GEOL 310 - Final Exam Study (Quizzes)

Q6. Briefly explain 3 things that must occur in order for marine microorganisms to turn into oil and natural gas deposits that can be extracted by conventional methods.

1. For marine microorganisms to turn into oil and natural gas deposits that can be extracted through conventional methods, they must be able to reach an oil window. This occurs when they are decomposing and mix with mud to create black sludge, which then gets deeply buried to a point where it can reach high enough temperature and pressure to create these resources in source rocks. 2. These oils and natural gases must be able to move out of source rocks like shale into reservoir rocks where they can be "stored" in rocks like sandstone or limestone. 3. Finally, the movement of oil and natural gases are stopped by trap rocks that allow for these resources to accumulate in large masses in which they can extracted.

Q3. Metallic resources can be divided into categories based on how abundant they are. Answer the following questions about these categories of metals: 1. What are the two main categories of metals, and how is each category defined? 2. List two examples of metals from the first category and briefly explain how we use them (your answer should be one sentence or less for each metal, and should give an example of materials made from that metal). 3. One of these categories can be further subdivided into groups based on how we use these metals. What are these subgroups? 4. Give one example of metals from each of these subgroups and briefly explain how we use each metal (your answer should be one sentence or less for each metal, and should give an example of materials made from that metal).

1. The two main categories of metals are abundant and scarce. Both types of metals are found in the Earth's crust, but abundant metals have a greater prevalence with concentrations that are higher than 0.1%, while scarce metals have concentrations lower than 0.1%. 2. Examples of abundant metals are aluminum and iron, which are both often used in manufacturing systems. Aluminum is used in objects such as soda cans or foil. Iron is one of the main components for materials like steel, which is used to make things like insulated reusable water bottles. 3. Scarce metals can be divided into three subsets, including ferro-alloy metals, base metals, and precious metals. 4. Ferro-alloy metals are often combined with abundant metals and ferro-alloy metals such as nickel can be used, in tandem with iron and other metals, to create stainless steel for the production of many objects (like jewelry or bottles). Base metals are used less currently (than through history) because of their toxicity, but base metals such as copper works as a great electrical conductor and is often used in electrical wiring. Precious metals, like gold, is often used in expensive jewelry and coin production and are valued because they do not react with other elements.

Q4. Which of the following are problems associated with cement manufacturing? 1) It releases carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, which is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. 2) It releases fly ash into the atmosphere, which contains toxic elements like lead, mercury, and cadmium that cause cancer and other serious health problems. 3) It releases sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere, which causes acid rain. 4) All of the above 5) None of the above 6) 1 and 2 only 7) 2 and 3 only

6) 1 and 2 only

Q3. What happens to bacteria, or "superbugs" like MRSA on copper surfaces as opposed to stainless steel or plastic surfaces? 1. Bacteria can live for much longer on copper surfaces. 2. Copper atoms interfere with the membrane around bacteria, which kills the bacteria. 3. Bacteria can live for much longer on stainless steel and plastic surfaces. 4. Stainless steel and plastics interfere with the membrane around bacteria, which kills the bacteria. 5. Answers one and two are both correct. 6. Answers two and three are both correct.

6. Answers two and three are both correct.

Q6. Name a location on Earth where conditions were good for forming oil and natural gas deposits in the past (in other words, the criteria needed to start the process of oil and natural gas formation occurred millions of years ago).

Also the Gulf of Mexico (during the Cretaceous), but also northern Africa, the Middle East, and parts of South America.

Q4. What is the difference between cement and concrete? Cement is a mix of __________________________. Concrete is a mix of __________________________.

Cement is a mix of lime, alumina, and silica or limestone, clay, and sand. Concrete is a mix of cement powder, aggregate, and water (or sand and gravel (sediments)).

Q2. Briefly explain why copper deposits on land are usually found in areas where volcanoes existed in the past. Your answer needs to include: 1) an explanation of the connection between copper deposits and volcanoes, and 2) why the volcanoes often no longer exist.

Copper deposits often exist on land where active volcanoes have once existed because hydrothermal fluids from cooling magma chambers underground contain many elements (like copper!) and these fluids become highly pressurized. This pressurized fluid eventually can penetrate through rock layers above the magma chamber, breaking rocks to create a path for this liquid (and elements) to go. This escaped liquid forms veins of minerals and elements, like quartz (SiO2) because of the silica content in the liquid. These minerals and elements can later be extracted on land for many various elements. Some of these volcanoes often no longer exist because older mountain ranges may have had active volcanic activity in some point during geological time, but is no longer active due to the volcanoes being eroded away (but still have/had magma chambers below the surface which would have turned into solid rock!).

Q5. Explain the process of eutrophication. Your answer should include: a) An explanation of the causes of eutrophication. b) Consequences of eutrophication for aquatic ecosystems.

Eutrophication is an increase in the amount of nutrients from runoff (or from upwelling) that make their way into into water sources, like lakes or oceans. These excess nutrients come from agriculture (due to fertilizer runoff and waste products created by livestock) or wastewater treatment plants (where many organic materials can be broken down and pathogens are killed, leaving too many nutrients in the water waste). This can result in algae blooms or large, quickly growing algae in places where these waste waters are dumped. When the large amount of algae dies and decays, it becomes an "oxygen demanding waste," since the decomposition process consumes a large amount of oxygen in the water source. In regard to the consequences for aquatic ecosystem, this can create a hypoxic environment in the lake or ocean, preventing other organisms like fish from obtaining enough oxygen from their environment to survive. CO2 levels rise as O2 levels are depleted, continuing a cycle of killing more organisms that decay into "oxygen demanding waste," which in turn, can contribute to more deaths in the uninhabitable ecosystem.

Q6. Explain how fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) are a form of "fossilized sunlight."

Fossil fuels are a form of fossilized sunlight because much of the oil and natural gas that we use today was created millions of years ago during the Cretaceous and Jurassic periods. The environmental conditions during these periods were great for the life cycle of many marine organisms, as many existed and eventually died and were buried by natural forces. Fossil fuels are stored forms of energy from sunlight energy, used in forms of photosynthesis by these marine organisms, from these periods (a long long long time ago) that have been buried for millions of years. Carbohydrates formed through these processes, thanks to sunlight, are forms of this stored energy from the sun and so since fossil fuels are made out of organisms that utilized this form of energy, fossil fuels are fossilized carbohydrates.

Q6. Name a location on Earth where conditions are good for forming future oil and natural gas deposits (in other words, the criteria needed to start the process of oil and natural gas formation are currently present).

Gulf of Mexico

Q1. List at least 4 reasons why it is very difficult to predict future reserves, and thus future mining operations for Earth resources (e.g. metals, fossil fuels, etc).

It is difficult to predict the future of reserves because of: 1) the price of extraction could fluctuate over time (with inflation, etc.), and an increase in this price could make the usefulness of the reserve impractical to utilize if the resource becomes too expensive to remove from the Earth 2) environmental impacts of using the reserves and mining these resources could negatively impact the communities that surround the region (in life expectancy, health effects, etc.) and the environment, and since those utilizing the resources must adhere to the regulations of the region, it may decrease the size of the reserve since the impacts on the environment may be too high 3) new extraction methods could make utilizing the reserves more efficient at potentially a lower cost, increasing the reserve size since more of the material could be extracted at the same or lower cost than by using the traditional methods 4) political instability, which is almost impossible to predict in long-term considerations of reserve usefulness, could cause reserves to decrease as it becomes too difficult or expensive to navigate the region so it would not be reasonable (economically) to keep the expected size of the reserve

Q4. Describe two different ways that limestone forms. Keep your descriptions brief (2-3 sentences or less for each description).

Limestone can be formed through the precipitation of calcite (from bicarbonate from carbonic acid) and calcium found dissolved in seawater. Rocks can be weathered by acidic rain that results in calcium and carbonic acid that travels into oceans. Calcium and bicarbonate can react with one another to form calcite (insoluble in water) that eventually sinks to the ocean floor. Another way that limestone can form is from shells of organisms on the ocean floor, such as corals or algae, with calcite in their body parts. When these organisms die, the calcite in their shells gather at the bottom of the ocean to form limestone.

Q1. List at least three examples of non-renewable resources and briefly explain why they are considered non-renewable. Are these resources non-renewable on geologic timescales?

Petroleum is a non-renewable resource because while it is made through natural processes in the Earth, it cannot be replaced through natural processes at the rate humans are using this resource. Most of the current petroleum oil sources that humans utilize have oil has been produced over 100 million years ago through the compression of organic materials, and it will take 10s to 100s of millions of years for more to be produced (which is well over the time frame during which humans will have used all the available supplies of petroleum). Natural gas is a non-renewable resource similar to the way petroleum and oil is a non-renewable resource, it cannot be replaced through natural processes at a reasonable and usable rate. It will take approximately the same amount of time as petroleum (stated above) to reproduce, which is extremely long, and will not be able to be reproduced at the rate it is being used. Coal is also non-renewable resource because of the extremely long time period it takes to reproduce. Similarly to the above fossil fuels, it will take much longer to produce new supplies of coal than how much humans are using this resource and therefore is non-renewable. On a geological timescale, all of these resources are renewable because they time long periods of time to reproduce.

Q2. Briefly explain why copper deposits form on the ocean floor. Your answer needs to include: 1) the type of plate boundary where these deposits form, and 2) an explanation of how the copper ends up on the ocean floor.

Plate boundaries, where tectonic plates meet, can move away from one another to form mid-ocean ridges or divergent plate boundaries. At these ridges, seafloor massive sulfide deposits form on the ocean floor at active mid-ocean ridges and SMS deposits exist where there were previously active mid-ocean ridges. When the plates move away from one another, underwater volcanic activity can construct mountains underwater around the plate boundary. As tectonic forces cause the plates to move away from each other (breaking the crust), earthquakes occur along fault lines. These faults cause cold seawater to penetrate the crust, interacting with hot rocks in the magma chamber which heat the water to a high enough temperature to dissolve some elements out of the rocks. This hot water, with many elements dissolved in it, eventually moves away from the magma chamber and crust to form a hot springs (black smokers) on the ocean floor. When the hot water comes in contact with cold seawater, it cools the water and many of the elements precipitate into solids like copper, sulfur, etc., leaving these elements on the ocean floor!

Q5. Define a) porosity, b) permeability, and c) hydraulic conductivity. Include a brief explanation of how each affects groundwater flow in an aquifer.

Porosity is the amount of pore space between materials (like rocks). It is expressed as a percentage of total volume of material or rocks, generally. It can affect groundwater, as if there is more pore space then there is more space for groundwater to take up and spread into these areas. More pore space allows aquifers to work in a greater capacity. Permeability is the ability of some material to allow liquids like water to flow through it. Fractured pore spaces that are connected allow groundwater to flow through that material. High permeability allows more groundwater flow through the material, allowing an aquifer to be more efficient. Hydraulic conductivity is how fast water can move through an aquifer, which is dependent on the structure of the materials (like permeability). If the materials are well sorted and coarse, an aquifer will be the most effective since water can flow through the materials better and have high hydraulic conductivity.

Q1. List at least three examples of renewable resources and briefly explain why they are considered renewable.

Recycled metals (aluminum cans/foil/steel/etc.) are renewable resources because they can be repurposed after their initial use and minimize the need to use different metal materials from the Earth that might not be reusable in the future (such as metal ores). Since the definition of renewable resources includes those that can be "replaced...through sound management practices," having accessible, efficient, and effective methods of recycling metals constitutes them as a renewable resource because some metals can be recycled multiple times so the need to utilize raw materials is diminished. Trees are also a renewable resource, as they provide lumber and paper products for consumption and can be grown and reproduced "through natural processes." Since trees are natural resources and can independently spread seeds to produce new trees, they are considered renewable. However, if trees are cut down and used a rate that exceeds the amount of trees planting and/or if the time trees need to reach the size necessary to produce more goods is not taken into account when using the currently available resources, we will diminish the availability of this resource. Air, comprised of oxygen and other gases (N, CO2, O, etc.), is a renewable resource because oxygen is produced through photosynthesis in plants, a natural process. Since CO2 that humans produce are taken up by plants (but is toxic to humans), this natural process allows humans and other animals to survive with clean air that can provide necessary elements for biological processes.

Q2. Briefly describe at least five ways that lead has been used historically.

Some historical ways that lead has been used in the past: 1) Romans found lead easy to cast (due to the low melting point) into many different products like armor or decor 2) Complementary flavoring in wine and food in the Roman Empire 3) Egyptians used ground up lead ore as eyeliner 4) Lead was used as the metal for the first moveable printing press in 1455 5) Lead was used in stained glass window frames to separate different colored panels

Q6. Describe what type of rocks are most commonly source rocks, reservoir rocks, and trap rocks for oil and natural gas. Your answer should also include a brief explanation of why each rock type is usually a source rock, reservoir rock, or trap rock.

Source rocks: Shale is a source rock because oil and natural gases are formed by the compressed marine microorganisms and mud (black sludge) that compose this rock once the shale is deep enough in the Earth to reach the oil window. Reservoir rocks: Sandstone and limestone are reservoir rocks because oil and natural gas can permeate the pore spaces in the rock and collect within these spaces that act as "reservoirs". Trap rocks: Shale is also a trap rock since it can act in a role as a barrier to oil and natural gas that may be moving through reservoir rocks because of its unique texture (clay particles). Eventually, oil and natural gas can move out of shale (which why it is also a source rock). Salt also is a trap rock.

Q5. Compare and contrast the Riparian Doctrine and the Prior Appropriation Doctrine. Include a discussion of the circumstances where each one is used to allocate water rights. Your answer needs to include: a) A description of at least four of the main characteristics that define each doctrine. b) The region(s) where each doctrine is used, and a brief explanation as to why this doctrine is used there.

The Riparian Doctrine's characteristics include giving landowners rights to water usage in streams that are adjacent to their lands if the water is returned to the stream, directly relates water rights to land ownership, indicates water as a tangible property that can be owned in the same way land is owned, and protects the water rights for people living downstream (since the water must be returned to the stream). This doctrine is used in areas where there is heavy rain flow with enough water resources to grow crops (since landowners can't use this water to grow crops), often in England and parts of Europe, and eastern parts of the US. The Prior Appropriation Doctrine separates land ownership from water rights. Water rights belong to different people (appropriated), not necessarily the person who owns the land, and can be used by the person who owns the land if they were the first to utilize the water sources (then it goes to the next in line, etc.). Water is seen as coming from some place and flowing across properties to people who can use it elsewhere. Furthermore, if the person who first appropriated the water is not using it for the intended purposes (like irrigation), they risk losing their water rights in the future since they must use the water for a specific purpose, or the right to use it can be transferred to someone else. This doctrine is used in areas where water is a more limited resource and there is a high demand for water in regard to supporting crops and sustaining agriculture, like in western US states where there are more arid regions and irrigation is crucial in supporting crop growth.

Q4. Briefly describe three ways that placer deposits are mined. What resources do we get from placer deposits? (List at least three)

To mine placer deposits, they can be: 1) Panned: literally scooping up sediment from the placer deposit with a circular pan and removing various minerals by hand 2) Dredged: using a contraption or machine that can sit on the water to pull in gravel deposits, then running this material through sluices to remove desired minerals 3) Hydraulic mining: using high pressure hoses to remove gravel, then running the materials through sluices to remove the minerals From these placer deposits, we can obtain gold, platinum, and uranium.

Q1. T/F: According to the article about China banning "foreign waste," US recycling companies are considering changing the rules for what is allowed in our curbside recycling bins.

True

Q1. T/F: In general, the elements listed first on the periodic table (elements with low atomic numbers) are also the most abundant elements in the universe.

True

Q3. T/F: Aluminum is very expensive to produce, but can be recycled over and over without losing its quality. Because of this, about two thirds of all the aluminum ever made is still in use today.

True

Q4. Silicate minerals are the most abundant group of minerals on Earth, yet we generally do not extract metals from these minerals. Briefly explain why we do not use silicate minerals as ores for metals.

We do not use silicate materials as ores for metals because silicon and oxygen atoms in these materials have strong bonds between them in their crystal structure, making it difficult to feasibly extract metals. It is easier to extract metals from sources that do not contain silicon & oxygen.

Q5. Most of the water consumed globally is used for: a) Agriculture b) Industry c) Domestic water supply (households) d) Hydroelectric power generation

a) Agriculture

Q6. What types of geologic formations are likely to form oil traps? This question has multiple answers - choose all that apply. a) Anticlines b) Synclines c) Faults d) Stratigraphic features of rock layers e) Salt domes f) Banded iron formations

a) Anticlines c) Faults d) Stratigraphic features of rock layers e) Salt domes

Q4. What minerals are most widely used as abrasives? Choose all that apply. a) Diamond b) Halite (salt) c) Corundum (sapphires and rubies) d) Jade e) Garnet f) Beryl (emerald and aquamarine)

a) Diamond c) Corundum (sapphires and rubies) e) Garnet

Q5. The level of water in Mono Lake decreased because of: a) Diversion of surface streams that once flowed into Mono Lake. b) The arid, dry climate of the Mono Lake basin. c) Lowering of the regional water table due to over pumping. d) Excessive use of water from Mono Lake to support agriculture in the surrounding area.

a) Diversion of surface streams that once flowed into Mono Lake.

Q2. In addition to copper, what other elements are usually extracted from copper mines (for example, the Kennecott Copper Mine in Utah)? (may be more than one answer) a) Gold (Au) b) Silver (Ag) c) Calcium (Ca) d) Molybdenum (Mo) e) Sodium (Na) f) Titanium (Ti)

a) Gold (Au) b) Silver (Ag) d) Molybdenum (Mo)

Q5. Other than ice sheets and glaciers, the largest fraction of Earth's freshwater is found as: a) Groundwater b) Water vapor in the atmosphere c) Lakes d) Rivers and streams

a) Groundwater

Q5. More than 99% of global water is not available for human use because it is: This question has multiple answers - choose all that apply. a) Saltwater b) Glaciers c) Groundwater d) Water in lakes e) Water in rivers and streams

a) Saltwater b) Glaciers c) Groundwater

Q4. What mineral groups are most often used as ores for metals? Choose all that apply. a) Sulfides (metals bound to sulfur) Correct! b) Oxides (metals bound to oxygen) c) Silicates (metals bound to silica and oxygen) d) Carbonates (metals bound to carbon and oxygen) e) Native metals (metals that are not bound to other elements)

a) Sulfides (metals bound to sulfur) Correct! b) Oxides (metals bound to oxygen) d) Carbonates (metals bound to carbon and oxygen) e) Native metals (metals that are not bound to other elements)

Q4. Which of the following is NOT true about rare earth elements? a) They are incredibly rare in Earth's crust; even more rare than the precious metals (silver, gold, platinum, etc). b) They are rarely concentrated in levels high enough to be economically extracted. c) The U.S. has large deposits of rare earth elements. d) They are an important component of "green technologies" because they are widely used in magnets and batteries.

a) They are incredibly rare in Earth's crust; even more rare than the precious metals (silver, gold, platinum, etc).

Q6. Most of the world's coal reserves were formed by ______________ that died millions of years ago, were buried by sediments, and converted to coal by heat and pressure. a) swamp plants b) dinosaurs c) marine microorganisms (algae, plankton, etc.) d) fish and other large marine animals e) trees and other plants that live on dry land f) All of the above

a) swamp plants

Q1. Nearly all of the Earth resources we use come from the Earth's crust. What percentage of the planet does the crust represent? a) ~1% b) ~10% c) ~15% d) ~84%

a) ~1%

Q1. An element is: a) A naturally occurring substance that has an ordered atomic structure and a specific chemical formula. Examples include quartz (SiO2) and pyrite (FeS2). b) A pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom, distinguished by its atomic number and the number of protons in its nucleus. Examples include elemental metals like copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and gold (Au). c) An ore rock that is rich in metals like copper, iron, aluminum, and lead. d) An ore rock that is rich in metals like copper, iron, aluminum, and lead. e) All of the above.

b) A pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom, distinguished by its atomic number and the number of protons in its nucleus. Examples include elemental metals like copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and gold (Au).

Q4. What mineral is limestone composed of? a) Quartz (SiO2) b) Calcite (CaCO3) c) Bicarbonate (HCO3) d) Hematite (Fe2O3) e) Galena (PbS) f) All of these minerals are found in limestone.

b) Calcite (CaCO3)

Q1: Most of the world's copper resources come from what kind of ore? a) Copper oxide ores; rocks that contain copper and oxygen. b) Copper sulfide ores; rocks that contain copper and sulfur. c) Copper carbonate ores; rocks that contain copper and carbon. d) Pure copper ores; rocks that is almost pure copper.

b) Copper sulfide ores; rocks that contain copper and sulfur.

Q6. Most of the world's oil and natural gas supplies were formed during which of the following geologic time periods? This question has multiple answers - choose all that apply. a) Quaternary (about 2 million years ago to the present) b) Cretaceous (about 145 to 65 million years ago) c) Jurassic (about 200 to 145 million years ago) d) Carboniferous (about 350 to 300 million years ago) e) Precambrian (more than 550 million years ago)

b) Cretaceous (about 145 to 65 million years ago) c) Jurassic (about 200 to 145 million years ago)

Q6. At the atomic level, which if the following best describes the process of burning? a) Electrons are drawn into carbon and hydrogen atoms, which releases energy. b) Electrons are released from carbon and hydrogen atoms, which releases energy. c) Electrons are shared between carbon and hydrogen atoms, which releases energy. d) Atoms are split apart in a process similar to what occurs in a nuclear reactor. e) Atoms are fused together in a process similar to what occurs in the sun.

b) Electrons are released from carbon and hydrogen atoms, which releases energy.

Q5. A possible consequence of eutrophication is: a) Reduction of nutrient levels in a body of water. b) Fish kills, because there is less dissolved oxygen in the water. c) An increase in the biodiversity of the body of water. d) Concentration of toxins in lake sediments.

b) Fish kills, because there is less dissolved oxygen in the water.

Q2. Which of the following describes how copper ore is deposited in volcanic areas on land? a) Sedimentary layers that are rich in copper accumulate on the ocean floor over very long periods of time. b) Fluids from a cooling magma chamber are injected into the rock above the chamber, forming veins of quartz and copper minerals. c) Sea water seeps into fractures at mid-ocean ridges, where it becomes enriched in copper and other metals. The water escapes through black smokers (hydrothermal vents) and the metals are deposited on the ocean floor. d) Minerals that a rich in copper are erupted from volcanoes. e) All of the above.

b) Fluids from a cooling magma chamber are injected into the rock above the chamber, forming veins of quartz and copper minerals.

Q4. What trace element gives blue corundum (or sapphire) its unique color? a) Chromium (Cr) b) Iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti) c) Aluminum (Al) d) Boron (B) e) Oxygen (O)

b) Iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti)

Q1. The Earth's mantle is mostly composed of: a) Hydrogen and helium b) Oxygen and silicon c) Iron and nickel d) Uranium and lead

b) Oxygen and silicon

Q2. Unlike copper ore, most lead ore is extracted by which of the following mining methods? a) Shaft and tunnel mines - underground mines where vertical shafts are dug into the Earth, then horizontal tunnels are created to access the ore deposit. b) Room and pillar mines - underground mines laid out in a grid-like pattern of rooms and pillars excavated in the ore deposit; the pillars keep the mines from collapsing. c) Open pit mines - rock at the surface of the Earth is removed to expose the ore deposit. d) Leaching - fractures are created in the ore deposits and an acidic solution that leaches copper out of the ore is pumped into the fractures.

b) Room and pillar mines - underground mines laid out in a grid-like pattern of rooms and pillars excavated in the ore deposit; the pillars keep the mines from collapsing.

Q5. Which of the following is a non-point pollution source? a) A leaking underground storage tank. b) Salt runoff from roads. c) Hot water from a power plant. d) Nutrient rich water from a wastewater treatment plant.

b) Salt runoff from roads.

Q2. The most common ore mineral for zinc is: a) Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) b) Sphalerite ([Zn, Fe]S) c) Galena (Pb,S) d) Smithsonite (ZnCO3) e) Cinnabar (Hg,S) f) All of the above

b) Sphalerite ([Zn, Fe]S)

Q5. Artesian flow occurs where: a) Groundwater recharge exceeds discharge. b) The potential pressure surface of a confined aquifer is above the actual ground surface elevation. c) Aquifer materials contain the highest permeability. d) Groundwater is being artificially recharged by pumping water INTO wells.

b) The potential pressure surface of a confined aquifer is above the actual ground surface elevation.

Q1: Aside from hydrogen and helium, how did the rest of the elements in the periodic table form? a) They were produced during the big bang and the formation of the universe. b) They were produced in stars by the fusion of hydrogen and helium. c) They were produced during the formation of galaxies and solar systems. d) They were produced by volcanoes.

b) They were produced in stars by the fusion of hydrogen and helium.

Q3. How old are the rocks that contain most of the world's iron deposits? a) Relatively young (Cenozoic, younger than 65 million years). b) Very old (Precambiran, older than 500 million years). c) All different ages, from very old to very young. d) None of the above.

b) Very old (Precambiran, older than 500 million years).

Q5. Which of the following would likely make the best aquifer? a) Well sorted clay b) Well sorted sand c) Shale d) Granite e) All of the above

b) Well sorted sand

Q5. To be useful as an aquifer, a rock must be: a) Porous but not permeable b) Permeable but not porous c) Both porous and permeable d) Not porous or permeable

c) Both porous and permeable

Q4. What country currently dominates the mining of rare earth elements, with over 90% of global production? a) The United States b) Canada c) China d) Australia e) Vietnam

c) China

Q2. One of the most common forms of copper ore is the mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). Which elements in this mineral are actually extracted and used, and which ones are waste products? a) All of the elements (copper, iron, and sulfur) are extracted and used. b) Copper and iron are extracted and used, but sulfur is a waste product. c) Copper is extracted and used, but iron and sulfur are waste products. d) None of the elements are used.

c) Copper is extracted and used, but iron and sulfur are waste products.

Q5. Conflicts between different instream water uses often arise because: a) Instream uses are consumptive uses. b) The same water cannot be used for more than one instream use. c) Different flow levels are needed for different types of instream uses. d) Both A and B e) All of the above

c) Different flow levels are needed for different types of instream uses.

Q3. The process of aluminum smelting relies on which of the following: a) Heating aluminum oxide (Al2O3) in a blast furnace to separate the aluminum from oxygen. b) Heating aluminum oxide (Al2O3) in a blast furnace to separate the aluminum from sulfur. c) Electrolysis, or passing an electrical current through molten aluminum oxide (Al2O3) to separate the aluminum from oxygen. d) All of the above.

c) Electrolysis, or passing an electrical current through molten aluminum oxide (Al2O3) to separate the aluminum from oxygen.

Q2. The most common ore mineral for lead is: a) Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) b) Sphalerite ([Zn, Fe]S) c) Galena (Pb,S) d) Cerussite (Pb, CO3) e) Cinnabar (Hg,S) f) All of the above

c) Galena (Pb,S)

Q1. The Earth's core is mostly composed of: a) Hydrogen and helium b) Oxygen and silicon c) Iron and nickel d) Uranium and lead

c) Iron and nickel

Q3. How plentiful is iron in the Earth's crust? a) Iron makes up about 0.5% of the Earth's crust. b) Iron makes up about 1% of the Earth's crust. c) Iron makes up about 5% of the Earth's crust. d) Iron makes up about 30% of the Earth's crust. e) Iron makes up about 50% of the Earth's crust.

c) Iron makes up about 5% of the Earth's crust.

Q3. Graphene is the strongest material that has ever been found. How strong is this man-made material estimated to be (somewhat whimsically)? a) It would take 10,000 humpback whales stacked on top of each other to break through a sheet of graphene the thickness of saran wrap. b) It would take all the gold ever mined on Earth (equal to one third of the Washington Monument!) to break through a sheet of graphene the thickness of saran wrap. c) It would take an elephant balanced on a pencil to break through a sheet of graphene the thickness of saran wrap. d) It would take all the iron in the Eiffel Tower to break through a sheet of graphene the thickness of saran wrap.

c) It would take an elephant balanced on a pencil to break through a sheet of graphene the thickness of saran wrap.

Q1: The air we breathe is mostly: a) Oxygen b) Hydrogen c) Nitrogen d) Helium

c) Nitrogen

Q1. 90% of the copper mined from the Earth is extracted by what method? a) Shaft and tunnel mines - underground mines where vertical shafts are dug into the Earth, then horizontal tunnels are created to access the ore deposit. b) Room and pillar mines - underground mines laid out in a grid-like pattern of rooms and pillars excavated in the ore deposit; the pillars keep the mines from collapsing. c) Open pit mines - rock at the surface of the Earth is removed to expose the ore deposit. d) Leaching - fractures are created in the ore deposits and an acidic solution that leaches copper out of the ore is pumped into the fractures.

c) Open pit mines - rock at the surface of the Earth is removed to expose the ore deposit.

Q3. What element is removed from iron ore in the blast furnace? a) Sulfur (S) b) Lead (Pb) c) Oxygen (O) d) Carbon (C) e) All of the above.

c) Oxygen (O)

Q6. What is the result of linking hydrocarbon molecules together to form long chains? a) Energy is released in the form of light and heat. b) Electrons are released, which produces light and heat. c) Plastics (or polymers) are created. d) Coal is produced from oil or natural gas.

c) Plastics (or polymers) are created.

Q5. The conflict over water use in the Klamath Basin can be thought of as a conflict between: a) Surface and groundwater use. b) Reclamation and irrigation. c) Prior appropriation doctrine and public trust doctrine. d) Prior appropriation doctrine and riparian doctrine.

c) Prior appropriation doctrine and public trust doctrine.

Q1. What is ore? a) Rock that is nearly pure metal, for example copper ore contains almost 100% copper. b) Rock that contains a minimum amount of metal, for example copper ore contains at least 2% copper. c) Rock that contains enough metal to make it economically worthwhile to extract it. d) Rock that might contain metal, but needs to be tested to determine if there is actually metal in it.

c) Rock that contains enough metal to make it economically worthwhile to extract it.

Q2. Which of the following describes how copper ore is deposited on the ocean floor? a) Sedimentary layers that are rich in copper accumulate on the ocean floor over very long periods of time. b) Fluids from a cooling magma chamber are injected into the rock above the chamber, forming veins of quartz and copper minerals. c) Sea water seeps into fractures at mid-ocean ridges, where it becomes enriched in copper and other metals. The water escapes through black smokers (hydrothermal vents) and the metals are deposited on the ocean floor. d) Minerals that are rich in copper are erupted from volcanoes. e) All of the above.

c) Sea water seeps into fractures at mid-ocean ridges, where it becomes enriched in copper and other metals. The water escapes through black smokers (hydrothermal vents) and the metals are deposited on the ocean floor.

Q3. Most of the iron mined in the United States comes from: a) Western states where old, eroded volcanic systems are exposed; for example, Montana and Utah. b) Coastal states where ocean sediments are exposed; for example, Florida and Louisiana. c) States in the Great Lakes region; for example Michigan and Minnesota. d) Southern states, especially Texas. e) The United States does not have any iron deposits that are large enough to mine.

c) States in the Great Lakes region; for example Michigan and Minnesota.

Q3. What is "green steel?" a) Steel with copper added to give it a green tint. b) Steel with carbon added, which sequesters carbon from the atmosphere and slows the impacts of climate change. c) Steel that is "mined" from trash like tires and car parts, which might otherwise end up in landfills. d) Steel that can change shape when it is heated above 60° C.

c) Steel that is "mined" from trash like tires and car parts, which might otherwise end up in landfills.

Q3. What technology allowed for the first smelting of iron? a) The discovery of fire, which could be used to separate metals from ore minerals. b) The development of smelting, which separates metals from ore minerals. c) The development of the bloomery (or furnace), which increases the amount of oxygen added to fire and makes the fire hotter. d) The ability to create alloys, or blends of two or more metallic elements (for example, bronze).

c) The development of the bloomery (or furnace), which increases the amount of oxygen added to fire and makes the fire hotter.

Q4. Which of the following describes how kimberlite deposits (the deposits that diamonds come from) are formed? a) They form in porphyry copper deposits. b) They form when graphite is buried deeply and subjected to high pressure. c) They form from volcanic eruptions of magma that originated deep in the Earth. d) They form at black smokers located near mid-ocean ridges. e) All of the above

c) They form from volcanic eruptions of magma that originated deep in the Earth.

Q5. Which of the following would likely serve as an aquitard? a) Well sorted gravel b) Well sorted sand c) Well sorted clay d) Fractured granite e) All of the above

c) Well sorted clay

Q6. Most of the world's oil and natural gas reserves were formed by ______________ that died millions of years ago, were buried by sediments, and converted to oil or natural gas by heat and pressure. a) swamp plants b) dinosaurs c) marine microorganisms (algae, plankton, etc.) d) fish and other large marine animals e) trees and other plants that live on dry land f) All of the above

c) marine microorganisms (algae, plankton, etc.)

Q1. According to the interview about recycling electronics, how much of our electronic waste ends up being shipped to other countries and recycled in ways that are very toxic? a) ~20% b) ~40% c) ~80% d) All of it.

c) ~80%

Q2. At the Kennecott Copper Mine in Utah, about 500,000 tons of rock is blasted and extracted every day. This amount of rock is equivalent in weight to: a) 1 humpback whale b) 100 humpback whales c) 1,000 humpback whales d) 10,000 humpback whales

d) 10,000 humpback whales

Q4. Diamonds and graphite are both pure carbon. Why are these materials so different? a) More bonds: Carbon atoms in diamonds are bonded with four other carbon atoms, while carbon atoms in graphite are only bonded with three other carbon atoms. b) Stronger bonds: Carbon atoms in diamonds form a dense cage-like structure, while carbon atoms in graphite form flat sheets that are not fully bonded to each other. c) Formation of bonds: Carbon atoms in diamonds form bonds under high pressure, so the atoms are forced together and form very tight bonds. Carbon atoms in graphite form bonds in low pressure, so the atoms form loose bonds (the atoms are more spread out). d) All of the above

d) All of the above

Q5. Possible consequences of groundwater overdraft include: a) Decreased porosity of the aquifer materials due to compaction. b) Subsidence of the ground surface. c) Reduction in the amount of water the aquifer material can hold. d) All of the above

d) All of the above

Q3. The most common ore mineral for aluminum is: a) Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) b) Hematite (Fe2O3) c) Magnetite (Fe3O4) d) Bauxite [Al(OH)3] e) Rubies and sapphires (Al2O3)

d) Bauxite [Al(OH)3]

Q4. What trace element gives blue diamonds their unique color? a) Chromium (Cr) b) Iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti) c) Aluminum (Al) d) Boron (B) e) Oxygen (O)

d) Boron (B)

Q6. Most of the world's oil and natural gas supplies were formed during these geologic time periods because: a) There were more dinosaurs during these time periods. b) There were more coal swamps during these time periods. c) There were more marine plants and animals during these time periods. d) Continents were closer together and surrounded by warm, shallow seas during these time periods. e) All of the above

d) Continents were closer together and surrounded by warm, shallow seas during these time periods.

Q2. What is the most common method of extracting ore minerals, such as chalcopyrite, from the surrounding ore rock? a) Carefully chiseling the minerals out of the rock. b) Grinding the rock to a fine powder. c) Flotation, or using water and a surfactant (bubbles) to separate the ore minerals from the rest of the rock. d) Grinding the rock to a fine powder and flotation to separate the ore minerals from the rest of the rock. e) Smelting.

d) Grinding the rock to a fine powder and flotation to separate the ore minerals from the rest of the rock.

Q3. What type of geologic formation does most of the world's iron come from? a) Iron rich minerals that were deposited by rivers and streams. b) Iron rich minerals that were formed by volcanic processes. c) Iron rich minerals that were formed by hydrothermal vents, like black smokers. d) Iron rich minerals that formed as sedimentary deposits in ancient oceans, called banded iron formations. e) All of the above.

d) Iron rich minerals that formed as sedimentary deposits in ancient oceans, called banded iron formations.

Q2. What metal has the highest recycling rate in the US? (~98%) a) Copper b) Iron c) Aluminum d) Lead

d) Lead

What element is often used in rechargable batteries because it is small enough to move in both directions between each side of the battery? a) Carbon b) Uranium c) Plutonium d) Lithium e) Oxygen

d) Lithium

Q2. Which of the following best describes how the smelting of copper ore is currently done in the United States? a) Smelters are fueled with wood from nearby forests, which results in deforestation. b) Smelters are fueled by nuclear reactors, which decreases the amount of sulfur dioxide (SiO2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere. c) Smelters are built to low standards, which means they emit very large amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), arsenic, lead, and mercury. d) Most smelting is not done in the U.S. because it is expensive to meet clean air standards. It is cheaper for mining companies to smelt copper ore in countries with lower pollution standards.

d) Most smelting is not done in the U.S. because it is expensive to meet clean air standards. It is cheaper for mining companies to smelt copper ore in countries with lower pollution standards.

Q4. Most of the silica that is used for glass production comes from: a) Volcanic glass, for example obsidian. b) Fulgerites, which form when lightning strikes sand or other silica-rich rock. c) Tektites, which form when meteors or asteroids impact Earth. d) Quartz, which is usually extracted from sand. e) Chert, which can be extracted from banded iron formations. f) Opals, which are formed from tiny spheres of silica.

d) Quartz, which is usually extracted from sand.

Q4. Why is jade so strong? a) The atoms are very tightly bonded, similar to diamond. b) The atoms are arranged in a hexagon pattern, similar to graphene. c) The crystals form a strong cage-like structure, similar to diamond. d) The crystals form bundles of long fibers that cross in different directions. e) Carbon atoms bond to iron in the crystal structure, similar to steel.

d) The crystals form bundles of long fibers that cross in different directions.

Q5. Which of the following best describes perennial streams: a) They typically are well above the water table. b) They are a site of groundwater discharge. c) They are also known as gaining streams. d) They are a site of groundwater discharge and they are known as gaining streams. e) All of the above

d) They are a site of groundwater discharge and they are known as gaining streams.

Q6. Why does coal (and other hydrocarbons) give off so much energy when heated? a) Because long chains of carbon atoms store energy. b) Because long chains of hydrogen atoms store energy. c) Vibrations cause carbon-hydrogen bonds to form, which releases energy. d) Vibrations cause carbon-hydrogen bonds to break and carbon atoms to combine with other elements like oxygen, which releases energy.

d) Vibrations cause carbon-hydrogen bonds to break and carbon atoms to combine with other elements like oxygen, which releases energy.

Q2. After grinding and flotation, copper concentrate contains about __% of pure copper. a) 99.99% b) 99% c) 70% d) 56% e) 28%

e) 28%

Q5. Groundwater withdrawal has caused some parts of the Central Valley in California to sink as much as __________ feet. a) 2 b) 5 c) 10 d) 20 e) 30

e) 30

Q1. Small amounts of copper are necessary for the following aspects of human health and development: a) Brain and nervous system. b) Blood and blood vessels. c) Muscle tone and functioning. d) Bones and skin. e) All of the above.

e) All of the above.

Q1. Which of the following describes minerals: a) They are naturally occurring substances (they form in nature, not in labs). b) They have a specific chemical formula that is always the same. For example, all quartz is composed of silicon and oxygen, which combine as 1 silicon atom for every 2 oxygen atoms (SiO2). c) They have an ordered atomic structure. The atoms form bonds that result in a crystal structure that is always the same. For example, the atomic structure of all quartz is always identical. d) Mixtures of different kinds of minerals form rocks. e) All of the above.

e) All of the above.

Q1: For Earth materials, the term grade refers to: a) The concentration of a desirable metal in an ore rock. b) The viscosity (or "thickness") of oil. c) The concentration of sulfur and "dirt" (silt, sand, rocks) in coal. d) The concentration of salts or contaminants in water supplies. e) All of the above.

e) All of the above.

Q2. Which of the following is associated with the smelting process for copper ore? a) Smelters release sulfur dioxide (SO2), formed from the reaction of chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) with oxygen (O2) in the smelter. The release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere causes acid rain. b) Smelters release carbon dioxide (CO2), formed from the reaction of copper oxide (CuO) with carbon (C) from coal burned in the smelter. The release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere contributes to climate change. c) Smelters release fly ash into the atmosphere, which contains particulates like soot that cause respiratory problems. d) Smelters release fly ash into the atmosphere, which contains toxic elements like lead, mercury, and arsenic that cause cancer and other serious health problems. e) All of the above.

e) All of the above.

Q2. The most common ore mineral for mercury is: a) Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) b) Sphalerite ([Zn, Fe]S) c) Galena (Pb,S) d) Corderoite (Hg3S2Cl2) e) Cinnabar (Hg,S) f) All of the above

e) Cinnabar (Hg,S)

Where did all the gold on Earth originally come from? a) It was formed in the lower third of the Washington Monument. b) It was formed in the Earth's core. c) It was formed in volcanoes. d) It was formed in stars like the sun. e) It was formed in supernovas, or the collision of two neutron stars.

e) It was formed in supernovas, or the collision of two neutron stars.

Q4. Which of the following minerals form in evaporite deposits? a) Gypsum (CaSO4) b) Halite (NaCl) c) Sylvite (KCl) d) Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) e) Potash (K2CO3) f) All of the above

f) All of the above

Q3. Why was gold prized in ancient times (and today!) for jewelry and other valuable decorative objects? a) Gold exists as a native element, meaning it does not need to be separated from other elements like sulfur or oxygen in order to be used. b) Gold is very rare in the Earth's crust, so it holds its value over time. c) Gold is very soft and flexible, making it easy to work with even with low technology methods. d) Gold is malleable, which means it can be hammered into very thin pieces without breaking or cracking. e) Gold atoms do not bond with other elements like oxygen, which means it will never tarnish or rust. f) All of the above.

f) All of the above.

Q3. The most common ore mineral for iron is: a) Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) b) Hematite (Fe2O3) c) Magnetite (Fe3O4) d) Galena (PbS) e) Siderite (FeCO3) f) Hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) g) Hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), and siderite (FeCO3) h) All of the above.

f) Hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4)