemisphere of the earth into three broad belts or zones based on temperature. Base # 2. Climatic Classification Based on Rainfall Base # 3. Climatic Classification Based on Vegetation: Vegetation mainly depends on temperature as well as rainfall. Base # 4. Thornthwaite's System of Classification: Thornthwaite gave two classifications, one in 1931 and other in 1948. These two systems are more or less the same. These systems are based on the effective precipitation which can be determined by dividing the total monthly precipitation by total monthly evaporation, called P/E ratio or precipitation effectiveness ratio and the sum of 12 monthly values of P/E ratio of a year is called the P/E index. Base # 5. Koppen's System of Classification: This system was proposed by Dr. WladimirKoppen in 1918. Later on, the original climatic classification was modified in 1953. The classification was based on annual and monthly means of temperature and precipitation. However, the distribution of natural vegetation was the best indicator of the totality of climate. Koppen has recognised five major groups of climates which are further subdivided into different climatic types. Each climatic group is designated by a capital letter. Alisov climate classification Köppen climate classification Holdridge life zone classification Trewartha climate classification Vahl climate classification
Biological amplification
Biological amplification Chemical pesticides (DDT) and heavy metals (mercury, lead) Irrigation-related issues
Competition and Cooperation among animals
Competition among animals Indirect competition for space and resources Direct competition through predation Competition for food and water Parental instincts Cooperation among animals Social groups of animals
Four regions of Earth's interior
Crust Less than 1% of Earth's volume, 0.4% of Earth's mass Mantle Largest of four shells Makes up 84% of total volume, 67% of total mass Three sub layers Lithosphere Asthenosphere Rigid rocks - lower mantle Outer core Molten Magnetic poles not the same as the axial poles Inner core Primarily made of solid iron/nickel or iron/silicate Two zones combined make up 15% of Earth's volume and 32% of Earth's mass Magnetic field of Earth controlled by outer core Plate tectonics and the structure of Earth Plate tectonics - continental-sized plates slide along the asthenosphere "Continental drift" Asthenosphere: rocks are hot, they become plastic and their strength Lower mantle: rocks are extremely hot, but rigid because of high pressures
What is the study of tree rings used for understanding past climates?
Dendrochronology
What is a climograph?
Display climate information, specifically temperature and precipitation at the same time.
Name for transition zone between two biomes
Ecotone
Global Distribution of Major Soils The soils of the world
Entisols Little profile development (Youthful) Due to age or chemical composition Inceptisols Few diagnostic horizons (Adolescent) Lack of maturity Common in tundra and floodplains Andisols Develop from volcanic ash Young with dark upper layers Gelisols Young soils that develop slowly due to cold conditions Found in arctic and subarctic regions Histosols Organic, saturated continuously. (Found in very wet areas) Aridisols Soils of dry lands Distribution correlated to desert climate Vertisols Profile development dominated by clay Cracking and swelling clay Known for its ability to absorbing water Mollisols-fertile soils High in humus Soft when dry Found in midlatitudes Dark soft soils of the grasslands Alfisols Subsurface clay horizon Medium to generous supply of cations Rank second to Mollisols in agricultural productivity Ultisols Weathered and leached of nutrients Reddish color Alfisols degenerate into Ultisols Spodosols Illuvial dark layer where organic matter and other elements accumulate Infertile Widespread in areas of coniferous forest or a subarctic type of climate Leached of nutrition and highly acidic Oxisols Most thoroughly weathered of soils Vegetation is efficient in cycling limited nutrients Occur in humid tropics Brazil and Equatorial Africa Lower extent of SE Asia
Environmental adaptations, hydrophytes, xerophytic
Environmental adaptations Two most prominent adaptations involve the availability of water Xerophytic adaptations Roots modified in shape and size to seek moisture Stems modified as a means to store moisture Leaf surface modified to decrease transpiration Lie dormant for years until they receive rain, then reproduce rapidly Hygrophytic adaptations Hydrophytes-plants that are completely submersed in water Hygrophytes- plants that require frequent water soakings Hygrophytes are supported by buoyancy of water instead of stems
Sedimentary Rocks
External processes cause rock disintegration Material transported by water as sediment Over long periods, large amounts of sediment build to large thicknesses Exert enormous pressure that causes particles in sediment to interlock Chemical cementation takes place Strata - horizontal layers of sedimentary rock; sometimes tilted vertically by Earth processes
swamps and marshes
Flattish places that are periodically submerged and shallow enough to permit plant growth Swamps grow trees Marshes grow grasses and rushes
food chain and food web
Food Chain- direct passage from one organism to another of nutrients More complex- food "web" Primary energy transformation mechanism
Autotrophs, heterotrophs, food pyramid
Fundamental unit- producers (autotrophs), self feeders Producers eaten by consumers (heterotrophs) Primary consumers-herbivores Secondary consumers-carnivores Food pyramid Decomposers begin the food pyramid again Energy is inefficiently consumed between different food pyramid levels Pollutants in the food chain
difference between gaseous pathways and sedimentary pathways
Gaseous pathways- interchange between biota and atmosphere-ocean environment Sedimentary pathways- element is weathered and reaches the groundawater, returned to the ocean and is consumed by ocean organisms
causes of tides
Gravitational attraction of Moon (lunar tides) and Sun (solar tides) More gravitational force on the side of Earth facing the Moon More centripetal force on opposite side to keep Earth in orbit Two bulges form on opposite sides of planet
Collective name for gases leading to rise in global temperatures?
Greenhouse gases
Groundwater mining
Groundwater mining is the removal, or withdraw, of water in the natural ground over a period of time that exceeds the recharge rate of the supply aquifer. It is also called "overdraft" or "mining the aquifer." Ground water is contained in specific rock units called aquifers.
Plant characteristics
Hardy Perennials Annuals Highly variable in size Common characteristics-roots, stems, branches, leaves
Factor resulting in poor reproductive success
Heavy predation Climate change Food supply failure Changing environmental conditions
what is an aquiclude?
Highly impermeable rocks
What is an aquifer?
Highly permeable rocks
Cyclic movement of water through the environment
Hydrologic Cycle
Igneous rocks
Igneous - "fiery inception" Manga - molten rock beneath Earth's surface Lava - molten rock when it flows onto Earth's surface Pyroclastics Texture based on how rocks cool Two types of igneous rocks Plutonic (intrusive) Rocks cool beneath Earth's surface Surrounding rocks insulate the magma intrusion, slowing cooling Individual minerals in a plutonic rock can grow to large size Granite Volcanic (extrusive) Form on Earth's surface Cool rapidly Generally do not show individual mineral crystals Basalt
What are the three classes of rocks?
Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
Interspecific vs infraspecific competition
Inter specific (members of same species) vs. intraspecific competition (members of different species) Inter- when individuals of different species affect the growth and reproduction of each other by sharing limited resources. Intra-when individuals within the same species affect the growth and reproduction of other members of that species by sharing limited resources.
2 types of igneous rocks
Intrusive and Extrusive
Earliest known classifications system, three climatic divisions
Koppen climate classification system, polar, desert,
Which layer of the earth is the largest and occupies 67% of earth's total mass?
Mantle
What are the naturally formed compounds and elements?
Minerals
Minerals and Mineral Characteristics
Minerals - naturally formed compounds and elements of Earth Mineral characteristics Solid Found in nature Inorganic Specific chemical composition Contains atoms that arrange in patterns to form crystals
Atmospheric aerosols
Minute solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere (special type of PM10). blocking the sun's radiation. by altering cloud properties, thus changing the hydrological cycle.
What is considered the best soil for agriculture?
Mollisols
Thermohaline Circulation
Movement of ocean water caused by density difference brought about by variations in temperature and salinity. As ocean water freezes at the poles it concentrates salt, and the colder, denser water sinks.
Net primary production
Net primary production is the net photosynthesis over a year
Oxygen isotope analysis
Oxygen isotope analysis is the precise measurement of the ratio between two isotopes of oxygen. Past temperatures are determined by oxygen isotope analysis. Oxygen isotope analysis is the measurement of two isotopes of oxygen (18O and 16O). The lighter isotope, 16O, ________. is more prevalent in precipitation is more prevalent in glaciers evaporates more readily from the oceans. Can tell us something in which those molecules formed. - Ratio of o18/o16 serves as thermometer - Provide direct atmospheric composition measurements
What is the study of past climates called?
Paleoclimatology
Relationship between organisms when one organism benefits and the other is harmed?
Parasitism
Pedogenic Regimes
Pedogenic Regimes - classification of soil Climate (temperature and moisture)
permafrost
Permanently frozen ground ice
Definition of porosity and permeability. Which of these two properties is more effective in transporting water?
Permeability
characteristics of the 6 climatic types
Polar Polar climates are very cold and dry throughout the year. They encompass the South Pole, the extreme northern latitudes and the interior of Greenland. Plant life is non-existent except for some algae, while the few animal species include polar bears, killer whales, seals and penguins. Tropical The tropical region is hot and wet, covering the jungles of South America and Africa, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific. This area contains the greatest diversity of plant and animal life. Tropical forests experience about 12 hours of daylight daily, with only a rainy and dry season. They can contain 100 different tree species in a half-mile square, with small fauna like birds, bats, insects and small mammals. Mediterranean A Mediterranean climate shows mild winters and hot, dry summers, and includes the land surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, Southern South America and Southern California. Plants are typically shrubby and less than three feet tall, populated by small, nocturnal animals like geckos, snakes and rodents, which are hunted by raptors like hawks. Tundra The tundra is very cold all year and covers the tops of mountains, the northern extremes of North America and Asia, and the southern coast of Greenland. Though plant life may be numerous, it grows low to the ground and includes grasses and shrubs. Animal populations, which expand and shrink radically depending on the season, include caribou, squirrels, foxes, wolves, bears, and migratory birds. Temperate The temperate region experiences cold winters and mild summers, and covers much of North America, Europe and the northern parts of Asia. Temperate forests grow in soil fertilized by leaf litter, producing a rich diversity of plants like oak, maple, elm and willow, and animals like deer, bear, rabbits, squirrels and birds. Temperate grasslands are dominated by flowering grasses, and are populated by such fauna as lions, wolves, zebras, foxes, snakes and deer. Arid Arid zones are hot and dry all year and include the deserts of North Africa and central Asia, the southwest United States, and inland Australia. The coarse soil contains little surface water and supports mostly shrubs and short, woody trees. Animal life includes birds, reptiles, insects, rodents and small carnivores.
Primary and Secondary succession
Primary succession-pioneer community: areas where all remnants of original ecosystem were effectively covered, and soil removed the first species of animals and plants to return is known as pioneer community. Secondary Succession- is a process started by an event (e.g. forest fire, harvesting, hurricane, etc.) that reduces an already established ecosystem (e.g. a forest or a wheat field) to a smaller population of species.
Term for the decomposed rock particles covering bedrock?
Regolith
lakes
Saline versus freshwater lakes Ephemeral lakes (only contain water sporadically) Two conditions required for lake formation Natural basin with restricted outlet Sufficient water to keep basin filled Most are relatively short-lived
Permanent Ice - The Cryosphere
Second greatest storage of Earth's water Two groups; ice on land and ice in water Approximately 10% of Earth's surface is ice Different names Ice pack Ice shelf Ice floe Iceberg Largest ice pack covers most of the Arctic ocean surface Several large ice shelves attached to Antarctica Large ice floes form off of Antarctica
Two types of plant reproduction
Seeds and spores
Important crustal minerals
Silicates - combine oxygen and silicon with other elements, the most common elements, the most common elements in the lithosphere - Quartz Oxides - elements that are combined with oxygen - Hematite Sulfides - combination of sulfur and another element - Pyrite Sulfides - contain sulfur and oxygen - Gypsum Carbonates - light-colored minerals that are composed of a combination of carbon, oxygen and an element - limestone Halides - derived from word "salt" salty minerals - Halite (common table salt) Native element - ? Gold and silver
Difference between Soil and Regolith
Soil Thin layer on top of Earth's crust (about 15 cm deep) Complex combination of minerals, organisms, gases, liquids, etc. Produces and stores plant nutrients Fundamental interface between the four spheres Regolith A layer of broken and partly decomposed rock particles that covers bedrock; its upper part is soil Top layer of regolith is different in amount of biochemical weathering
Soil Components
Soil Components Soil air Half the volume of average soil is pore spaces Spaces provide openings among soil particles Pores filled half with air, half with water Soil water Four types Gravitational water - infiltration from above, falls down via gravity Capillary water - moisture that is held on soil particle surfaces by surface tension Elevation: fine particles carried by percolating water to deeper soil and illuviation: deposition of the particles obviates from above Hygroscopic water - thin film of moisture bound to soil particles by adhesion Combined water - held in chemical combination with soil minerals
Soil Profiles
Soil Profiles Soil development expressed in two dimensions - time and depth Addition, translocation, loss, and transformation R, C, B, E, A, O Horizon (bottom to top) Diagram in book
Soil-forming factors
Soil-forming factors Geologic factor Source of rock fragments in soil is parent material Nature of parent material influences soil characteristics Young soils are closely related to their parent material Climatic factor Temperature and moisture significant to soil formation Chemical and biological processes accelerated by high temperatures and moisture Topographic factor Slope and drainage significant Biological factor All soils contain some quantity of living organisms Earthworms Rearrange material in the soil Nitrification promoted Microorganisms- enhance biological decay Time factor Soil processes very slow Length of tine needed depends on parent material and environmental
spores and seeds reproduction
Spores reproduction Bryophytes- mosses and liverworts Pteridophytes- ferns, horsetails Seed reproduction Gymnosperm-seeds in cones, also called conifers Angiosperms- seeds encased in protection
rivers and streams
Streams smaller than rivers Geographers call all running water streams Allow for drainage of land surface water towards oceans Drainage basins
sunlight exposure: Adret slope and Ubac slope
Sunlight exposure Adret slope-sunny Ubac slope - shaded
Name for a dark spot on the surface of the sun?
Sunspot
Which civilization made the first climate classification system?
The Greeks
Koppen climate, who was he?
The Köppen Climate Classification System is the most widely used system for classifying the world's climates. Its categories are based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. The Köppen system recognizes five major climatic types; each type is designated by a capital letter. Wladimir Peter Köppen was a Russian-German geographer, meteorologist, climatologist and botanist. After studies in St. Petersburg, he spent the bulk of his life and professional career in Germany and Austria.
biogeochemical cycles?
The cycling of a chemical element through the biosphere; its pathways, storage locations, and chemical forms in living things, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere
Major Biomes of earth and their characteristics
Tropical rainforest (selva) Greatest species diversity Different heights of vegetation Very dense vegetation Little surface vegetation due to lack of sunlight Fauna generally arboreal (tree dwelling) Tropical deciduous forest Less tree density than selva Lower tree heights indicative of less precipitation More ground-level vertebrates, many arboreal vertebrates Tropical scrub Subtropical steppe and tropical savanna climates Extensive grasses Moderately tall trees Numerous ground-dwelling fauna, little arboreal fauna Tropical savanna Dominated by tall grasses, occasional bare ground Mixture of bushes and shrubs dot landscape-park savanna Mixture of fauna; African savanna has "big game" Human modification of tropical regions Desert Wide flora diversity, xerophytic flora Sparse plant cover, typically shrubs Moderately diverse fauna, no large-sized animals Rainfall can trigger plant germination Biota near oases Midlatitude grassland Coincident with the steppe climate type Vegetation shaped by dry climate and wildfire frequency Grasslands provide extensive pastures for grazing animals Large numbers of few species of fauna Mediterranean woodland and shrub Pronounced wet-dry climate (Mediterranean climate) Chaparral shrub growth dominant flora Open grassy woodlands common as well Summer wildfires Indistinctive fauna Midlatitude deciduous forest Dense growth of broadleaf trees Widely modified by humans Diversity of fauna to match tropical regions Wildlife more limited during winter due to hibernation Boreal forest Often co-located with the subarctic climate Most trees are conifers Trees taller on southern side of this biome Limited faunal species diversity Number of animals much higher than species diversity Tundra Too cold for trees to survive Dense, low-height plant cover Animal life dominated by birds Few fish and mammals, no reptiles or amphibians Alpine tundra exist at high elevation
Types of fauna- five types of vertebrate
Types of fauna Invertebrates-animals that lack backbones (90% of all animals) Arthropoda most prominent(insects, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans) Vertebrates-animals that have backbones Five types of vertebrates Fish-can breath underwater Amphibians- can breathe through skin and lungs Reptiles- land-based cold-blooded animals Birds- maintain constant body temperature, most can fly Mammals-produce milk and have hair, warm-blooded
Solar Output Fluctuations
Variation in solar output may account for some climate fluctuations on time scales of decades to centuries. Sunspot counts.
Vertical zonation- tree line
Vertical zonation Distinct patter of vegetation in mountainous areas Elevation- latitude relationship Upper tree line- the elevation above which trees cannot survive either due to low summer temperature or moisture availability
Zoogeographic Regions
Zoogeographic Regions Broad distribution of fauna reflects energy and food diversity distribution Nine zoogeographic regions based on vertebrate distribution Endemic species (Nearctic, pacific islands, neotropics, Ethiopian, palearctic, Madagascar, oriental, Australian, New Zealand)
iceberg
a chunk of floating ice that breaks off from an ice shelf or glacier
Ice floe
a large, flattish mass of ice that breaks off from larger ice bodies and floats independently
ice shelf
a massive portion of a continental ice sheet that projects out over the sea
Ecotone
a transition zone between different Biomes and Ecosystems
Ecosystem
all of the organisms in an are and their interactions with the immediate environment
ice pack
an extensive and cohesive mass of floating ice
aquiclude
any geological formation that absorbs and holds water but does not transmit it at a sufficient rate to supply springs, wells, etc.
Magma exist _____ the earth's surface, lava exist ______
below, above
composition of Earth
crust mantle core
fauna adaptations
few of these adaptations are: Some animals, such as bison, have broad, flat-topped teeth and digestive systems especially adapted to feed on grasses. Many prairie animals have front legs and paws that allow them to burrow into the ground, where they are protected from predators.
tides
function of the position of the earth with respect to the moon and the sun gravity coastal range function of sea floor and coastline geometry
zone of saturation
ground water, water table, springs, wells, bottom is impermeable (aquiclude)
global climate change
has made oceans more acidic. affects precipitation patterns. accumulation of: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxid, chlorofluorocarbons & tropospheric ozone as a result of human activities are the causes. temp increases, shift in plant & animal habitats & sea level rise. temperature has remained warm since 10,000 years ago at the end of the last Pleistone Epoch. - Evidence of current global warming - 11 of 12 warmest years on record occurred between 1995 and 2006 - Ocean temperatures increasing to depths of 9800 feet - Sea level rise - Number of intense tropical cyclones have increased since 1970 - Changes in precipitation amounts
Biome
large recognizable assemblages of plants and animals living in a functional relationship with the environment
Limiting factor
most important variable for the survival of an organism
waterless zone
most often begins several miles beneath the surface
Percentage of ocean and non ocean component
oceans 97.2% other 2.8%
zone of confined water
permeable area (aquifer) surrounded by aquiclude
Term for the amount of sunlight received by plants in 24 hours?
photoperiodism
Environmental factors affecting flora and fauna
relief and climate Flora unique, 90% are eucalyptus Fauna dominated by monotremes and marsupials Sensitive indicator to other environmental attributes Influence on and influenced by human settlement and activities
two ways water is found in biosphere
residence and transit
zone of aeration
soil moisture and air
Hydrologic Cycle- three primary movement and details
surface to air, air to surface, movement on and beneath earth's surface Surface to air Ocean evaporation (86%) Vapor remains in air for a short time Air to surface Precipitation—78% falls on oceans and 22% on land Precipitation is the same as evaporation over long time scales Movement beneath the surface—runoff Water collects in lakes and rivers and either penetrates ground or runs off if sloped Becomes part of underground water supply Reemerges as springs or becomes part of rivers and streams Residence times
The Global Conveyor Belt
the system of deep and surface currents that circle the earth
Urban Heat Islands
when surfaces become impermeable/dry and warmer than their rural surroundings. They form from urbanization, permeable/moist surfaces become impermeable/dry